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Designer Eggs with an Increased Content of Omega-3 fatty Acids and

Publikacja / Publication Pigments — Production and Health Benefits of their Consumption,
Kralik Zlata, Kralik Gordana, Grcević Manula, Hanzek Danica, Biazik Ewa
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Kralik Zlata, Kralik Gordana, Grcević Manula, Hanzek Danica, Biazik Ewa:
Designer Eggs with an Increased Content of Omega-3 fatty Acids and
Cytuj tę wersję / Cite this version Pigments — Production and Health Benefits of their Consumption,
Poljoprivreda, Poljoprivredni Fakultet Osijek, vol. 27, no. 2, 2021, pp. 67-74,
DOI:10.18047/poljo.27.2.9
 Designer Eggs with an Increased Content of Omega-3 fatty Acids
and Pigments — Production and Health Benefits of their
Consumption

Dizajnirana jaja s povećanim sadržajem omega-3 masnih kiselina

i pigmenata — proizvodnja i zdravstvena korist njihove
konzumacije

Kralik, Z., Kralik, G., Grčević, M., Hanžek, D., Biazik, E.

Poljoprivreda/Agriculture
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ISSN: 1848-8080 (Online)

ISSN: 1330-7142 (Print)

https://doi.org/10.18047/poljo.27.2.9

Fakultet agrobiotehničkih znanosti Osijek, Poljoprivredni institut Osijek

Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek, Agricultural Institute Osijek
 ISSN 1330-7142
UDK=637.482:614
https://doi.org/10.18047/poljo.27.2.9

DESIGNER EGGS WITH AN INCREASED

CONTENT OF OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS AND
PIGMENTS — PRODUCTION AND HEALTH BENEFITS
OF THEIR CONSUMPTION

Kralik, Z.(1,2), Kralik, G.(2,3), Grčević, M.(1,2), Hanžek, D.(1,2), Biazik, E.(4)

Scientific review
Pregledni znanstveni članak
SUMMARY
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Designed-enriched products have been recently one of the most interesting areas
of research and innovation in the animal production and food industry. These prod-
ucts are considered functional foods and contain ingredients that have beneficial
physiological effects on human health. Designed or enriched eggs are an important
type of functional food in poultry production. Demand for functional foods in the
market has been increasing in recent years. Due to the increased interest of peo-
ple in buying designed products, there is a production adjustment in the poultry
industry. Composition change of laying hens feed affects nutritional composition
change of eggs as well as their quality preservation. This process can an effect of
the change in the concentration of cholesterol and its fractions, fatty acids, and pig-
ments in eggs. It is evident from the relevant scientific literature that designer eggs
consumption can have a positive effect on human health. Therefore, the aim of this
paper is to describe different concepts of designer eggs production and emphasize
the health benefits of their consumption in humans.

Keywords: designer eggs, functional foods, omega-3 fatty acids, pigments

INTRODUCTION Stupin et al., 2018). Flaxseed oil and seeds use, as well
as fish oil, in laying hens feed increased the omega-3
Egg is an important source of quality proteins, fats, fatty acids content in the yolks and at the same time
vitamins, and microelements for consumers. Li et al. reduced the cholesterol content (Basmacıoğlu et al.,
(2013) pointed out that eggs’ composition, for a while, 2003; Mattioli et al., 2016). These authors assume that
caused controversial opinions among nutritionists and the cholesterol content change in yolks is in correlation
health agencies due to the content of saturated fats and with the omega-3 fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) concentration.
cholesterol (3 g and 200-300 mg/100 g, respectively).
Due to the above mentioned they recommended people (1) Assoc. Prof. Zlata Kralik ([email protected]), Manuela Grčević,
to consume as little eggs as possible. Increased egg Ph.D., Danica Hanžek, Mag. Eng. Agr. – Josip Juraj Strossmayer University
consumption due to cholesterol intake was thought of Osijek, Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek, Vladimira Preloga
1, 31000 Osijek, Croatia, (2) Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek,
to be the cause of cardiovascular disease in humans. Scientific Center of Excellence for Personalized Health Care, Trg Svetog
However, various studies confirm that eggs cholesterol Trojstva 3, 31000 Osijek, Croatia, (3) Prof. Emer. Dr. Dr. h. c. Gordana Kralik
has a limited effect on blood cholesterol levels lead- – Nutricin j. d. o. o. Darda, Braće Radića 6, 31326 Darda, Croatia, (4)
Ewa Biazik, Ph.D. – Department of Agroengineering and Quality Analysis,
ing to cardiovascular diseases occurrence in humans Faculty of Engineering and Economics, Wroclaw University of Economics
(Djoussé, and Gaziano, 2008; Eilat-Adar et al., 2013; and Business, Komandorska 180/120 Street, 53-345 Wroclaw, Poland

POLJOPRIVREDA 27:2021 (2) 67-74

 68 Z. Kralik et al.: DESIGNER EGGS WITH AN INCREASED CONTENT OF OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS AND ...

By feeding the laying hens specially designed feed, it is EGGS WITH A MODIFIED FATTY ACID PROFILE
possible, apart from fatty acids composition change in
eggs, to change some pigments content. Laying hens Eggs are a good source of essential nutrients.
feed supplemented with pigments increase their egg Interest in the impact of fatty acids (FA) on human health
content and affects the yolk color change. Carotenoids, (Candela et al., 2011) has been recently increasing.
lutein, and zeaxanthin are most often added to feed “Designer” eggs (Surai and Sparks, 2001) contain, apart
(Grčević et al., 2019; Kralik et al., 2018; Kralik et al., from nutrients, ingredients having a beneficial effect
2020a). on physiological processes and human health unlike
those from the conventional composition (Bubel et al.,
The eggs production with increased lutein con- 2011). Especially significant are n-3 polyunsaturated
tent is important since it has been proved that the fatty acids (n-3 PUFA): long-chain - LC PUFA (Fraeye
consumption of these eggs has a prevention effect on et al., 2012), α-linolenic (ALA), eicosapentaenoic (EPA)
the macular degeneration occurrence in humans (Alves- and docosahexaenoic (DHA). This is the reason why
Rodrigues and Shao, 2004). Designer eggs are available compositions of laying hens feed are modified in terms
on the world market under different names defined by of type, amount and fats composition aiming to induce
the ingredient increased according to the geographi- metabolic changes affecting the synthesis and deposi-
cal area, the population they are intended for or the tion of desirable fatty acids (Sahoo and Jena, 2014).
chicken’s keeping system. Omega-3, Columbus eggs, Yolk’s fat content is mostly constant, but the fatty acid
Omega DHA eggs, Suguna vitamin D eggs, Eggs Plus, profile is variable being used in practice (Zaheer, 2015).
Selenium Plus, Dr. Selenium, Vi omega-3, NutriPlus, Conventional eggs contain high concentrations of n-6
Bounty Eggs, Mr Eggs and the like are known on the PUFA and are poor in n-3 PUFA. The content increase of
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world market (Lyons et al., 2007; Kralik et al., 2016). In ALA, EPA and DHA in the yolk changes the n-6 PUFA/n-3
Europe, the role of nutrition in health care has become PUFA ratio being very unfavorable in some cases.
increasingly pronounced for more than 10 years (Biacs, According to the USDA, this ratio is 19.4 (Simopoulos,
2007). Europeans are generally far more critical towards 2000). Stibilj et al. (1999) cited 13.44, Kralik et al.
new products and technologies in food production (2020.b) 4.23 to 10.65, and Lešić et al. (2015) even
compared to American consumers (Bech-Larsen and 36.7, 43.3 and 62.3. Eggs can be supplemented with
Grunert, 2003; Lusk et al., 2004; Lusk and Rozan, 2005). ALA, a precursor of long-chain fatty acids EPA and DHA,
By the literature it can be concluded that the main rea- but synthesis is limited in the human body (Aydin and
sons for buying new innovative functional products are Dogan, 2010). Vegetable oils such as flaxseed, soybean
health care, better product quality, brand recognition and rapeseed are used for this purpose (Petrović et
and practical packaging. However, the reasons for not al., 2012; Muduli et al., 2018). The best sources of n-3
buying such products are mainly insufficient product PUFAs are fish oil (Coorey et al., 2015), microalgae, or
information, too high price and poor market availability. their combination (Baucells et al., 2000; Kralik et al.,
In general, the younger population, who have higher 2020b; Kralik Z. et al., 2020). These additives are used
monthly incomes, are more likely to buy functional prod- in certain concentrations in the laying hens feed aiming
ucts unlike those with lower monthly incomes while not to disturb the eggs organoleptic properties. Ways
older population is more likely to buy these products due of enriching table eggs with ALA, EPA and DHA using
to their positive health effect (Labrecque et al., 2006; vegetable oils, fish oil and marine microalgae oil are
Williams et al., 2008; Kralik et al., 2016). Innovative shown in Table 1.
functional products, such as designer eggs, are the
The efficiency analysis of egg yolks enrichment
result of modern development trends in egg production, with fatty acids, according to the presented authors,
and are in high demand in the domestic market, but shows that ALA can be increased up to 11.6 times, EPA
are also highly valued export goods (Lesnierowski and 36.0 times, DHA 4.04 times, and n-3 PUFA up to 6.64
Stangierski 2018). times compared to the control group and depending on
the source and the concentration of fatty acids in the
feed fed to the laying hens.

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 Z. Kralik et al.: DESIGNER EGGS WITH AN INCREASED CONTENT OF OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS AND ... 69

Table 1. Enrichment of table eggs with n-3 PUFA

Tablica 1. Obogaćivanje konzumnih jaja s n-3 PUFA
Authors
Diet supplement / Dodatak u hrani ALA EPA DHA n-3 PUFA
Autori

% of fatty acids in lipids of egg yolks /

% masnih kiselina u lipidima žumanjka

Kontrola / Control 0.59 - 0.89 1.48

Aguillon-Paez et
Sunflower seed 13.5% / Suncokretovo sjeme 13,5% 0.27 - 0.63 0.90
al. (2020)
Linseed 13.5% / Laneno sjeme 13,5% 4.19 0.09 2.26 6.54

Control / Kontrola 0.50 - 0.74 1.24

Linseed oil 1% / Laneno ulje 1% 1.09 0.01 1.25 2.35
Petrović
Linseed oil 2% / Laneno ulje 2% 1.88 0.01 1.50 3.39
et al. (2012)
Linseed oil 3% / Laneno ulje 3% 2.21 0.04 1.55 3.80
Linseed oil 4% / Laneno ulje 4% 3.22 0.07 1.72 5.01

Control / Kontrola 0.89 0.01 0.68 1.58

Kralik et al. (2015)
Oil mixture 5% / Mješavina ulja 5% 2.03 0.06 1.22 3.31

Control / Kontrola - 1.26 1.16 2.42

Linseed oil 1.5% + fish oil 3.5% 3.25 0.27 2.99 6.51
Laneno ulje 1,5% + riblje ulje 3,5%
Linseed oil 3.5% + fish oil 1.5% 5.18 0.22 2.90 8.30
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Kralik et al. Laneno ulje 3,5% + riblje ulje 1,5%

(2020c) Control / Kontrola 1.17 - 1.26 2.43
Rapeseed oil 1.5% + fish oil 3.5% 2.31 0.22 2.54 5.07
Repičino ulje 1,5% + riblje ulje 3,5%
Rapeseed oil 3.5% + fish oil 1.5% 1.21 0.10 2.23 3.54
Repičino ulje 3,5% + riblje ulje 1,5%

mg fatty acids per 100 g of egg /

mg masnih kiselina/100 g jajeta

Alga Schyzochytrium limacinum 0.5% 170.6 8.9 141.6 321.1

Alga Schyzochytrium limacinum 1.0% 199.1 4.4 142.7 346.2
Kralik Z. Alga Schyzochytrium limacinum 1.5% 191.0 7.4 163.1 361.6
et al. (2020) Fish oil 0.5% / Riblje ulje 0,5% 190.6 6.3 148.9 346.2
Fish oil 1.0% / Riblje ulje 1,0% 198.8 6.5 194.0 399.3
Fish oil 1.5% / Riblje ulje 1,5% 207.5 9.3 152.2 369.0

Control / Kontrola 71.7 5.76 89.9 167.4

Fish oil 0.5% + alga Schyzochytrium l. 0.5% 177.3 10.4 152.2 339.9
Kralik et al.
Riblje ulje 0,5% + alga Schyzochytrium l. 0,5%
(2020b)
Fish oil 0.75% + alga Schyzochytrium l. 0.75% 161.0 7.9 166.5 335.4
Riblje ulje 0,75% + alga Schyzochytrium l. 0,75%

EGGS WITH INCREASED PIGMENT CONTENT IN confirmed by various research (Tolimir et al., 2017). Due
YOLK to their fat solubility, carotenoids are deposited in the
egg yolk, which thus becomes an excellent source of
The yolk color depends on the hens feeding, i.e.,
on the feed pigments content, primarily carotenoids. carotenoids in the human diet. Lutein and zeaxanthin
Carotenoids are divided into two large groups of mol- are of a particular importance since they are the only
ecules, xanthophylls (lutein, zeaxanthin, cryptoxan- carotenoids present in the human eye (Landrum and
thin) containing oxygen in the molecule and carotenes Bone, 2001; Gao et al., 2011). Kralik et al. (2020a) in
(α-carotene, β-carotene, lycopene) being pure hydro- their paper on table eggs supplemented with lutein
carbons. Xanthophylls are usually yellow in color, while pointed out that addition of 3 g of marigold flower
the carotene color ranges from bright orange to red. extract/kg of diet led to eggs lutein content increase
If laying hens feed is supplemented with pigments from 0.72 mg/100 g to 7.14 mg/100 g of yolk. They also
whether natural or synthetic, yolk color intensity as pointed out significantly better yolk coloration in the
well as yolk pigments content increase can be affected. experimental group eggs compared to the control one
The yolk color is one of the factors that describe eggs (E=13.88 and C=12.24; P<0.001). Grčević et al. (2019)
quality, being also very important to consumers. In most added lutein to laying hens diet in the form of marigold
European countries consumers prefer darker color yolks flower extract (20% lutein). The lutein content of the yolk

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 70 Z. Kralik et al.: DESIGNER EGGS WITH AN INCREASED CONTENT OF OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS AND ...

increased significantly with the lutein addition of 200 HEALTH BENEFITS OF DESIGNER EGGS
mg per kg of diet (1 g/kg of extract), from 20.11 μg/g CONSUMPTION
(control group) to 107.41 μg/g of yolk. While added 400
mg/kg lutein (2 g marigold flower extract), the lutein Eggs are an excellent source of protein, fat, vita-
content in the yolk increased further to 118.86 μg/g. mins, and minerals. They are considered a global func-
After color analysis of the fresh egg yolks and those tional product representing a “complete” food required
stored for 28 days in a refrigerator (4°C), the authors for the growth and metabolic processes regulation
found out a significant increase in the yolk color value (Singh et al., 2012; Zaheer, 2015). Egg protein quality
in experimental groups in relation to control group. The is high being the standard for evaluating other foods
value of fresh egg yolk color increased from 12.90 in (Sparks, 2006). Eggs contain fat-soluble vitamins: A, D,
control group to 13.67 and 13.77 in groups with addi- E and K, as well as water-soluble ones: thiamine (B1),
tion of 200 and 400 mg/kg lutein, respectively. Yolk riboflavin (B2), pantothenic acid (B5), pyridoxine (B6),
color values for eggs stored in refrigerator were 13.10 in biotin (B7), folic acid (B9), cobalamin (B12) and choline.
the control group, while in experimental groups values They also contain minerals: calcium, iron, magnesium,
were 14.13 and 14.40, respectively. During egg storage, phosphorus, selenium, sodium, and zinc (Zaheer, 2015).
water loss and gas exchange between the environment Shakoor et al. (2020) found out that n-3 PUFA eggs
and the egg occurs. These changes lead to the dilution consumption has a positive effect on decreasing cho-
of the egg albumen while the yolk is concentrated, and lesterol, triglycerides, LDL cholesterol, blood pressure,
thus the pigments in it. We hypothesize that the higher and promotes HDL cholesterol concentration increase.
yolk color values in stored eggs in the study of Grčević Thus, eggs supplemented with n-3 PUFA may be useful
et al. (2019) are due to the changes mentioned above. in maintaining normal heart function. Technological pro-
cedures of egg yolks cholesterol concentration reduc-
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The results of Giampietro-Ganeco et al. (2012) agree

with our assumption. In the study of Englmaierová and tion are also significant (Khan et al., 2017; Sireesha
Skřivan (2013), while adding 100 mg/kg of lutein into and Prasanna, 2019). Hu et al. (1999) found out that
the laying hens feed, the lutein content in egg yolks cholesterol rich eggs could increase total food intake
increased from 16.09 to 31.68 mg/kg of egg yolk dry by 32%. Weggemans et al. (2001) found out that 100
matter (P<0.001) whereas the yolk color increased mg of egg cholesterol raised total plasma cholesterol by
from 7.7 in the control group to 8.4 in the experimental 0.057 mmol/L in clinical trials. Kuang et al. (2018) stated
group. When laying hens feed was supplemented with that cholesterol homeostasis is affected by food intake,
250 mg/kg of lutein the yolk lutein content was 133.90 endogenous biosynthesis, utilization, and excretion.
mg/kg of yolk dry matter (P<0.001) compared to 12.80 Stupin et al. (2018) investigated the effect of n-3 PUFA-
mg/kg in the lutein-free group (Englmaierová et al., enriched egg consumption on endothelium-dependent
2013). Based upon the study of these authors, the color and endothelium-independent vasodilation in the micro-
of the yolk was significantly higher (P<0.001) in the circulation and endothelial activation and inflammation
experimental (13.1) compared to the control (6.4) group. in young, healthy persons. They concluded that the n-3
Skřivan et al. (2016) also added marigold flower extract PUFA consumption improved microvascular endothe-
containing 21.26 mg/kg lutein into the laying hens feed lium-dependent vasodilation in healthy persons due to
at concentrations of 150, 350, 550, 750, and 950 mg/kg their anti-inflammatory potential. Polyunsaturated fatty
of diet. The highest yolk lutein content was recorded in acids ALA (n-3) and linoleic acid-LA (n-6) are essential
the group with the highest addition of marigold extract for human health (Zaheer, 2015). LA is metabolized to
into laying hens feed being 36.33 mg/kg of egg yolk arachidonic acid whereas ALA to EPA and DHA. These
dry matter whereas in the control group the yolk lutein essential long-chain fatty acids are components of
content was 12.34 mg/kg of dry matter. The yolk value phospholipids contributing to the cell membranes flex-
color significantly (P<0.001) increased even while add- ibility and plasma cholesterol reduction. EPA and DHA
ing 150 mg/kg of marigold extract (from 5.67 to 7.31) also reduce cardiovascular and central nervous system
while the highest color value of (10.55) was recorded diseases, mental illness, inflammation, and immune
in the group with the addition of 950 mg/kg of marigold infections risk (Fraeye et al., 2012). Nutritionists recom-
extract. The yolk color values in the above studies were mend n-3 PUFA consumption increase. According to
measured using a DSM® Yolk Color Fan (YCF) having a the EANS (European Academy of Nutritional Sciences),
scale of 1-15. Skřivanova et al. (2017) found out that the EPA + DHA daily consumption should be 0.2 g
carotenoids (lutein and zeaxanthin) are better retained in (Ruxton et al., 2004). However, the FAO-WHO, the so-
egg yolks when marigold extract is added into the laying called AMDR (Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution
hens feed than when Chlorella algae or pure lutein was Range), recommends daily consumption of ALA + EPA
used as supplements. All the above-mentioned studies + DHA 0.25-2.0 g (Bubel et al., 2011), and Elmadfa and
confirm the possibility of carotenoid content increase in Kornsteiner (2009) stated an upper limit of 3.0 g/day
egg yolks by adding different carotenoids sources into for EPA and DHA since higher concentrations reduce
the laying hens feed, whereby the eggs produced in this cytokine production and increase lipid peroxidation.
way become an excellent source of carotenoids, primar- Some countries, such as France, recommend 500 mg/
ily lutein and zeaxanthin in human diet. day, or Norway, 1-2 g daily consumption of EPA +

POLJOPRIVREDA 27:2021 (2) 67-74

 Z. Kralik et al.: DESIGNER EGGS WITH AN INCREASED CONTENT OF OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS AND ... 71

DHA. The International Society for the Study of Fatty point of view, enrichment of eggs with nutrients usu-
Acids and Lipids (ISSFAL) also recommends 500 mg/ ally involves higher production costs and their price is
day whereas NATO considers adult needs for EPA + somewhat higher compared to conventionally produced
DHA to be 800 mg/day (Candela et al., 2011). Egg yolk ones. Thus, the health benefits of consuming designer
contains various carotenoids affecting the yolk color eggs should be pointed out using appropriate packaging
and having a protective effect on the occurrence of labels.
cataracts and macular degeneration associated with
aging (Ribaya-Mercado and Blumberg, 2004). They also ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
increased antioxidant capacity and reduced peroxida-
tive lipid damage (Cucco et al., 2007). Eggs enriched This study is supported by the European Structural
with carotenoids, primarily lutein and zeaxanthin, are and Investment Fund’s grant for the Croatian National
an excellent source of these ingredients in the human Scientific Center of Excellence for Personalized Health
diet. It has been proved that the bioavailability of yolk Care (grant #KK.01.1.1.01.0010) and by the Ministry of
lutein is higher compared to plant sources whereby Science and Education of the Republic of Croatia.
cholesterol content and fatty acid composition in yolks
affected better utilization and increased lutein content
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DIZAJNIRANA JAJA S POVEĆANIM SADRŽAJEM

OMEGA-3 MASNIH KISELINA I PIGMENATA — PROIZVODNJA
I ZDRAVSTVENA KORIST NJIHOVE KONZUMACIJE

SAŽETAK

Proteklih godina u animalnoj proizvodnji i prehrambenoj industriji dizajnirani – obogaćeni proizvodi predstavljaju
jedno od najzanimljivijih područja istraživanja i inovacija. Ovi proizvodi smatraju se funkcionalnom hranom i
sadrže sastojke koji imaju povoljne fiziološke učinke na ljudsko zdravlje. U peradarskoj proizvodnji dizajnirana
ili obogaćena jaja važna su vrsta funkcionalne hrane. Potražnja funkcionalne hrane na tržištu zadnjih godina
je u porastu. Upravo zbog povećanoga interesa ljudi za kupovinom dizajniranih proizvoda dolazi do prilagodbe
proizvodnje u peradarskoj industriji. Izmjenom sastava krmnih smjesa za nesilice utječe se na promjenu
nutritivnoga sastava jaja, kao i na očuvanje njihove kvalitete. Ovim postupkom u jajima se može postići
promjena koncentracije kolesterola i njegovih frakcija, masnih kiselina i pigmenata. Iz relevantne znanstvene
literature uočljivo je da se konzumacijom dizajniranih jaja može pozitivno utjecati na zdravstveno stanje ljudi.
Stoga je i cilj rada opisati različite koncepte proizvodnje dizajniranih jaja te istaknuti zdravstvenu dobrobiti
njihove konzumacije kod ljudi.

Ključne riječi: dizajnirana jaja, funkcionalna hrana, omega-3 masne kiseline, pigmenti

(Received on April 12, 2021; accepted on June 8, 2021 - Primljeno 12. travnja 2021.; prihvaćeno 8. lipnja 2021.)

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