@ ASPER CHOICE BASED CREDIT SYSTEM SYLLABUS SEM VI CHAPTERWISE SOLVED VTU QUESTIONS toCONTROL SYSTEMS Uday A. Bakshi ME. (Electrical) Formerly Lecturer in Department of Electronics Engg. Vishwakarma Institute of Technology Pune Mrs. Varsha U. Bakshi BE. (Electronics) Assistant Director, Noble Institute of Computer Training PuneCONTROL SYSTEMS Semester - VI (EEE) Fit Eton: Fobra 2018 © Copyright with Authors Al publishing rights (printed end ebook version) reserved with Technical Publications. No part ofthis book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and ‘erievol system without prior permission in writing, fom Technical Publications, Pune. 8.93-332The book uses plain, lucid language to explain fundamentals of this subject. The book provides logical method of explaining various complicated concepts and stepwise methods to explain the important topics. Each chapter is well supported with necessary illustrations, practical examples and solved problems. All chapters in this book are arranged in a proper sequence that permits each topic to build upon earlier studies. All care has been taken to make students comfortable in understanding the basic concepts of this subject. Representative questions have been added at the end of each section to help the students in picking important points from that section The book not only covers the entire scope of the subject but explains the philosophy of the subject, This makes the understanding of this subject more clear and makes it more interesting. The book will be very useful not only to the students but also to the subject teachers. The students have to omit nothing and possibly have to cover nothing more. We wish to express our profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book a reality. Much needed moral support and encouragement is provided on numerous occasions by our whole family. We wish to thank the Publisher and the entire team of Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get this book in time with quality printing. Any suggestion for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and well appreciated, AuthorsSYLLABUS Control Systems [15EE61) Module-1 Introduction to control systems : Introduction, classification of control systems. Mathematical ‘models of physical systems : Modelling of mechanical system elements. electrical systems, Analogous systems, Transfer function. Single input single output systems, Procedure for deriving transfer functions, serromotors, synchros, gear trains. (Chapters - 1, 3.4) Module-2 Block diagram : Block diagram of a closed loop system, procedure for drawing block diagram and block dlagram reduction to find transfer function, Signal flow graphs : Construction of signal flow graphs, basic properties of signal flow graph, signal flow graph algebra, construction of signal flow graph for control systems. (Chapters - 5.6) Module-3 Time Domain Analysis : Standard test signals, time response of first order systems, time response of second order systems, steady state errors and error constants, types of control systems. Routh Stability criterion : BIBO stability, Necessary conditions for stability, Routh stability criterion, difficulties in formulation of Routh table, application of Routh stability criterion to linear feedback systems, relative stability analysis, (Chapters 7. 8) Module-4 Root locus technique : Introduction, root locus concepts, construction of root loci, rules for the construction of root locus. Frequency Response analysis : Co-relation between time and frequency response -2"4 order systems only. Bode plots : Basic factors G(jw/H(w). General procedure for constructing bode plots. computation of {gain margin and phase margin. (Chapters - 9, 10. 11) Module-5 Nyquist plot : Principle of argument, Nyquist stability criterion, assessment of relative stability using Nyquist criterion. Design of Controi Systems : Introduction, Design with the PD Controller, Design with the PI Controller, Design with the PID Controller, Design with Phase-Lead Controller, Design with Phase - Lag Controller, Design with Lead-Lag Controller. (Chapters - 12. 13)TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter -1 Introduction to Control Systems (1-1) to (1-14) 11 Introduction 1.2 1.2 Definitions 1-2 1.3. Classification of Control Systems .... 13 14 Open Loop System. 1-6 LAL Advantages 1-7 1A2 Disadvantages.......0.0.cee0e 1-7 1.43. Real Time Applications of an Open Loop System... .e.sseeeserees 1.7 143.1. Sprinkler used to Watera Lawn ... 1-7 14.3.2 Stepper Motor Positioning System . 1-7 1.433 Automatic Toaster System 17 1434 Traffic Light Controller 17 1.4.35 Automatic Door Opening and Closing System, cele 18 Closed Loop System 1-8 18.1 Advantages 1-9 1.52. Disadvantages .169 1.53. Real Time Applications of Clos Loop System... seen DD 1.53.1 Human Being 19 1.5.12 Home Heating System. 1-9 1.8.33 Ship Stabilization System 0 1.5.34 Manual Speed Control Systems... 1-10 1.535 D.C. Motor Speed Control 1-10 1.5.3.6 Temperature Control System..... 1-11 1.6 Comparison of Open Loop and Closed Loop Control System “2 “ 1.7 _ Effect of Negative Feedback on the System Performance .....2..2ceceseeseeses 12 18 Requirements of a Good Control System... 1 = 12 Chapter-2 Laplace Transform and its Applications —_(2- 1) to (2-10) 2A Background 2-2 22 Definition of Laplace Transform. 2-2 23° Properties of Leplace Transform 231 Linearity .... 232 Scaling Theorem 233 Real Differentiation (Differentiation in Time Domain). 234 235 236 237 238 239 Real Integration. ion by 5. Complex Translation. ......2.+++++ Real Translation (Shifting Theorem) 1 Value Theorem. Different Ini Final Value Theorem .. 24 Inverse Laplace Transform... 24.1. Simple and Real Roots 24.2 Multiple Roots, Pee SoS 24.3. Complex Conjugate Roots. 28 Special Case of Inverse Laplace Transform .... 2.6 Use of Laplace Transform in Control System Chapter-3 Transfer Function and Impulse Response (3-1) to (3-10) 34 Introduction... .. 3.2 Concept of Transfer Function .. 3.3 Transfer Function34 38 33.1 Definition... 2. .cceccceeeeeeeee B22 3.32 Advan end Fesnwes of Tranter Function ...... 333 3.33 Disadvantages........0ccescee0e 3.34 Laplace Transform of Electrical Network .3-3 3.3.5 Procedure to Determine the Transfer Function of a Conirol System 3-4 Impulse Response and Transfer Function .....3-7 Soma input Tentetog Related to the TF... 3.5.1 Poles of a Transfer Function... 352 Chreaerialo ation fa Taare Function 3.53 Zeros of a Transfer Function. BSA Pole-Zero Plot ........2.ceeceeeeeee 3-9) 3.5.5 Order of a Transfer Function ..... Chapter-4 Mathematical Modeling 4a 42 43 44 4s 46 of Control Systems (4-1) to (4-34) Introduction... 42 Analysis of Mechanical Systems. ........0..4+2 4.2.1 Translational Motion. 402 4.22 Mass(M)... 4-2 4.23 Linear Spring. ... Ad 424 Friction 6... e..cs0 4 Rotational Motion .....sssseeeeseeeeeese de S Equivalent Mechanical System (Node Basis)..4- 5 44,1. Remarks on Nodal Method... Electrical Systems... Analogous Systems... 4.6.1 Mechanical System... 4.62. Force Voltage Analogy (Loop Analysi 4.63 Force Current Analogy (Node Analysis) ..4-9 4.7. Steps to Solve Problems on Analogous Systems . 48° Gear Trains . 48.1 Gear Train with Inertia and Friction 24 48.2 Belt or Chain Drives... 483 Levers. 24-26 49° Servomotors. ceseeeee 227 49.1 Requirements of Good Servomotor .....4+27 4.9.2 Types of Servomotors.... 4.27 4.0 D.C. Servomotor... 4-27 4.10.1 Field Controlled D.C. Servomotor .....4=27 4.10.1.1 Features of Field Controlled D.C. Servomotor .. AB 4.10.2. Armature Controlled D.C. Servomotor. . 4-28 4,102.1 Features of Armature Controlled D.C. Servomotor... 4-28 4.10.3 Characteristics of D.C. Servomotors .... 4+ 28 4.104 Applications of D.C. Servomotor......4=28 4.11, Transfer Function of Field Controlled D.C. Motor ....+.+5 ceesesee4=28 4a 12. Transfer Function of Armature Controlled D.C. Motor. AC. Servomot0r 6.6 cece eee seee eed 230 4.13.1 Construction. 4-30 4.13.2 Rotor, 4-31 4.13.3 Torque-speed Characteristics... 4-31 4.134 Features of A.C. Servomotor . 4-31 4.13. Applications 4-32 4.13.6 Transfer Function of A.C. Servomotor.. 4-32 Synchros ...... 4.14.1 Synchro Transmitte......-.e.se0e 4-32 4.14.2. Synchro Control Transformer. . 4-33 4.143 Error Detector using Synchros. 4-33 TECHRUCAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up frst fr owtwi Chapter -5 Block Diagram Representation of Control Systems (6-1) to (5-38) S.A Introduction 5-2 5.1.1 Illustrating Concept of Block Diagram Representation. 5.1.2. Advantages of Block Diagram 5-3 5.1.3 Disadvantages $33 5.2 Simple or Canonical Form of Closed Loop System ..... 5-3 5.2.1 Derivation of TF. of Simple Closed Loop System s-3 53. Rules for Block Diagram Reduction 5-4 53.1 Critical Rules 5-8 5.3.2 Converting Nonunity Feedback to Unity Feedback 5-9 5.33 Procedure to Solve Block Diagram Reduction Problems 5-10 $4 Analysis of Matipe Input Matiple Ouput Systems .... : vee 5-28 $$ Block Diagram from System Equi 5-30 Chapter -6 Signal Flow Graph Representation of Control Systems (6 - 1) to (6 - 30) 6.1 Introduction... 6-2 62 Properties of Signal Flow Graph. 6-2 63 Terminology used in Signal Flow Graph .... 6-3 64 Methods to Obtain Signal Flow Graph. 6-5 6.4.1. From the System Equations 6-5 6.42 From the Given Block Diagram ........ 6-5 63 Mason's Gain Formula. 6-6 64 Comparison of Block Diagram and Signal Flow Graph Methods = 6-22 6.7 Application of Mason's Gain Formula to Electrical Network . 6-23 Chapter-7 Time Domain Analysis of Feedback Control Systems (7-1) to (7-46) 7A. Introduction 7-2 7.2 Definition and Classification of Time Response 7-2 73. Standard Test Inputs 7-3 7A Steady State Analysis 7-5 7S Derivation of Steady State Error .7-5 7.6 Static Error Coefficients 7-6 7.7 ‘Type and Order of System 7-8 78 Analysis of TYPE 0,1 and 2 Systems 7-8 7.9 Disadvantages of Static Error Coefficient Method .....2..202++ 715 7.40 Generalised Error Coefficient Method (or Dynamic Error Coefficients) 7-15 Transient Response Analysis... 717 7.11.1 Method to Determine Total Output c(t) .7=17 7.12. Analysis of First Order System. sees TelT 7.12.1 Unit Step Response of First Order System acs e ere 7-18 7.12.2 Closed Loop Poles of First Order System 7-19 7.123 Time Constant 719 ‘Analysis of Second Order System. 7-20 Effect of 8 on Second Order System Performance. 7-21 7.AS. Derivation of Unit Step Response of a Second Order System (Underdamped Case) 7-24 7.46 Transient Response Specifications for Second Order System ........ sees =26 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS". An wp trast or Aroweepeiy 7.17 Derivations of Time Domain Specifications. . 7 - 27 7.17.1 Derivation of Peak Time Ty, 7-27 7.17.2 Derivation of My 7-28 7.17.3 Derivation of T, 7-29 7.174 Derivation of T, 7-29 Chapter -8 Routh's Stability Criterion (8 - 1) to (8-26) 8.1 Introduction 8-2 8.2 Concept of Stability 8-2 8.3 Stability of Control Systems... 823 84 Zero Input and Asymptotic Stability. . 8-7 8.4.1 Remarks about Asymptotic Stability .....8+7 8S Relative Stability. .. 8-7 86 Necessary Conditions for Stability and Hurwita's Criterion . Sedeash 8-8 8.6.1 Necessary Conditions 8-8 8.6.2. Hurwite's Criterion 8-8 8.63 Disadvantages of Hurwitz's Method. .....8-9 8.7 Routh’s Stability Criterion 8-9 8.7.1 Routh’s Criterion 8-9 88 Special Cases of Routh’s Criterion .........8-12 8.8.1 Special Case 1 8-12 8.8.2 Special Case? 8-12 8.8.2.1 Procedure to Eliminate This Difficulty 8-13 8.8.22 Importance of an Auxiliary Equation... 8-13 8.8.2.3 Change in Criterion of Stability in Special Case 2 ......ese000. 8-14 8.9 Applications of Routh’s Criterion. +16 8.9.1 Relative Stability Analysis 8.9.2 Determining Range of Values of K .....8-17 $10 Marginal K and Frequency of Surtined Oscillations ....... 8-22 8.11 Advantages of Routh’s Criterion, 8.12 Limitations of Routh's Criterion BCC ea Chapter-9 Stability Analysis using Root Locus (9-1) to (9 - 46) 9.1 Background 9-2 9.2 Basic Concept of Root Locus 9-2 93 Angle and Magnitude Condition .. 9-3 93.1. Angle Condition 2903 932. Use of Angle Condition 93 9.33 Magnitude Condition 9-4 9.34. Use of Magnitude Condition : 94 Graphical Method of Determining 'K’ . 9-4 95 Rules for Construction of Root Locus 9-5 9.6 Graphical Determination of °K’ for Specified Damping Ratio 13 9.7 General Steps to Solve the Problem on Root Locus on14 98 Obtaining G(s)H(s) from Characteristic Equation... pate 9-40 99 Effect of Addition of Open i Poles and Zeros... 9-44 9.9.1 Addition of Pole 294d 99.2 Addition of Zeros... 9-45 9.10. Advantages of Root Locus Method. = 9-46 Chapter - 10 Frequency Response Analysis (10 - 4) to (10-42) 10.1 Introduction 10-2 10.2 Advantages and Limitations of Frequency Domain Approach ..... -10-2 183 | Conceal Apprsch to Pope. Response . -10-3 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS". An wp trast or Aroweepew 10.3.1 Steady State Response to Sinusoidal Input : (Frequency Response) ......10-3 104 Co-relation between Time Domain and Frequency Domain for Second Order System. 10 - 5 10.4.1 Derivations of M, and o, oe 10-5 10.42 Comments on Co-relation between Time Domain and Frequency Domain ......10-$ 108 B.W. (Bandwidth)....... -.10-7 10.6 Experimental Determination of Frequency Response 10-11 Chapter-11 Bode Plots (11-1) to (11-50) 11.4 Introduction to Bode Plot 11-2 11.1.1 Magnitude Plot . M2 11.1.2 The Phase Angle Plot 1-2 11.2. Logarithmic Scales (Semilog Papers) 1-2 11.3. Standard Form of Open Loop T.F. G(x H(jo) 11-3 114. Bode Plots of Standard Factors of GGu)H(ju). 11 -4 TA Factor 1: System Gain *K?.......60.011=4 11.42 Factor 2: Poles or Zeros atthe Origin (jo)? nes 1143 Factor; Simple Poles or Zeros (First Order Factors) 1-9 114A Factor 4 : Quadratic Factors 123 11 Steps to Sketch the Bode Plot ........+... 1117 Frequeney Response Specifications ....... 11-17 Calculation of GM. and P.M. from Bode Plot 21-20 11.7.1 What Should be Values of G.M. and PM. of 8 Good System ? 1-21 118 Determination of ge and P.M. for ‘Standard Second Order System... 13 119 Calculation of Transfer Function from Magnitude Plot . Mas 11.10 Advantages of Bode Plot sed Chapter - 12 Polar and Nyquist Plots (12-1) to (12-36) 12.1 Introduction... +12-2 122 Polar Plot. 212-2 123 ge and Ope in Polar and Nyquist Plot 12-5 12.4 Determination of G.M. and P.M. from Polar and Nyquist Plot, 12-5 12.4.1 Determining oy. Mathematically ......12-6 128 Stability Determination from Polar Plot ..... 12-6 12.6 Nyquist Plot Analysis ... 212-9 12.7 Pole-Zero Configuration ...... 12-9 128 Encirclement 2 12+10 12.8.1 Counting Number of Encirclements.... 12 10 12.9 Analytic Function and Singularities Re 12.10 Mapping Theorem or Principle of Argument 12 - 11 12.11 Nyquist Stability Criterion. ... 212-13 12.12 Generalized Nyquist Path and its Mapping. . 12 = 15 12.13 Steps to Solve Problems by [Nyquist Criterion, 12-16 12.14 Behaviour of Right Half Pole .. 12-32 12,15 Advantages of Nyquist Plot...........++.12+36 Chapter - 13 Design of Control Systems (13-1) to (13 - 44) 13.4 Introduction to Controllers . 13-2 132 Proportional Control Mode... 213-2 13.2. Characteristic of Proportional Mode .... 13-3 13.22 Offset E B63 13.2.3 Applications B-4 133. Integral Control Mode. .. 13-4 T TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS". An wp trast or Aroweepe133.1 Step Response of Integral Mode........ 13-5 ABS 1B-s 134 Derivative Control Mode. . = 13-6 13.4.1 Characteristics of Derivative Control Mode. . cece Be 13.42 Applications ... seesesesenee BET 135 Composite Control Modes. .......2..0+4.213+7 13.6 Proportional + Integral Mode (PI Control Mode)... 0.22.0 13-7 13.6.1 Characteristics of PI Mode. 13-8 13.62. Applications ... ; 13-8 13.7 Proportional + Derivative Mode (PD Control Mode). ..... 213-8 13.7.1 Characteristics of PD Mode ........2..13+9 13.72 Applications ... 13-10 13.8 Three Mode Controller (PID Control Mode) 13 - 10 139 PID Controllers in Second Order System... 13 - 11 1 PD Type of Contoller......+...s+0- 13-1 13.9.2 PI Type of Controller .. B-R 13.93 PID Type of Controller. sce Bel? 4 Rate Feedback Controller (Output Derivative Controller). se BB 13.10 Introduction to Compensators .. 13-16 13.11 Types of Compensati 13-17 13-17 13-17 13.1.1 Series Compensation... 13.1.2 Parallel Compensation 13.11.3 Series-Parallel Compensation... 13-17 13.12 Compensating Networks . 13-18 13.13 Lead Compensator........2..20cceee0e 13218 13.13.1 Maximum Lead Angle 6, and... 13-19 13.13.2 Polar Plot of Lead Compensator ..... 13 = 19 13.133 Bode Plot of Lead Compensator ..... 13 -20 13.4 Steps to Design Lead Compensator... 13 =20 13.13.5 Effects of Lead Compensation. ...... 13-21 T © 13.13.6 Limitations of Lead Compensation . .. 13 - 21 13.14 Lag Compensator ...... 13-27 13.141 Maximum Lag Angle andB......... 13-28 13,14.2 Polar Plot of Lag Compensator ...... 13-28 13.143 Bode Plot of Lag Compensator ...... 13-29 13.14.4 Steps to Design Lag Compensator ... 13-29 13,145 Effects and Limitations of Lag Compensator............+..+..13+30 13.18 Lag-Lead Compensator . 13.15.1 Polar Plot of Lag-Lead Compensator. 13.15.2 Bode Plot of Lag-Lead Compensator. 13.15.3 Effects of Lag-Lead Compensator. 213-37 113-38 213-39 13-39 TECHRUCAL PUBLICATIONS". An up Pst fr owt| MODULE Syllabus Introduction to control systems : Introduction, classification of controls Contents 1.1 Introduction 1-2 1.2 Definitions asbadevnsivenadtaees UB EAE 1.3 Classification of Control Systems. 21-3 1.4 Open Loop System... Biase Een nse IEE 1.5 Closed Loop System. covsstsbhessdevidcscantvatiieesien ted 1.6 Comparison of Open Loop and Closed Loop Control System . +... ss ssseeeseeeseeeeeeeeees D=22 1.7 Effect of Negative Feedback on the System Performance... .. 1-12 1.8 Requirements of a Good Control System . sedi ewes navecavs ute Bode EEAControl Systems 1 4.1 | introduction ‘+n recent years, concept of automatic control has achieved a very important position in advancement of modern science. Automatic control systems have played an important role in the advancement and improvement of engineering skills ‘+ Practically, every activity in our day to day life is influenced by some sort of control system. Concept of control systems also plays an important role in the working of space vehicles, satellites, guided missiles etc. Such control systems are now integral part of the modern industrialization, industrial processes and home appliances. Control systems are found in umber of practical applications like computerised control systems, transportation systems, power systems, temperature limiting systems, robotics etc. ‘+ Hence for an engineer it is absolutely necessary to get familiar with the analysis and designing methods of such control systems. ‘+ This chapter includes the concept of system and control system. Then it gives the classification of control systems. It includes the discussion of various types of control systems supported with number of real time applications. [£2] petitions ‘To undentand. the meaning of the word cont tyeen, fat we wil tn the word stim and than tre wl ty to deine the word control eytem. Spun : A yom is # combination or ox arengonent of ‘int pap compere ch a eter anon ent tw echie cea baie ‘* Every physical object is actually a system. A classroom to god eample of yal sytem. A room akong with the combination of benches, blackboard, fons lighting arrangement etc. can be called 2 classroom which acts as an elementary sytem, + Another example ofa system isa lamp. A lamp made up of glam lament isa phyla syoem. Silay a kite made up of paper and sticks is an example of a pays system. « Sunilrly sytem can be of any type Le. physlca ceolgial,laogicl et Control system to command. Hence a control system is an arrangement of different physical elements connected in such @ manner so as to regulate, director command itself or some other system. + For example, if in a classroom, professor is delivering hhis lecture, the combination becomes a control system as; he tries to regulate, direct or command the students in order to achieve the objective which is to impart ‘good knowledge to the students. Similarly if lamp is switched ON or OFF using a switch, the entire system ‘can be called a control system. The concept of physical system and a control system is shown in the Fig. 12.1 and Fig. 122 Lamp Fig. 42:4 Physical system Lamp Supply Fig. 1.22 Controt system 1 When a child plays with the kite, he tries to control it with the help of string and entire system can be ‘considered as a control system. ‘In short, a control system is in the broadest sense, an interconnection of the physical components to provide 1 desired function, involving, some kind of controlling ‘action in it, Plant : The portion of a system which is to be controlied or regulated is called the plant or the process. Controller : The element of the system itself or external to the system which controls the plant or the process is called controller. ‘For each system, there must be an excitation and system accepts it as an input. And for analyzing the behaviour of system for such input, it is necessary to define the output of a system. ¥ TECHNICAL PUBUCATIONS™. An up ust or mrowtecoeControl Systems 13 Input : It is an applied signal or an excitation signal applied to a control system from an external energy source in order to produce a specified output. Output : It is the particular signal of interest or the actual response obtained from a control system when input is applied tot Disturbances : Disturbance is a signal which tends to adversely affect the value of the output of a system. If such a disturbance is generated within the system itself, it is called an internal disturbance. The disturbance ‘generated outside the system acting as an extra input to the system in addition to its normal input, affecting the ‘output adversely is called an extemal disturbance. ‘Control systems may have more than one input or ‘output. From the information regarding the system, it is possible to well define all the inputs and outputs of the systems. ‘+The input variable is generally referred as the reference input and output is generally referred as the controlled output. ‘Cause and effect relationship between input and ‘output for a plant can be shown as in the Fig. 1.23. Reference Controlled Input output Fig. 123 Review Questions 1. Explain the basic components of @ control system. 2. Define practical system and control system. 4.3 | Classification of Control Systems + Broadly control systems can be classified as, 1) Natural Control Systems : The biological systems, systems inside human being are of natural type. Example 1 : The perspiration system inside the human being is a good example of natural control system. This system activates the secretion glands, secreating. sweat land regulates the temperature of human body. 2) Manmade Control Systems : The various systems, ‘we are using in our day to day life are designed and manufactured by human beings. Such systems rT Introduction to Control Systems like vehicles, switches, various controllers etc. are called manmade control systems, Example 2: An automobile system with gears, accelerator, braking system is a good example of ‘manmade control system 3) Combinational Control Systems ; Combinational control system is one, having combination of ‘natural and manmade together ie. driver driving a vehicle. In such system, for successful operation of the system, it is necessary that natural systems of driver alongwith systems in vehicles which are manmade must be active. But for the engineering analysis, control systems ‘can be classified in many different ways. Some of the classifications are given below. 4) Time Varying and Time - Invariant Systems = ‘Time varying control systems are those in which parameters of the systems are varying with time, It is not dependent on whether input and output ‘are functions of time or not. For example, space vehicle whose mass decreases with time, as it leaves ‘earth. The mass is a parameter of space vehicle system, Similarly in case of a rocket, aerodynamic damping can change with time as the air density ‘changes with the altitude, As against this if even though the inputs and outputs are functions of time but the parameters of system are independent of time, which are not varying with time and are constants, then system is said to be time invariant system. Different electrical networks consisting of the elements as resistances, inductances and capacitances are time invariant systems as the values of the elements of such system are constant and not the functions of time, ‘The complexity of the control system design increases considerably if the control system is of the time varying type. This classification is shown in the Fig. 13.1. 5) Linear and Nonlinear Systems : A control system is said to be linear if it satisfies following properties 8) The principle of superposition is applicable to the system. This means the response to several inputs can be obtained by considering one input at a time and then algebraically adding the individual results, TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up Prt nowt(2) Time invariant system Introduction to Control Systems {b) Time variant system Fig. 1.3.1 Mathematically principle of superposition is expressed by two properties, i) Additive property which says that for x and y belonging to the domain of the function f then we have, f+ y) = &) +f) 1i) Homogeneous property which says that for any x belonging the domain of the function f and {for any scalar constant & we have, fax) = @ b) The differential equation describing the system is linear having its coefficients as constants. ©) Practically the output ie. response varies linearly with the input ie. forcing function for linear systems. Real time example : A resistive network shown in the Fig. 1.32 (a) is a linear system. The Fig. 1.32 (b) shows the linear relationship existing between input and output. ‘Vig * Input. 1= Output (0) Linear system Ve (0) Response of system Fig. 1.3.2 Example of linear system A control system is said to be nonlinear, if, 4. I does not satisty the principle of superposition. b, The equations describing the system are nonlinear in nature, ‘The function f(x) = x? is nonlinear because £04 +52) = (ata) Gu) +00)? and fa x) = (ax) eax? where a = constant +The equations of nonlinear system involves. such nonlinear functions. € The output does not vary linearly for nonlinear systems. +The various nonlinearities practically present in the system are shown in the Fig. 1.33 (a), (b) and (c). (0) Saturation (b) Dead zone rT TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up trust for knowedgeControl Systems 1 {) Exponential or ‘square law Fig. 1.3.3 Nonlinearities ‘The saturation means if input increases beyond certain limit, the output remains constant ie. it does not remain linear. The flux and current relation Le. B-H curve shows saturation in practice. In some big, valves, though force increases upto certain value, the valve does not operate. So there is no response for certain time which is called dead zone. ‘+ The voltage-current equation of a diode is exponential and nonlinear thus diode circuit is an example of nonlinear system. This is shown in the Fig, 13.4, R ~ 2D o~ fe (0) 8ystem ()Rempome Fig. 1.3.4 Example of nonlinear system ‘elt can be seen that as long as Viq increases upto certain value, current remains almost zero. This is a dead zone and thereafter voltage-current are exponentially related to each other which is a nonlinear function. Key Point In practice it is difficult to find perfectly linear system. Most of the physical systems are nonlinear to certain extent. ‘= But if the presence of certain nonlinearity is negligible and not affecting the system response badly, keeping, response within its linear limits then the nonlinearity can be neglected and for practical purpose the system can be treated to be linear. ‘Procedures for finding the solutions of nonlinear system problems are complicated and time consuming. Because of this difficulty most of the nonlinear systems Introduction to Control Systems are treated as linear systems for the limited range of operation with some assumptions and approximations. ‘The number of linear methods, then can be applied for analysis of such linear systems. © Continuous Time and Discrete Time Control Systems : In a continuous time control system all system variables are the functions of a continuous time variable ‘t’. The speed control of a d.c. motor using a tachogenerator feedback is an example of ‘continuous data system. At any time ‘t’ they are dependent on time. In discrete time systems one or more system variables are known only at certain discrete intervals of time. They are not continuously dependent on the time. Microprocessor ‘or computer based systems use such discrete time signals. The reasons for using such signals in digital controllers are, 1) Such signals are less sensitive to noise. 2) Time sharing of one equipment with other ‘channels is possible. 3) Advantageous from point of view of size, speed, memory, flexibility ete. *# The systems using such digital controllers or sampled signals are called sampled data systems. + Continuous time system uses the signals as shown in the Fig. 1.3.5 (a) which are continuous with time while discrete system uses the signals as shown in the Fig, 135 (b). Signal {0} Continuous signal (©) Discrete signal Fig. 1.3.5 rT TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up trust for knowedgeControl Systems 7) Deterministic and Stochastic Control Systems : A control system is said to be deterministic when its response to input as well as behaviour to external disturbances is predictable and repeatable. If such response is unpredictable, system is said to be stochastic in nature. 8) Lumped Parameter and Distributed Parameter Control Systems : Control system that can be described by ordinary differential equations is called lumped parameter control system. For example electrical networks with different parameters as resistance, inductance, etc. are lumped parameter systems. Control systems. that ‘can be described by partial differential equations are called distributed parameter control systems. For example, transmission line having its Parameters resistance and inductance totally distributed along it. Hence description of transmission line characteristics is always by use of partial differential equations. The lumped parameters are physically separable and can be shown to be located at a particular point while representing the system. The distributed parameters ‘can not be physically separated and hence can not be represented at a particular place. 9 Single Input Single Output (SISO) and Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) Systems : A system having only one input and one output is called. single input single output system. For ‘example a position control system has only one input (desired position) and one output (actual ‘output position). Some systems may have multiple type of inputs and multiple outputs, these are called multiple input multiple output systems. The ‘multiple input multiple input systems are also called multivariable control systems. 410) Static and Dynamic Systems : The systems in ‘which the output is dependent only on the input applied at the specific time and not on the initial conditions are called static systems. There are no energy storing elements in the static systems. A purely resistive network is an example of static system. Introduction to Control Systems + The systems in which the output is dependent on the input as well as on the initial conditions ie. memory are called dynamic systems. Such systems consist of ‘energy storing elements. A circuit consisting of inductors or capacitors is an example of dynamic systems. 11) Regenerative and Degenerative Feedback Systems : A feedback is a property by which part of the ‘output is given to the input for comparison. If the phase of the input and feedback is same then it is called positive feedback or regenerative feedback. Such systems show tendency to produce output without input. Such a feedback is manly used in the oscillator circuits. «IF the feedback is in antiphase with the input then it is called negative feedback or degenerative feedback. In most of the control systems, degenerative feedback is used because of its advantages. 12) Open Loop and Closed Loop Systems : This is another important classification. The features. of both these types are discussed in detail in coming sections, Review Question 1. Explain the classification of control systems with examples. Open Loop System + Definition : A system in which output is dependent fon input but controlling action or input is totally independent of the output or changes in output of the system, is called an Open Loop System, ln a broad manner it can be represented as in Fig. 14a. + Reference input {r()] is applied to the controller which generates the actuating signal (u) required to control the process which is to be controlled. Process is giving, out the necessary desired controlled output c(t). Reterence Controlled ) input rt) output ct) us Actuating signal ) Fig. 1.41 Open loop control system rT a a aeControl Systems 4.44 ‘Advantages ++ The advantages of open loop control system are, 1) Such systems are simple in construction. 2) Very much convenient when output is difficult to measure. 3) Such systems are easy from maintenance point of view. 4) Generally these are not troubled with the problems of stability 5) Such systems are simple to design and hence economical. [82 ]oisadvantages ‘+ The disadvantages of open loop control system are, 1) Such systems are inaccurate and unreliable because accuracy of such systems are totally dependent on the accurate precalibration of the controller. 2) Such systems give inaccurate results if there are variations in the external environment Le. such systems cannot sense environmental changes. 3) Similarly they cannot sense intemal disturbances in the system, after the controler stage. 4) To maintain the quality and accuracy, recalibration of the controler is necessary from time to time. ‘+ To overcome all the above disadvantages, generally in practice closed loop systems are used. ‘+The good example of an open loop system is an electric switch, This is open loop because output is light and switch is controller of lamp. Any change in light has no effect on the ON-OFF position of the switch, Le. its controlling action ‘Similarly automatic washing machine. Here output is degree of cleanliness of clothes. But any change in this ‘output will not affect the controlling action or will not decide the operation time or will not decide the amount of detergent which is to be used. Some other examples are traffic signal, automatic toaster system ete. 1.4.3 | Real Time Applications of an Open Loop ‘System, ‘= The various illustrations of an open loop system are discussed below, rT 1 Introduction to Control Systems 44.3.4] Sprinkler used to Water a Lawn # The system is adjusted to water a given area by ‘opening, the water valve and observing the resulting pattern. When the pattern is considered satisfactory, the system is “calibrated” and no further valve adjustment is made. 1432] Stopper Motor Positioning System +The actual position in such system is usually not monitored. The motor controller commands a certain umber of steps by the motor to drive the output to a previously determined location. 1433] Automatic Toaster System ‘In this system, the quality of toast depends upon the time for which the toast is heated. Depending on the time setting, bread is simply heated in this system. The toast quality is to be judged by the user and has no ‘effect on the inputs. Power input ‘eed. ‘Heating process ‘Actual = of beeae Convoter Process Fig. 142 [1.434] Trafic Light Controller +A trafic flow control system used on roads is time dependent. The traffic on the road becomes mobile or stationary depending on the duration and sequence of lamp glow. The sequence and duration are controlled by relays which are predetermined and not dependent on the rush on the road, Power ees me va ame ‘cone Fig. 143 14.35] Automatic Door Opening and Closing System + In this system, photo sensitive devices are used. When person interrupts a light, photo device generates actuating. signal which opens the door for specific time. When person passes through the door, light becomes continuous closing the door. The opening and closing of the door is the output which has nothing to do with the inputs, hence an open loop system. +The room heater, fan regulator, automatic coffee server, electric lift, theatre lamp dimmer, automatic dryer are examples of open loop system. TECHRUCAL PUBLICATIONS" An up frst fr owtControl Systems Review Questions 1. What is open loop control. system ? Enlist its applications. 2. List the major advantages and disadvantages of open loop control system. Give one exarple. 1.5 | Closed Loop System ‘Definition : A system in which the controlling action or input is somehow dependent on the output or changes in output is called closed loop system. '+To have dependence of input on the output, such system uses the feedback property. ‘+ Feedback : Feedback is a property of the system by which it permits the output to be compared with the reference input to generate the error signal based on which the appropriate controling action can be decided. ‘= In such system, output or part of the output is fedback to the input for comparison with the reference input applied to it. ‘= Closed loop system can be represented as shown in the Fig. 15.1 ‘The various signals are, iQ) = Reference input e(t) = Error signal ‘{t) = Controlled output m(t) = Manipulated signal b(t) = Feedback signal + It is not possible in all the systems that available signal can be applied as input to the system. Depending, ‘upon nature of controller and plant it is required to reduce it or amplify it or to change its nature Le. mor detector 1 Introduction to Control Systems making it discrete from continuous type of signal ete. ‘This changed input as per requirement is called reference input which is to be generated by using reference transducer. The main excitation to the system fs called its command input which is then applied to the reference transducer to generate reference input. + Practically many electronic integrated circuits work on the dic. voltage range of 5 to 10 V. The supply available is 230 V ac. Hence the reference input voltage in the range of 5 to 10 V dc. is obtained from the command input 230 V ac. and proper rectifying, unit + The part of output, which is to be decided by feedback ‘element is fed back to the reference input. The signal which is output of feedback element is called ‘feedback signal’ b(). ‘It is then compared with the reference input giving ‘error signal e(t) = r() + b(t) ‘When feedback sign is positive, systems are called positive feedback systems and if it is negative systems are called negative feedback systems. + Practically, when the feedback signal and the input are in same phase then the feedback is called positive. When the feedback signal and the input are out of phase means having phase difference of 180° between them then the feedback is called negative. ‘This error signal is then modified by controller and decides the proportional manipulated signal for the process to be controlled + This manipulation is such that error will approach zero. This signal then actuates the actual system and produces an output. As output is controlled one, hence called controlled output c(t).Control Systems 19 Introduction to Control Systems 1.5.4 | Advantages + The advantages of closed loop system are, 1) Accuracy of such system is always very high because controller modifies and manipulates the actuating signal such that error in the system will be zero. 2) Such system senses environmental changes, as well as internal disturbances and accordingly modifies the error. 3) In such system, there is reduced effect of nonlinearities and distortions. 4) Bandwidth of such system ie. operating frequency zone for such system is very high. 1.5.2 | Disadvantages + The disadvantages of closed loop system are, 1) Such systems are complicated and time consuming from design point of view and hence costlier. 2) Due to feedback, system tries to correct the error from time to time, Tendency to overcorrect the error may cause oscillations without bound in the system. Hence system has to be designed taking into consideration problems of instability due to feedback, The stability problems are severe and must be taken care of while designing the system, 1.5.3 | Real Time Applications of Closed Loop System 453.1] Human Being ‘+The best example is human being. If a person wants to reach for a book on the table, closed loop system ‘can be represented as in the Fig, 1.52, + Position of the book is given as the reference. Feedback signal from eyes, compares the actual position of ‘hands with reference position. Error signal is given to brain. Brain manipulates this error and gives signal to the hands. This process continues till the position of the hands get achieved appropriately. mt + aie *opaae ~*--+[ oon |-— [pre] 1 Ss ss a Fig. 1.5.2 Human being 1.532] Home Heating System ‘In this system, the heating system is Desired 4p Hose rane mm hat tet 69) [ioe] [tte temperature is sensed by a thermal sensor and compared with the desired temperature. The difference between the two, actuates the valve ‘mechanism to change the temperature as per the requirement. Fig. 15.3 Domestic heating system rT TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up trust for knowedgeControl Systems 1-10 Introduction to Control Systems 4.53.3] Ship Stabilization System Ship stablzaion system ‘In this system a roll sensor is used as a feedback ‘element, The desired roll position is selected as 0, ‘while actual roll position is @, which is compared with 6, to generate controlling signal. This activates fin actuator in proper way to stabilize the ship. Fig. 158 1.5.3.4] Manual Speed Control System + A locomotive operator driving a train is a good example of a manual speed control system. The objective is to maintain the speed equal to the speed limits set. The entire system is shown in the block diagram in the Fig. 156. = on ‘m @—[ee| poe [acta Mimi ~ ‘Speed Eyes ) Fig. 156 4535] D.C. Motor Speed Control ‘+The dic. shunt motor is used where field current is kept constant and armature voltage is changed to ‘obtain the desired speed. The feedback is taken by speed tachometer. This generates voltage proportional to ‘speed which is compared with voltage required to the desired speed. This difference is used to change the input to controller which cumulatively changes the speed of the motor as required. rT TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up trust for knowedgeControl Systems in Introduction to Control Systems 153.6 rT 7 f / feedback retcomnaneet Tate Fig. 1.8.7 Speed control system Fg. 188 Speed conve! system ‘Temperature Control System «The al Isto malotan hot water temperature constant. Weler te coming, with constant ow rate, Sean le coming tom a valve Poenure Ghermomaber i used a0 8 feodbeck clement which sends a signal for comparison with the set point. This ene sctuaies the valve which contala the le of Bow of sem, chilly contrcling ha temperature of the water. The olher examples of dowd oat 2am | 9} [rome] loop. opsen are iechine tool position control, postioning. of i radio and optical telescopes, auto Ej pilots for aircrafts, inertial ‘guidance system, automatic Fig. 15:10 ‘electric iron, railway reservation status display, sunseeker solar system, water level controllers, temperature control system. So in closed loop TECHICAL PUBLICATIONS™- An up Pst fr owtControl Systems 1 feedback control systems cause and effect relationship between input and output exists Review Questions 1. Explain the clase lop apse, giving some examples 2. Lit the major advaniages and diadvaniges of closed loop conto system. Give one example 3. What are the basic components of om automatic coed loop conto system ? aa 1.6 | Comparison of Open Loop and Closed Loop Control System Ne OPen loop Closed loop 1 [Any change i output has Changes in output, afc oui othe pel” the pat wid {feedback doesnot by use of ce a. ot ecesny. ‘Speraton of system. 3. Feedback element is Feedback element is 4. Error detector absent. Error detector | eee 5 eis inaccurate and Hig accurate and 6 Highly sensitive to the Less sensitive tothe |}__ Ce Highly sensitive 10 the ‘Lese senitive to the environmental changes. environmental changes 8 Bandwidth i sal Bandwidth is lange. 1 Review Question 1. Distinguish between open loop and closed loop system. Introduction to Control Systems 1.7 ] Effect of Negative Feedback on the System Performance ‘+ Most of the control systems use negative feedback because of its advantages. The various advantages of negative feedback are, 1) The feedback reduces the time constant of the system, This indicates that the system becomes more fast due to feedback which improves its time response, 2) The overall gain of the system reduces due to feedback. Thus by controlling the feedback the gain (of the system can be controlled as per requirement. 3). The feedback controls the dynamics of the system by adjusting the locations of its closed loop poles. Thus the stability of the system which depends on the locations of the closed loop poles, can be controlled by using feedback. 4) The feedback increases the bandwidth ie. the frequency range over which the system performance is satisfactory. 5) The feedback reduces the effects of the disturbances ‘occurring in forward path, feedback path as well as at the output. 6) The feedback reduces the sensitivity of the control systems to the parameter variations. Review Question 1. What are the advantages of using negative feedback in control system ? 1.8 | Requirements of a Good Control System Control systems are always designed for a specific purpose, To achieve the required objective, a good control system must satisfy the following requirements. 1) Accuracy : A good control system must be highly accurate. It should operate with as little error as possible. The open loop systems are generally less accurate and hence feedback is deliberately Introduced to reduce the error in the system. Such closed loop system requires a design so that steady slate error tends to zero 2) Sensitivity : Sensitivity requirements often play an important role in the design of control systems. All physical elements have properties that change with ‘environment and age and the parameters of control systems can not be considered to be constant over rT TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS". An up rus or Anownape