RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & IPR

UNIT 2

MEASUREMENT

Measurement is the process of observing and recording the observations that are collected as part
of research. The recording of the observations may be in terms of numbers or other symbols or
characteristics of objects according to certain prescribed rules. The respondents’s characteristics
are feelings, attitudes, opinions etc.

The most important aspect of measurement is the specification of rules for assigning numbers to
characteristics. The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized and applied uniformly.
This must not change over time or objects.

DEFINITIONS

Measurement is defined as process of associating numbers or symbols to observations obtained

in a research study.

These observation could be qualitative or quantitative. It is difficult to measure abstract or

qualitative characteristics than quantitative characteristics. It is easy to measure properties like
weight, height etc. by some standard unit of measurement.

SCALING TECHNIQUES

Scaling is the procedure of measuring and assigning the objects to the numbers according to the
specified rules. In other words, the process of locating the measured objects on the continuum, a
continuous sequence of numbers to which the objects are assigned is called as scaling.

Scaling technique is a method of placing respondents in continuation of gradual change in the

pre-assigned values, symbols or numbers based on the features of a particular object as per the
defined rules. All the scaling techniques are based on four pillars, i.e., order, description,
distance and origin.
The marketing research is highly dependable upon the scaling techniques, without which no
market analysis can be performed.

CHARACTERITICS OF SCALES
1. Distance

The characteristic of distance means that absolute differences between the scale descriptors are
known and may be expressed in units.

2. Origin

The origin characteristic means that the scale has a unique or fixed beginning or true zero point.

3. Description

By description we mean the unique labels or descriptors that are used to designate each value of
the scale. All scales possess description.

4. Order

By order we mean the relative sizes or positions of the descriptors. Order is denoted by
descriptors such as greater than, less than, and equal to.

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT SCALES

The level of measurement refers to the relationship among the values that are assigned to the
attributes, feelings or opinions for a variable.

Typically, there are four levels of measurement scales or methods of assigning numbers:

1. Primary Scaling Techniques

a) Nominal or Categorical Scale
b) Ordinal Scale
c) Interval Scale
d) Ratio Scale

a. Nominal or categorical Scale

• Simplest level of measurement when data values fit into categories.

 • Observations are dichotomous or binary in that the outcome can take on only one of two
values: yes or no.
• Mutually exclusive.
• E.g sex of patient(M/F), nationality

b. Ordinal scale

• When an inherent order occurs among the categories, the observations are said to be
measured on an ordinal scale.
• Clinicians often use ordinal scales to determine a patient's amount of risk or the
appropriate type of therapy.
• E.g socio-economic class, rank order of a class(1st,2nd, 3rd) VAS( visual analog scale)
for pain

c. Interval Scale

• Data classified by ranking.

• Quantitative classification .
 • Zero point of scale is arbitrary (differences are
• meaningful).
• Fahrenheit temp. scale , Time

d. Ratio Scale

• Data classified as the ratio of two numbers.

• Quantitative classification .
• Zero point of scale is absolute (data can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided).
• E. g- Kelvin temp. scale, Weight, Height

TYPES OF SCALING TECHNIQUES

1. Comparative Scales

Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects. Most often, the respondent
is asked to compare one brand, product or feature against another. Comparative scale data must
be interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or rank order properties.

In comparative scaling, the respondent is asked to compare one object with another.

The comparative scales can further be divided into the following four types of scaling
techniques:

a. Paired Comparison Scale

b. Rank Order Scale
c. Constant Sum Scale, and
d. Q-Sort Scale
a. Paired Comparison Scale

This is a comparative scaling technique in which a respondent is presented with two objects at a
time and asked to select one object according to some criterion. The data obtained are ordinal in
nature.

For Example

b. Rank Order Scale

This is another type of comparative scaling technique in which respondents are presented with
several items simultaneously and asked to rank them in the order of priority.

This is an ordinal scale that describes the favred and un favored objects but does not reveal the
distance between the objects

The resultant data in rank order is ordinal data. This yields better results when direct comparison
are required between the given objects. The major disadvantage of this technique is that only
ordinal data can be generated.

c. Constant Sum Scale:

In this scale, the respondents are asked to allocate a constant sum of units such as points, rupees
among a set of stimulus objects with respect to some criterion. For example, you may wish to
determine how important the attributes of price, fragrance, packaging, cleaning power, and lather
of a detergent are to consumers. Respondents might be asked to divide a constant sum to indicate
the relative importance of the attributes.

The advantage of this technique is saving time.

However, main disadvantages are the respondents may allocate more or fewer points than those
specified. The second problem is respondents might be confused.

d. Q-Sort Scale

This is a comparative Scale that uses a rank order procedure to sort objects based on similarity
with respect to some criterion. The important characteristic of this methodology is that it is more
important to make comparisons among different responses of a respondent than the responses
between different respondents. Therefore, it is a comparative method of scaling rather than an
absolute rating scale. In this method the respondent is given statements in a large number for
describing the characteristics of a product or a large number of brands of a product.

2. Non-Comparative Scales:

In market research, data is collected and measured on either a comparative scale or a non-
comparative scale. A comparative scale asks customers to evaluate one product in direct
comparison to others. A non-comparative scale evaluates a single product by itself.

In non-comparative scaling respondents need only evaluate a single object. Their evaluation is
independent of the other object which the researcher is studying.

The non-comparative scaling techniques can be further divided into:

a. Continuous Rating Scale and

b. Itemized Rating Scale

a. Continuous Rating Scale

It is very simple and highly useful. In continuous rating scale, the respondent’s rate the objects
by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a continuous line that runs from one extreme of
the criterion variable to the other.

b. Itemized Rating Scales:

Itemized rating scale is a scale having numbers of brief descriptions associated with each
category. The categories are ordered in terms of scale position and the respondents are required
to select one of the limited number of categories that best describes the product, brand, company,
or product attribute being rated. Itemized rating scales are widely used in marketing research.

Itemised rating scales is further divided into three parts, namely

i. Likert Scale
ii. Semantic Differential Scale and
iii. Stapel Scale

i. Likert Scale:

Likert, is extremely popular for measuring attitudes, because, the method is simple to administer.
With the Likert Scale, the respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly
they agree or disagree with carefully worded statements that range from very positive to very
negative towards the attitudinal object. Respondents generally choose from five altermatives (say
strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, strongly disagree).

A Likert scale may include a number of items or statements.

Disadvantage of Likert Scale is that it takes longer time to complete than other itemized rating
scales because respondents have to read each statement. Despite the above disadvntages, this scal
has several advantages. It is easy to construct, administer and use.

ii. Semantic Differential Scale:

This is a seven point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar lables (such as good and
bad, complex and simple) that have semantic meaning. It can be used to find whether a
respondent has a positive or negative attitude towards an object. It has been widely used in
comparing brands, products and company images. It has also been used to devlop advertising and
promotion strategies and in a new product development study.

iii. Staple Scale:

The Staple scale was originaly developed to measure the direction and intensity of an attitude
simultaneously. Modern versions of the Stapel scale place a single adjective as a substitute for
the Semantic differential when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives. The modified
Stapel scale places a single adjective in the centre of an even number of numerical Values.

CRITERIA FOR GOOD MEASUREMENTS

The use of better instrument will ensure more accuracy in results, which in turn, will enhance the
scientific quality of the research

There are three measurement of the characteristics for evaluating a measurement tool.

1. Validity
2. Reliability
3. Sensitivity

1. Validity

It is the ability of an instrument to measure what it is supposed to measure. That is, when we ask
a questions with the hope that we are tapping the concept, how can we be reasonably certain that
we are indeed measuring the concept we set to do and not something else?

2. Reliability

The reliability of a measure indicates the extent to which it is without bias (error free) and hence
ensures consistent measurement across time and across the various items in the instrument.

In other words, the reliability of a measure is an indication of the stability and consistency with
which the instrument measures the concept and helps to assess the “goodness” of measure.

3. Stability

The ability of the measure to remain the same over time despite uncontrollable testing conditions
or the state of the respondents themselves is indicative of its stability and low vulnerability to
changes in the situation.

This attests to its “goodness” because the concept is stably measured, no matter when it is done.
QUESTIONNAIRE

A set of Questions designed to generate the statistical information from a specific demographic
needed to accomplish the research objectives.

The questionnaire is a set of questions, focused on specific objectives of a topic of interest, used
to gather information from target responders.

The questionnaire is probably most used and most abused of the data gathering devices. It is easy
to prepare and to administer. The questionnaire is a form prepared and distributed to secure
responses to certain questions. It is a device for securing answers to questions by using a form
which the respondent will fill by himself. It is a systematic compilation of questions. It is an
important instrument being used to gather information from widely scattered sources. Normally
used where one cannot see personally all of the people from whom he desires responses or where
there is no particular reason to see them personally.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE

1. It deals with an important or significant topic.

2. Its significance is carefully stated on the questionnaire or on its covering letter.
3. It seeks only that data which cannot be obtained from the resources like books, reports
and records.
4. It is as short as possible, only long enough to get the essential data.
5. It is attractive in appearance, nearly arranged and clearly stated or printed.
6. Directions are clear and complete, important terms are clarified.
7. The questions are objective, with no clues, hints or suggestions.
8. Questions are presented in a order from simple to complex.
9. Double barrelled questions or putting two questions in one question are also avoided.

TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE

Following are the types or forms of the questionnaire.

1. Structured Questionnaire (Closed End Questions)

A structured questionnaire is that one which has pre-determined questions with answers. The
respondents only tick the correct answer in the short term “yes” or “No”. It is also called pre-
coded, closed restricted and categorical questionnaire.

Advantages

1. It is easy and less time consuming.

2. It keeps the respondents in limits.
3. It has objectivity.

Disadvantages

1. Confusion and difficulty in selection.

2. It bounds the respondents.
3. Les possibility of return.
4. Difficulty in reliability.

2. Un-Structured Questionnaire (Open End Questions)

Un-structured questionnaire is that in which pre-determined questions are given but have no
answers. These answers are to be structured by the respondents. Open questions are given for the
respondents to give answers. In such type of questionnaire, interview b/w the researcher and
respondents or face to face conversation takes place. Such types is also called open-ended,
unrestricted or non-categorical questionnaire.

For Example

1. Do you know about poverty

2. What are the types of poverty
 3. What the factors influence poverty
4. What are the remedies for its solution

Advantages

1. It is more reliable.
2. It is more explanatory.
3. It gives depth of response.

Disadvantages

1. It requires greater efforts.

2. It is more expansible.
3. It risky for an investigator.
4. Less returns by the respondents.

3. Hand Delivered Questionnaire

This is a type of questionnaire in which the investigator himself go to the field and hand over the
pre written questions to the respondents. They only tick mark, the correct answers in front of the
investigator. It is also called direct questionnaire because the researcher directly distributes the
questionnaire among the respondents.

Advantages

1. The researcher have close contact with respondents.

2. Difficult questions are explained by the researcher to the respondents.
3. He explains the purpose of the study.

Disadvantages

1. It is more expensive and costly.

2. It more time consuming.
4. Mailed Questionnaire

Most of the researcher uses that type of questionnaire. In that type the respondents are living in
for-flung areas at a distance and the questionnaire is sent to them by post, they fill it and return
back to the researcher or concerned department. A particular guide line or instructions list is
attached to the questionnaire for the respondents guidance.

Advantages

1. It is commonly used.
2. It is useful for the researcher.
3. It is very easy and simple.
4. It saves time and money.

Disadvantages

1. Lack of returns.
2. Research take time due to careless and laziness of the respondents.
3. Lack of skilled respondents.
4. Errors may occur due to misunderstanding of respondents.

SAMPLING

Though sampling is not new, the sampling theory has been developed recently. People knew or
not but they have been using the sampling technique in their day to day life. For example a house
wife tests a small quantity of rice to see whether it has been well-cooked and gives the
generalized result about the whole rice boiling in the vessel. The result arrived at is most of the
times 100% correct. In another example, when a doctor wants to examine the blood for any
deficiency, takes only a few drops of blood of the patient and examines. The result arrived at is
most of the times correct and represent the whole amount of blood available in the body of the
patient. In all these cases, by inspecting a few, they simply believe that the samples give a correct
idea about the population. Most of our decision are based on the examination of a few items only
i.e. Sample studies. In the words of Croxton and Cowdon, “It may be too expensive or too time
consuming to attempt either a complete or a nearly complete coverage in a statistical study.
Further to arrive at valid conclusions, it may not be necessary to enumerate all or nearly all of a
population. We may study a sample drawn from the large population and if that sample is
adequately representative of the population, we should be able to arrive at valid conclusions.”

DEFINITION

According to Gerald Hursh “a Sample Design is the theoretical basis and the practical means by
which we infer the characteristics of some population by generalizing from the characteristics of
relatively few of the units comprising the population”.

According to Rosander, “The sample has many advantages over a census or complete
enumeration. If carefully designed, the sample is not only considerably cheaper but may give
results which are just accurate and sometimes more accurate than those of a census. Hence a
carefully designed sample may actually be better than a poorly planned and executed census.”

MEANING

Sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a statistical
population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. Two advantages of sampling are
that the cost is lower and data collection is faster than measuring the entire population. A Sample
design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population
The population is a group that is studied
Population
by researcher
The process of selecting a part of
Sampling
population
Sample The selected part of the population
The number of people in the selected
Sample Size
sample
Sample The list of individual or people included
Frame in the sample
Sample It refers to the technique or procedure
Technique used to select members of the sample

MERITS OF SAMPLING
1. It saves time:

Sampling method of data collection saves time because fewer items are collected and processed.
When the results are urgently required, this method is very helpful.
2. It reduces cost:

Since only a few and selected items are studied in sampling, there is a reduction in cost of money
and reduction in terms of man hours.

3. More reliable results can be obtained:

Through sampling, more reliable results can be obtained because

(a) there are fewer chances of sampling statistical errors. If there is sampling error, it is possible
to estimate and control the results.

(b) Highly experienced and trained persons can be employed for scientific processing and
analyzing of relatively limited data and they can use their high technical knowledge and get more
accurate and reliable results.

4. It provides more detailed information:

As it saves time, money and labor, more detail information can be collected in a sample survey.

5. Sometimes only a sampling method to depend upon:

Some times it so happens that one has to depend upon the sampling method alone because if the
population under study is finite, sampling method is the only method to be used. For example, if
someone’s blood has to be examined, it will become fatal to take all the blood out from the body
and study depending upon the total enumeration method.

6. Administrative convenience:

The organization and administration of sample survey are easy for the reasons which have been
discussed earlier.

7. More scientific:

Since the methods used to collect data are based on scientific theory and results obtained can be
tested, sampling is a more scientific method of collecting data.
DEMERITS OF SAMPLING

It is not that sampling is free from demerits or shortcomings. There are certain shortcomings of
this method which are discussed below:

1. Illusory Conclusion:

If a sample enquiry is not carefully planned and executed, the conclusions may be inaccurate and
misleading.

2. Sample Not Representative:

To make the sample representative is a difficult task. If a representative sample is taken from the
universe, the result is applicable to the whole population. If the sample is not representative of
the universe the result may be false and misleading.

3. Lack of Experts:

As there are lack of experts to plan and conduct a sample survey, its execution and analysis, and
its results would be Unsatisfactory and not trustworthy.

4. Sometimes More Difficult than Census Method:

Sometimes the sampling plan may be complicated and requires more money, labor and time than
a census method.

5. Personal Bias:

There may be personal biases and prejudices with regard to the choice of technique and drawing
of sampling units.

6. Choice of Sample Size:

If the size of the sample is not appropriate then it may lead to untrue characteristics of the
population.

7. Conditions of Complete Coverage:

If the information is required for each and every item of the universe, then a complete
enumeration survey is better.
ESSENTIALS OF SAMPLING

In order to reach a clear conclusion, the sampling should possess the following essentials:

1. It must be representative:

The sample selected should possess the similar characteristics of the original universe from
which it has been drawn.

2. Homogeneity:

Selected samples from the universe should have similar nature and should mot have any
difference when compared with the universe.

3. Adequate samples:

In order to have a more reliable and representative result, a good number of items are to be
included in the sample.

4. Optimization:

All efforts should be made to get maximum results both in terms of cost as well as efficiency. If
the size of the sample is larger, there is better efficiency and at the same time the cost is more. A
proper size of sample is maintained in order to have optimized results in terms of cost and
efficiency.
STEPS IN SAMPLING DESIGN

TYPES OF SAMPLING: SAMPLING METHODS

Sampling in market research is of two types – probability sampling and non-probability

sampling. Let’s take a closer look at these two methods of sampling.

1. Probability Sampling
2. Non-Probability Sampling

1. Probability sampling

Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets a selection of a few criteria
and chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have an equal opportunity to
be a part of the sample with this selection parameter.
Probability sampling is a sampling technique in which researchers choose samples from a larger
population using a method based on the theory of probability. This sampling method considers
every member of the population and forms samples based on a fixed process.

For example, in a population of 1000 members, every member will have a 1/1000 chance of
being selected to be a part of a sample. Probability sampling eliminates bias in the population
and gives all members a fair chance to be included in the sample.

Probability Sampling

A. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other
techniques that are based entirely on chance.

Example

You want to select a simple random sample of 100 employees of Company X. You assign a
number to every employee in the company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number
generator to select 100 numbers.

B. Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to
conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
Example

All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From the first 10 numbers, you
randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the
list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100 people.

If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern in the list
that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups employees by team, and
team members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk that your interval might skip over
people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is skewed towards senior employees.

C. Stratified sampling

This sampling method is appropriate when the population has mixed characteristics, and you
want to ensure that every characteristic is proportionally represented in the sample.

You divide the population into subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g.
gender, age range, income bracket, job role).

From the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should be
sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample
from each subgroup.

Example

The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You want to ensure that the
sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the population into two strata
based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each group, selecting 80 women and 20
men, which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.

D. Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should
have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each
subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.
If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster. If the
clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each cluster using one
of the techniques above.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more risk of
error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to
guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole population.

Example

The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the same number of
employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to collect your
data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.

2. Non-probability sampling

In non-probability sampling, the researcher chooses members for research at random. This
sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process. This makes it difficult for all
elements of a population to have equal opportunities to be included in a sample.

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and not every
individual has a chance of being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias, and
you can’t use it to make valid statistical inferences about the whole population.

Non-probability sampling techniques are often appropriate for exploratory and qualitative
research. In these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population,
but to develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched population.

Non-Probability Sampling
A. Convenience sampling

A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the
researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the sample
is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results.

Example

You are researching opinions about student support services in your university, so after each of
your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the topic. This is a convenient
way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the same classes as you at the same
level, the sample is not representative of all the students at your university.

B. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access.
Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people volunteer
themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people will inherently
be more likely to volunteer than others.
Example

You send out the survey to all students at your university and a lot of students decide to complete
it. This can certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the people who responded are
more likely to be those who have strong opinions about the student support services, so you can’t
be sure that their opinions are representative of all students.

C. Purposive sampling

This type of sampling involves the researcher using their judgement to select a sample that is
most useful to the purposes of the research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge
about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences. An effective purposive
sample must have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion.

Example

You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled students at your
university, so you purposefully select a number of students with different support needs in order
to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student services.

D. Snowball sampling

If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other
participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with
more people.

Example

You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since there is no list of all
homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person who
agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with other homeless people that
she knows in the area.
EXPLORING, DISPLAYING AND EXAMINING DATA

Figure: Data analysis in the research process.

EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS

Exploratory data analysis (EDA) is both a data analysis perspective and a set of techniques. In
exploratory data analysis, the data guide the choice of analysis – or a revision of the planned
analysis – rather than the analysis presuming to overlay its structure on the data without the
benefit of the analyst’s scrutiny. This is comparable to our position that research should be
problem-oriented rather than tool-driven. The flexibility to respond to the patterns revealed by
successive iterations in the discovery process is an important attribute of this approach. By
comparison, confirmatory data analysis occupies a position closure to classical statistical
inference in its use of significance and confidence. But confirmatory analysis may also differ
from traditional practices by using information from a closely related data set or by validating
findings through the gathering and analyzing of new data.

The exploratory data analysis techniques provide insights and data diagnostics by emphasizing
visual representations of the data. How cross-tabulation is used to examine relationships
involving categorical variables, serves as a framework for later statistical testing, and makes an
efficient tool for data visualization and later decision-making.

TECHNIQUES & TOOLS OF DATA ANALYSIS

1. Bar Chart
2. Pie Chart
3. Frequency Table
4. Histogram
5. Pareto Diagram
6. Box Plot
7. Multi-Vari Chart
8. Run Chart
9. Scatter Plot
10. Parallel Coordinates

DATA COLLECTION

Data refers to information or facts. Often researcher understands by data only numerical figure. It
also includes descriptive facts, non-numerical information, qualitative and quantitative
information. Data could be broadly classified as:

1. Primary Data
2. Secondary Data

1. Primary Data

It is known as the data collected for the first time through field survey. Such data are collected
with specific set of objectives to assess the current status of any variable studied. Primary data
are generally information gathered or generated by the researcher for the purpose of the project
immediately at hand. When the data are collected for the first time, the responsibility for their
processing also rests with the original investigator.
2. Secondary data

It refers to the information or facts already collected. Such data are collected with the objective
of understanding the past status of any variable. Secondary data can be obtained internally ie
within the firm or external from one or more outside agencies.

Secondary data are those which have been collected by some other persons for his purpose and
published. They are usually in the shape of finished products.

ADVANTAGES OF PRIMARY DATA

1. It provide a first hand account of the situation. We can observe the phenomenon as it
takes place.
2. The information is more reliable as the investigator collects the data himself, he can take
all precautions to ensure their reliability
3. These are the logical starting point for research in several disciplines.
4. Primary data are the only way of finding out opinions, personal qualities, attitudes etc.

DISADVANTAGES OF PRIMARY DATA

1. Collecting primay data is expensive in terms of both time & money.

2. There is greater scope for researcher bias creeping in unless the research investigator is
fair to the respondent and methods of data collection the result of the study will not be
reliable.
3. Sample selection is yet another problem.

METHODS OF COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA

1. Questionnaire

In this method to pre-printed list of questions arranged in sequence is used to elicit response from
the informant.

2. Interview

This is a method in which the investigator and the respondent meet and questions raised are
answered and recorded. This method is adopted when personal opinion or view point are to be
gathered as a part of data.
3. Observation

A method which requires familiarity and experience, in this method the observer applies his
sense organs to note down whatever that he could observe in the field and relate these data to
explain some phenomena.

4. Feedback

In the case of some of the consumer goods, the supplier or the manufacturer send the product
along with a pre-paid reply cover in which questions on the product and its usage are raised and
the customer is required to fill it up and send.

5. Sales force opinion

The sales representatives visit the distributor or the retailers shop to note down the detail of stock
movement, availability of items etc which give valuable information.

6. Schedule

This method of data collection is very much like the questionnaire with little difference which
lies in the fact that schedules are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed
for the purpose.

7. Warranty Card

Warranty Card are usually postal sized card which are used by dealers of consumer durables to
collect information regarding their products. The information sought is printed in the form of
question on the warranty cards which is placed insided the package along with the product with a
request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer.

8. Distributor or store Audit

Distributors get the retail stores audited through salesman and use such information to estimate
market size, market share, seasonal purchasing pattern & so on.
TYPES OF PRIMARY DATA
1. Structured Observation

When observation takes place strictly in accordance with a plan or a design prepared in advance,
it is called structured observation. In such a type the observer decided what to observe what to
focus on, who are all to be observed etc.

2. Unstructured Observation

In this type of observation there is no advance designing of what, how, when, who etc of
observation. The observer is given the freedom to decide on the spot, to observe everything that
is relevant.

3. Participant Observation

In this, the observer is very much present in the midst of what is observed. He is physically
present on the spot to observe and not influencing the activities. It will help him to continuously
observe and not everything that is happening around him.

4. Non Participant Observation

In this observer remains detached from whatever is happening around and does involve himself
in any activities taking place. He is present only to observe and not to take part in the activities.

5. Controlled Observation

In this case, the observer performs his work in the environment or situation, which is very much
planned or designed or set.

6. Uncontrolled Observation

The observer is at freedom to observer whatever is taking place around him in the natural set up.

ADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA

1. The information can be collected by incurring the least cost.

2. The time requires for obtaining the information is very less.
3. Most of the secondary data are those published by big institutions. So they contain large
quantity of information..
DISADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA

1. Since the secondary data is a result of some other person’s attempt, it need not be suitable
for a researcher, who makes use of it.
2. It may be inaccurate and unreliable.
3. It may contain certain errors.

SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA

There are varieties of published sources from which one can get information for his research
work. The important such sources are;

1. Official report of the central, state and local government.

2. Official publications of the foreign governments and international bodies like UNO and
its subordinate bodies.
3. Reports and publications of Trade Associations, Banks, Cooperative Societies and
Similar Semi Government and Autonomous Organizations.
4. Technical journals, News papers, Books, Periodicals, etc
5. Publications of research Organizations, Centers, Institutes, and reports submitted by
Economists, Research scholars etc.

DATA COLLECTION METHODS

In this section, the researcher should describe the major methods for collecting data from the
subjects. The major methods for obtaining data in a study may include:

1. Personal Interviews
2. Questionnaires
3. Observation techniques
4. Focus Groups
5. Surveys
1. Personal Interview

An interview is a direct face-to-face attempt to obtain reliable and valid measures in the form of
verbal responses from one or more respondents. It is a conversation in which the roles of the
interviewer and the respondent change continually.

Advantages

• Allows the interviewer to clarify questions.

• Can be used with young children and illiterates.
• Allow the informants to respond in any manner they see fit.
• Allows the interviewers to observe verbal and non-verbal behavior of the respondents.
• Means of obtaining personal information, attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs.
• Reduces anxiety so that potentially threatening topics can be studied.

Disadvantages

• Unstructured interviews often yield data too difficult to summarize or evaluate.

• Training interviewers, sending them to meet and interview their informants, and
evaluating their effectiveness all add to the cost of the study.

2. Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a means of eliciting the feelings, beliefs, experiences, perceptions, or attitudes

of some sample of individuals. As a data collecting instrument, it could be structured or
unstructured.

The questionnaire is most frequently a very concise, preplanned set of questions designed to
yield specific information to meet a particular need for research information about a pertinent
topic. The research information is attained from respondents normally from a related interest
area. The dictionary definition gives a clearer definition: A questionnaire is a written or printed
form used in gathering information on some subject or subjects consisting of a list of questions to
be submitted to one or more persons.

Advantages
 • Economy - Expense and time involved in training interviewers and sending them to
interview are reduced by using questionnaires.
• Uniformity of questions - Each respondent receives the same set of questions phrased in
exactly the same way. Questionnaires may, therefore, yield data more comparable than
information obtained through an interview.
• Standardization - If the questions are highly structured and the conditions under which
they are answered are controlled, then the questionnaire could become standardized.

Disadvantages

• Respondent’s motivation is difficult to assess, affecting the validity of response.

• Unless a random sampling of returns is obtained, those returned completed may represent
biased samples.

3. Direct Observation

Direct observation is a measuring instrument used to measure such traits as self-control,

cooperativeness, truthfulness, and honesty. In many cases, systematic direct observation of
behavior is the most desirable measurement method. An investigator identified the behavior of
interest and devises a systematic procedure for identifying, categorizing, and recording the
behavior in either a natural or "staged" situation.

Advantages

• It allows planners to get the views in a broad perspective rather than from an isolated
point of view.
• Delphi in combination with other tools is a very potent device for teaching people to
think about the future of education in much more complex ways than they ordinarily
would.
• It is a useful instrument even for a general teaching strategy.
• It is a planning tool, which may aid in probing priorities held by members and
constituencies of an organization.
• Delphi saves time and travel, which are required to bring people together for a
conference.
 • Delphi prevents personality biases from affecting the results.

Disadvantages

• Interpretation of the participants’ responses and the meaning of the importance of the
factors in planning are difficult.
• It is unknown how the findings can be generalized to Delphis which cover a 30 year
extension into the future.
• Delphi at present can render no rigorous distinction between reasonable judgment and
mere guessing.
• It is difficult to determine the amount of bias injected into the results by the person
administering the Delphi.

4. Focus Groups Discussion (FGD)

A focus group is an organized discussion session. A panel of people meets for a short duration to
exchange ideas, feelings, and experiences on a specific topic. A trained facilitator, using group
dynamics principles, guides participants through the meeting. Increasingly used in social and
business research, focus group meetings enable a researcher to gain much information in a
relatively short period of time (Morgan & Kruger 1993).

Focus groups have been a mainstay in private sector marketing research for the past three
decades. More recently, public sector organizations are beginning to discover the potential of
these procedures. Educational and nonprofit organizations have traditionally used face-to-face
interviews and questionnaires to get information. Unfortunately, these popular techniques are
sometimes inadequate in meeting information needs of decision makers. The focus group is
unique from these other procedures; it allows for group interaction and greater insight into why
certain opinions are held. Focus groups can improve the planning and design of new programs,
provide means of evaluating existing programs, and produce insights for developing marketing
strategies.

Advantages

• It is a socially oriented research procedure.

 • The format allows the moderator to probe.
• Discussions have high face validity.
• Discussions can be relatively low cost.
• The format can provide speedy results.
• Focus groups enable the researcher to increase the sample size of qualitative studies.

Limitations

• The researcher has less control in the group interview as compared to the individual
interview.
• Data are more difficult to analyze.
• The technique requires carefully trained interviewers.
• Groups can vary considerably.
• Groups are difficult to assemble
• The discussion must be conducted in an environment conducive to conversation.

5. Telephone Surveys - surveying by telephone is the most popular interviewing method.

Advantages

• People can usually be contacted faster over the telephone than with other methods. If the
Interviewers are using CATI (computer-assisted telephone interviewing), the results can
be available minutes after completing the last interview.
• You can dial random telephone numbers when you do not have the actual telephone
numbers of potential respondents.
• CATI software, such as The Survey System, makes complex questionnaires practical by
offering many logic options. It can automatically skip questions, perform calculations and
modify questions based on the answers to earlier questions. It can check the logical
consistency of answers and can present questions or answers choices in a random order
(the last two are sometimes important for reasons described later).
• Skilled interviewers can often elicit longer or more complete answers than people will
give on their own to mail, email surveys (though some people will give longer answers to
Web page surveys). Interviewers can also ask for clarification of unclear responses.
 • Some software, such as The Survey System, can combine survey answers with
preexisting information you have about the people being interviewed.

Disadvantages

• Many telemarketers have given legitimate research a bad name by claiming to be doing
research when they start a sales call. Consequently, many people are reluctant to answer
phone interviews and use their answering machines to screen calls.
• The growing number of working- women often means that no one is at home during the
day.
• You cannot show or sample products by phone.

6. Mail Surveys

Advantages

• Mail surveys are among the least expensive.

• This is the only kind of survey you can do if you have the names and addresses of the
target population, but not their telephone numbers.
• The questionnaire can include pictures - something that is not possible over the phone.
• Mail surveys allow the respondent to answer at their leisure, rather than at the often
inconvenient moment they are contacted for a phone or personal interview. For this
reason, they are not considered as intrusive as other kinds of interviews.

Disadvantages

• Time, mail surveys take longer than other kinds. You will need to wait several weeks
after mailing out questionnaires before you can be sure that you have gotten most of the
responses.
• In populations of lower educational and literacy levels, response rates to mail surveys are
often too small to be useful.
7. Computer Direct Interviews

These are interviews in which the Interviewees enter their own answers directly into a computer.
They can be used at malls, trade shows, offices, and so on. The Survey System's optional
Interviewing Module and Interview Stations can easily create computer-direct interviews. Some
researchers set up a Web page survey for this purpose.

Advantages

• The virtual elimination of data entry and editing costs.

• You will get more accurate answers to sensitive questions.
• The elimination of interviewer bias. Different interviewers can ask questions in different
ways, leading to different results. The computer asks the questions the same way every
time.
• Response rates are usually higher. Computer-aided interviewing is still novel enough that
some people will answer a computer interview when they would not have completed
another kind of interview.

Disadvantages

• The Interviewees must have access to a computer or one must be provided for them.
• As with mail surveys, computers direct interviews may have serious response rate
problems in populations of lower educational and literacy levels. This method may grow
in importance as computer use increases.

8. Email Surveys

Email surveys are both very economical and very fast. More people have email than have full
Internet access. This makes email a better choice than a Web page survey for some populations.
On the other hand, email surveys are limited to simple questionnaires, whereas Web page
surveys can include complex logic.

Advantages
 • Speed. An email questionnaire can gather several thousand responses within a day or
two.
• There is practically no cost involved once the set up has been completed.
• You can attach pictures and sound files.
• The novelty element of an email survey often stimulates higher response levels than
ordinary “snail” mail surveys.

Disadvantages

• You must possess (or purchase) a list of email addresses.

• Some people will respond several times or pass questionnaires along to friends to answer.
Many programs have no check to eliminate people responding multiple times to bias the
results.
• Many people dislike unsolicited email even more than unsolicited regular mail. You may
want to send email questionnaires only to people who expect to get email from you.
• You cannot use email surveys to generalize findings to the whole populations. People
who have email are different from those who do not, even when matched on demographic
characteristics, such as age and gender.
• Email surveys cannot automatically skip questions or randomize question or answer
choice order or use other automatic techniques that can enhance surveys the way Web
page surveys can.