A of law,induced stationary

generator. and 'alternating

he
Lines induced
Faraday'smnagnitude uo upr13 an
of
changes called
conductors
field. Thea to
rotary within the
called (0)
to terminals.
magnetic in voltage 180°,
is
Accordingchanges position
a field revoluti
using is long through
it induced
open magnetic
by the the flat
Therefore.
Voltage continuously
produced coil. of
a rotated
anticlockwise,
through its of from
half-cycle
or acrossa amount
rotating
Alternating loop polarity.
moves
has
be rotates voltage The loop,
generated
can the by loop This
rotates
circle.
by
voltage
coil generatedin
induced thethe
cut zero.
of reverses When
or is loop a as
Generation are around
maximum, again
loop voltage
Alternating
flux be This the (90).
periodically alternatio
conductor can
magnetic also. When
voltage'.
move is
induced
voltage to position
voltage
2.2 coil loopzero
 Circuits 39
AC Fundamentals and

360°, loop
When angle of rotation (0) is varying between 180° andthe induced
direction. Hence
cuts the magnetic flux in the opposite
180° and 270°, induced
voltage as negative. When changes between then decreases
negative and
voltage (v) changes from zero to maximum
360°.
to zero as changes from 270° to
900

B
00
1800
0
900 1800 270° 360° 2r
3r/2
A

-VM
I cycle
270
loop
Fig.2.1 : A sine wave generated by rotating
around the circle is 'a cycle'
One complete revolution of the loop
variations between two successive
the
A cycle can be defined as including
varying in the same direction.
points having the same value and
voltage shown in Fig.(2.1)
The instantaneous value of the alternating
for any angle of rotation is expressed by
V= VM Sine
is the angle.
where VM is the maximum (peak) value and
used for an alternating
Angular measure or radian measure can be
complete circle includes 360°.
quantity. In angular measure the
Therefore, one cycle corresponds to 360º.
One-half cycle = 180°
th

cycle = 90°

th
3
cycle = 270°
4
radian is used.
In radian measure, a specific unit angle called the
1 radian = 1rad = 57.30
1cycle = 2T rad, 1/2 cycle TT rad

3 37
cycle = , rad, cycle rad
4 4 2
ount
ot-Mean-Square' or cycle a (IM). current.
voltageorone the 40
sine or maximum2.4 value. zero voltage Sine 2.3
The current voltage)
Root-Mean-Square becauseAverage The Peak wave
Instantaneous
cycle,Since Voltage 5. 4. Characteristics
3. 2. 1. The
ofrms wave axis of In
Peak-to-peak The The AtThe The waveform Fig.(2.1),
direct at peakvalue with it an and the Sine
value 45°, for at 0°
over value alternating is and values cycle angle
rms
rms Average a value another.
convenient a thepolaritymaximum and
rrent (V.)Peak :- known Wave
of which half-cycle. values
value a - This Current
=0.707VM an (RMS) full applies value change
180° includes is ofthe
This value reverses called
rnatingor (RMS) is value cycle is
Following instant values
of amount
= the quantity change the the rotation
ltage 70.7 is to :-
0.707 or Average factor = The
an maximum
2 to define Values the value sine-wave 360° a
'effective' value = the each
and per 0.637 arithmetic either
x (time) are sine of
in x average peak has value the
fastest in
sine = specific is at or
ting I,ms peak cent :- value peak th e specific many for half-cycle.
slowest zero. 2r waveinduced
the Electronics
wave The x value value is of 90°
=0.707IM valuevalue. of peak positive called an a when radians. A.C. circular
value/rms
valueaverage is values and or
wer. thvalue
e instantaneous alternating Sine
ponds valuespecified (V) of
magnitudes when sinusoidal voltage
voltage instantaneous the waveform
270°.
peak of is
zero. or can Wave motion. Paper
sine of
value waveform
the
value, the be is
only all (VM) waveform
to wave quantity proportional I
the negative
=
used values
for wave.
the ;
Therefore,
is for 1.414.
values or
comparing Basic
samne voltage
called a for crosses
half. current through value'.
(current
peak. either is Electricity
in at
its the to
this the
 41
AC Fundamentals and Circuits

ac
Power = I'R =Y, Unless indicated otherwise, all sine-wave
R
supply is 230V ac,
measurements are in rms values. If mains
Vms = 230V.
Form factor = rms value / average value = 1.11

Other Important Terms :

second is called
Frequency ()- The number of cycles per
frequency'(). Unit : Hertz (Hz) or cycles/second.
1kilohertz (kHz) = 10 Hz
1megahertz (MHz) = 106 Hz
1gigahertz (GHz) = 10 Hz
1terahertz (THz) = 1012 Hz
USA the frequency of
In India, ac power line frequency is 50 Hz. In
power supply is 60 Hz.
called period' or
Period (T)- The amount of time for one cycle is
'periodic time' (T) S.I. unit:second
T=
f

1millisecond (ms) = 10s

1microsecond (us) = 10s
1nanosecond (ns) = 10s
1picosecond (ps) = 102s
Wavelength ()- The distance travelled by a wave in one cycle is
called wavelength (2). S.I. unit : metre (m)
2 = Velocity / frequency
is
For electromagnetic radio waves, the velocity in air or vacuum
3x 10 m/s, which is the speed of light.
2.5 Phase Angle
Phase is an idea of timne relationship between two alternating
quantities like voltages or currents. In a sine wave the instantaneous
value of voltage or current depends on the angle of rotation of the
rotating loop. This angle is called phase angle(0).
In order to compare the phase angle between two waves, they must
frequency.
variations.
If
twotwethe alternating
sine The quantity.
the phasor.
for Here
through
two time, 'out
of
phase' direction
indicates the and Thelagging
direction.
If shown. times,
lead shown.
reference
alternating (6)
Phasor
diagram
have reference.
sine
wave samepass of to is
and axis positive are different A phase
thenot phases said are wave (b)
Phasor
diagram
waves. said
to
be magnitudehorizontal 0° A phase
have of at do the the of is of
waves compare is the angle at earlier figure, out
pointpoint of wavespoint of
musttwo magnitudeaxisis out
90
90
a thattheare has the rotationwith phase point
reference 90°
the wavefor
the as to horizontal
they If theyto that In
for amplitude
through
phase'.used respect phase In
waveforms
reference phase'.B
Also,different time, quantity Anticlockwise Wave
B 360°t
’
the : the 90º.
be indicates in Fig.2.2 voltage
pass withthe through 'quadrature
by
zero 'in samecan waves thelag.voltageleading
be be
compared a arrow Generally, (a)
Wave
forms through
to the diagrams
is to Two
can take said phasor
arrow 0°. twothe pass said Wave
A (4)
Waveforms
we at amplitudes
add. two is :
amplitudes
same the to fig.(2.2), waves is called
B 2.3
are point corresponding passes Fig.(2.3) 1800
",
Suppose
being Phasor A theof angle. wave wave Fig.
waveforms
the referencequantities.
of angle twothat is
waves lengthphase angles.In other angle
or V
The The If wave In 90°
the 90° by
 43
Circuits
AC Fundamentals and
angle of 180° are
shown.
waves out of phase with
In Fig.(2.4) two waveforms are exactly out of
phase.
phase, or the
This means opposite
Equal values of opposite phase cancel each other.
B

t
V

(b) Phasor diagram

(a) Waveforms
phase with angle of 180
Fig. 2.4 : Two waves out of
and Phase
2.6 The Time Factor in Frequency
time factor is involved in both frequency and phase. As an
The see that a waveform with
involves time, we can
example how frequency clock reference for
electronic equipment as
stable frequency is used in Therefore, a clock that
very small units of time.For f= 1 kHz, T = ms.
can be
1 ms units is available. Even smaller units of time
measures
measured with higher frequencies.
the same frequency indicates
The phase angle between twO waves of can be
specific difference in time. The time for a phase angle
a
calculated as
1
t= X
360 f

where f is frequency in Hz,

seconds.
6 is phase angle in degrees and t is in
For example, if 0-30° with f = 50 Hz,
t =
30
X
1_1 1_1
360 50 12 50 600

2.7 Non-sinusoidal AC Waveforms

In many electronic applications along with sine waves, other
waveshapes are also important. Any waveform that is not a sine or
cosine wave is a non-sinusoidal waveform. For example - square wave,
sawtooth wave, triangular wave etc.
Electricity same maximum waveshapes
waveforms.
waveforms.
angular time
horizontalor symmetrical,
-waveforms voltage
the - as
waveforms Wave
Basic having the
as known
waveforms voltage. Rectangular
non-sinusoidal
non-sinusoidalfor
non-sinusoidal of Wave
" to fig.(2.5).
is used pulses
I non-sinusoidal axis not Square
Paper points direction. voltages. non-sinusoidal It
signal.
switching (a)
Sawtooth
Wave waveforms.
peaks. are
zero is
non-sinusoidal shows Symmetrical Unsymmetrical
Electronicstwo in It half-cycles
the ac forunsymmetrical
for shown rampchange.
samecycle. representspecified
between for
specified
as fig.(2.5)(c) ac
from used
and as a Nonsinusoida
the one used called (b)
measured and to them
of
be negative (c)
sinusoidalfor value.
in is
sinusoidal apply rate
measured waveforms not not can in
time
varying amplitude
have is for also waveform
time. t’
is constantsignal
negative valuenotused is and t
the is canmeasure waveform CRT. in :
Fig.2.5
between amplitude between
is andis of rmsdo not wave positive
or
periodor types 1.
amplitude
cycle
Peak-to-peak
they angles itsin rectangular amplitude
is
Therefore, of system
positive because
Angular measure square
Similarities Peak Both Differences Phase
Sawtooth
because The
The The
deflection
2. 3. 4. TheThecurrent.
in
1. 2. 3. base either +5 ‘vo -5 +5
44 -5 +7.5 2.5
-
 power current
Thesource, dc
it down (dc)
a or time Waveforms
direction. of steady or
voltage Unidirectional transformers.
using
by for
ac characteristicsDC
50-Hz Voltage up
voltage steppedvoltages
dc.
are measure.
amplifiers
fixed. be
in the The can (b) (b)
reverses change.
may
Magnitude
of terminal. DC
source. isPolarity be Electrodeto :Fig.2.6
direction. Cannot
terminal the and Easier
periodically are voltage
voltage +V
positive voltage 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
negative one
by (ac)
just D.C. AC half down input
the applied amplifiers. time Waveforms
(ac) has steady of two
the to example. Comparison or signal
current
fromback (dc)
of a AC in
Voltage changes
2. up transformers.
Magnitude using amplify.
is
polarity
circuit, current
changes steppedas for (a)
DC is common battery continuously.
usedoutput :Waveform
6. (a)
Alternating
and flow to :Fig.2.6
the Polarity be be Easier
fixed
Direct A cycles.
AC electronthrough
a circuit. Can Can and
is
2.8 line and 1. 3. 4. 5.
 frequency of the the
Solution Problem 150 V
SolutionProblem same
Problem average
SolutionProblem
Solution
V.
of How frequency
value
: () 4: (iv) (iii) (ii) : 3 : 2: 1:
Instantaneous (i) much : In In Vpp :
Time Calculate 1 A Wavelength A rms Average PeakPeak-to-peak and
kHz, At
At At At sine the the sound
is of voltage
210°: 90°: 60°:30°: case
delay (ii) thewave case 2 voltage 350 =Problems
the Solved
2= voltage
=
kHz. wave rms
3the v=voltage of = V
=t=. v = v =vvalue of =
MHz.time = of 10 165 a 1.5 an (
Calculate 0.707 = valuevoltage
150 150 150 voltage
2x10° Hzm/330s
sound 2x10' Hz
10°m/s 3
x ) and VM=350/2
360
150 =0.165m x
electromagnetic =0.707 =
delay of at
= =
0.637
-x! sin sin sin sin 10 Frequency an 0.637
the Velocity x ofofa
f 90° 60° voltage
30° wave m= electromagnetic
the VM the
for 210° instantvaries x x
= x VM voltage. sine
a =150 = =150 150 wavelength 175 =
phase 150 v= from 175
150 of
175 wave
km wave =
x × xVy30°, =
angle 0.8660 zero 123.73 V
x 1 0.5
= 111.48 is
(-0.5) 350V.
150
=Sin 60º, to wave
in
of 75
= =90°, a each V
= V Vmaximum V
60° -75 129.9 150 both
Calculate
at 210°? case.
the sin have
V. V
 60 1 1
() t = X

360 1000 6 1000 6000

= 1.666 x 104s = 16.66 ms.
60
(i1) t =-X

360 3 x 10 6 3x 100
= 5.555 x 10-8 s = 0.0555 us

Problem 5 : (i) Calculate the period for the frequency ofThe5

MHz. (ii) Calculate the frequency for the period of 0.8 us. (iii)
across a resistance of 25 2.
50-Hz power line voltage of 230 V is applied much D.C. voltage
How much is the rms current in the circuit? How
resistance ?
would be necessary for the same heating effect in the
1 and T =
Solution: (i) frequency = f= period(T) f

1
.:.T= = 0.2us
Sx10

(ii)f = = 125 MHz

0.8x10
230V
=9.2A
(ii1)rms current =
R 252
The rms value of an alternating sine wave corresponds to the same
for
amount of direct current or voltage in heating power. Therefore, be
the same heating effect in the resistance dc voltage necessary would
230 V.

2.9 The 50-Hz ACPower Line

wiring is
In India, the alternating voltage used for residential
230 Vms with a frequency of 50 Hz. This is called mains indicating it
is the main line for all the parallel branches for electrical equipments.
The electricity generated at the generating station can be easily
transmitted. The alternating voltage is stepped up to few kV for high
voltage transmission lines. These lines supply large amounts of power
line.
with very small current and less power loss, compared with a 230-V
At the distribution point to the homes, lower voltage is supplied by a
step-down transformer. In USA, the mains supply voltage is 120 V, with
a frequency of 60 Hz.
For residential wiring, 3 wire single phase power lines are used.
A and B are phases. Third wire is grounded neutral. In fig.(2.7),
V AN - 220 V, VaN =220 V and VaR = 440 V.
48 Electronics Paper I" Basic Electricity
This system cannot be used for 3-phase wire. Colour coding can be
used for different wires. This is called the Edison System.
The neutral wire is grounded at the service entrance to a water pipe
or ametal rod driven into the earth. The purpose of grounding is safety
against electric shock. Switches and füses are always in the phase lines.
A

220 V

N 440 V

220 V
B

Fig.2.7 : Three wire single phase power lines.