Circular Economy and Sustainability

https://doi.org/10.1007/s43615-021-00033-0

REVIEW

Green Roofs Towards Circular and Resilient Cities

Cristina S. C. Calheiros 1 & Alexandros I. Stefanakis

2

Received: 9 February 2021 / Accepted: 16 March 2021/

# The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

Abstract
Green roofs are gaining interest as nature-based solutions (NBS) to counteract with
several environmental and socio-economic problems associated to urban sprawl and
climate change. The challenge is to transform the built environment through the inclusion
of NBS. Taking advantage of the existing space in the top of the buildings, the integration
of green roofs will support the cities’ transition towards circularity and resilience. They
provide several ecosystem services and can act as multifunctional and decentralized units.
In order to boost these services, green roofs need to be effectively incorporated and
replicated in the urban landscape. Different configuration of systems may be considered
depending on the challenges that the city foresees. To fully implement green roofs, it is
important that (i) barriers are identified and overcome, (ii) standardization is set to grant
liability, (iii) policies, incentives, and strategies are properly established, (iv) organiza-
tions delivering NBS services are leveraged, and (v) awareness and dissemination
promotion, as investment in education, are considered. This paper intends to give an
overview of the importance of green roof integration in the urban environment consid-
ering the dimensions of the building and the city, having underlined their contribution to
circularity and cities’ resilience.

Keywords Nature-based solutions . Ecosystem services . Circular economy . Roof gardens .

Urbanization . Sustainable development

Introduction

Urban settlements are of great importance in the context of global development since they
house 55% of the world’s population, being projected by 2050 an increase to 68% [1]. The

* Cristina S. C. Calheiros
[email protected]

1
Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of
Porto, Novo Edifício do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de
Matos, S/N 4450-208, Matosinhos, Portugal
2
School of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Crete, GR73100 Chania, Greece
 Circular Economy and Sustainability

urban settlements include cities, towns, and suburbs, and are intimately connected with
surrounding rural areas. The well-being of future generations in cities will be dictated in part
by the level of urbanization that they precede [2]. Urbanization is closely related with the
spatial distribution of the world’s population, being one of the four demographic mega trends,
i.e., growth of the global population, population aging, and international migration [1]. For
instance, while population is expected to continue to grow exponentially across most of the
globe, this is less seen in Europe [2].
The sustainable development of urban settlements depends increasingly on the successful
management of their growth, in order to maximize the benefits for the agglomeration while
minimizing the environmental degradation and other potential adverse impacts [1]. This must
be achieved in order to lessen the environmental pressure beyond the city boundaries
concerning water and energy provision, and food security, among other services, for urban
populations [2]. Urban sprawl may lead to, but not limited to, increased soil impermeability,
changes in hydraulic regimes and nutrient availability, increases in abiotic stressors (e.g., air
pollution), habitat fragmentation, and biodiversity and ecosystem service loss [3, 4], since
other social and economic repercussion may be sparked.
A transformation of the urban systems is needed to address the actual challenges and
involve decision-makers, municipalities, businesses, other stakeholders, and society. For
example, the Driving Urban Transitions Towards a Sustainable Future (DUT) partnership
addresses a set of urban challenges through an integrated approach, joining research, innova-
tion, and actions, in order to build capacities to support the urban transition. Further on, it
intends to contribute to boosting the impact of global policies related to the United Nations
(UN) Agenda 2030, the Green Deal, The Paris Agreement, and the Urban Agenda for the
European Union (EU). Four priority themes have been identified of needing of action to
support urban transitions: (i) digital transitions in urban governance, (ii) from urban resilience
to robustness, (iii) sustainable land-use and urban infrastructures, and (iv) inclusive public
spaces. From these themes, sectorial priorities were established concerning (i) urban energy
transitions through positive energy districts, (ii) urban mobility transitions through accessibility
and connectivity, and (iii) urban greening through nature-based solutions (NBS) and circular
economies [5]. Another example is the recently launched New European Bauhaus initiative
that “is an environmental, economic and cultural project, aiming to combine design, sustain-
ability, accessibility, affordability and investment in order to help deliver the European Green
Deal.” The core values are sustainability, esthetics, and inclusiveness that support an innova-
tive co-design process to find solutions for actual problems and concerns, through a
multisectoral participatory approach [6].
Achieving inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable cities is a global goal. The importance
of urban resilience has been specifically emphasized by ICLEI [7] as “the ability of cities to
anticipate, prevent, absorb and recover from shocks and stresses, and to improve essential
basic response structures and functions, while integrating the different aspects of urbanization,
sustainability, development, and climate change.” This concept, associated to the transition
towards a circular economy, strengthens the mentioned global goal. It has also been referred by
Noll [5] in relation to the European Partnership, under Horizon DUT, that the “circular in cities
involves the pattern by which resources and materials are shared and transported” as waste is
no longer considered disposable but rather as a resource. Having that in consideration, there is
a close linkage between mobility, infrastructures, and land use. Gravagnuolo et al. [8]
highlighted the main criteria and indicators towards a circular city assessment framework,
underlining the existence of an open field of research related to the urban metabolism
Circular Economy and Sustainability

assessment and circular cities. The term urban metabolism is a concept in which “the city is
analyzed using the biological notion referring to the internal processes by which living
organisms maintain a continuous exchange of matter and energy with their environment to
enable operation, growth and reproduction” [9]. A sustainable built environment is, thus,
supported by cycles and their synergies, where the flow of resources and materials is dynamic
and has to be considered in the planning processes in cities and translated in the understanding
of urban metabolism.
When addressing specifically the built environment, where re-construction or retrofit is
usually preferable in detriment of new constructions, challenges still pose on the reuse of
building materials when evaluating the environmental benefits and impacts on logistics and
transportation [5]. This aspect is of special interest since the building-construction sector in
cities is one of the most rapidly developing in relation to circular economy, thus being a key
sector of investment. Nevertheless, there is a need to pave the way concerning the optimization
of the end-of-life of buildings materials considering the establishment of a remanufacturing
and refurbishing cycling of products and components. In this aspect, there is still a long way to
go in order to consider the whole supply chain of building components in a circular approach
that entails cities’ regeneration [8, 10].
A way to approach the actual cities’ challenges is to introduce NBS in the urban
landscape. Including NBS in the built environment can contribute to a circular economy
and, through the provision of ecosystem services, can counteract the negative impacts of
urbanization and climate change mitigation and adaptation. This can occur at three
different levels: (i) green building materials, (ii) green building systems, and (iii) green
building sites [11]. In this context, green roofs are an example of NBS that can be
implemented at a building scale, facing different challenges when applied in new or
existing buildings. This paper aims at giving an overview of the approaches to integrate
green roofs as NBS concepts in cities and of their main contributions towards circularity
and resilience of the built environment. The analysis highlights the green roofs framework
and underlying concepts, as well as the way to integrate them and the services they deliver
in the urban environment. Furthermore, their role is emphasized towards circular and
resilient cities.

Methodology

Theoretical Framework and Review Rationale

This comprehensive literature review was based upon peer-reviewed journal articles, guide-
lines, manuals, books, and websites that supported a holistic approach to address the different
dimensions of green roofs and their relevance towards circular and resilient cities. The
following research questions were used to guide this literature review:

What are the concepts underlying the green roofs technology?

How can green roofs be integrated in urban planning?
What are the main drivers to enable and promote the green roofs in cities?

Considering the abovementioned research questions, the present review was structured as
follows:
 Circular Economy and Sustainability

& The framework concerning the integration of NBS and green infrastructures in cities was
examined, with emphasis on green roofs, based on UN and EU trends (the “Nature-Based
Solutions in Cities: Green Roofs” section).
& The typologies of green roofs were characterized based on guidelines and review ap-
proaches (the “Build-up Engineered Ecosystems” section).
& The contribution of green roofs to cities was reviewed, taken in consideration the buildings
retrofitting, the ecosystem services delivered, and the nexus of Water-Energy-Materials-
Food-Ecosystem that they comprise (the “Green Roofs Contribution to the Cities” section).
& The main considerations were highlighted based on the review carried out underpinning
the relevance of green roofs to circularity and cities resilience (the “Conclusions” section).

Nature-Based Solutions in Cities: Green Roofs

Cities’ engagement towards sustainability is supported by the New Urban Agenda and the
2030 Sustainable Development Goals [2]. It is envisaged by the New Agenda that cities and
human settlements will “Protect, conserve, restore and promote their ecosystems, water,
natural habitats and biodiversity, minimize their environmental impact and change to sustain-
able consumption and production patterns” [12]. Emphasizing the threats to biodiversity loss
and ecosystem services decay, McDonald et al. [13] proposed to counteract these trends by (1)
considering ecosystem services as an urban utility so cities can structure their governance and
urban planning processes accordingly, ( 2) establishing efforts, such as local-level solutions, to
protect specific biodiversity hotspots under urbanization pressure, and (3) promoting interna-
tional collaboration and coordination towards urban sustainability. For that, the integration of
NBS and green infrastructures (GI) in cities is of outmost importance towards re-naturing cities
and territorial resilience [14], in accordance with the EU Research and Innovation policy
agenda [15]. Moreover, the pivotal role of NBS has been acknowledged as a fundamental part
of action for climate and biodiversity as widely supported by the manifesto from the UN
Climate Action Summit [16] and the EU Green Deal [17]. Research networks are being
established to address these issues, as the COST Actions, that promote collaboration among
scientists across Europe, and beyond, catalyzing research advancements and innovation. For
example, the EU-funded COST Action CA17133 deals with Circular City “Implementing
nature-based solutions for creating a resourceful circular city” (https://circular-city.eu; [18]).
NBS may be considered “solutions that are inspired and supported by nature, which are
cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help
build resilience” [14]. Further on, they can integrate a GI that is “a strategically planned
network of natural and semi-natural areas with other environmental features designed and
managed to deliver a wide range of ecosystem services” [19]. A GI-led design approach would
meet the cities’ needs towards the establishment of a network of healthy and attractive new and
retrofitted environments, allowing the linkage between the existence GI and strengthen the city
resilience to urban pressures [14, 20, 21]. Also, the Sponge City concept, that is already in
action, promotes these ideas, as the intention is to establish “an urban environment that is
devoted to finding ecologically suitable alternatives to transform urban infrastructures into
green infrastructures so these could capture, control and reuse precipitation in a useful,
ecologically sound way” [22].
Green roofs are considered an example of NBS that provide ecosystem services and
functions to different extents [23, 24]. When they are incorporated and replicated in the city,
Circular Economy and Sustainability

together with other NBS, as decentralized systems, the effect of their services and functions is
boosted. The opportunity to spark a transformation in the cities is to consider them as a living
organism [9]. Therefore, in order to have an integrated approach with a holistic view, the
interactions between the green and grey infrastructures should be considered. It is envisaged
that green solutions are disseminated in, on, and around the buildings, at different scales
(building, neighborhood, and city). Furthermore, the urban landscape will fit for the future
when combining biology and technology towards human well-being and safety and consider
the territories as a continuum of fluxes (Fig. 1). Buildings with this approach are no longer
static city elements, but instead are dynamic and interactive elements with their surroundings
and inhabitants.
Although green roofs have a long history, only recently, they have been considered
engineered ecosystems, designed based on scientific knowledge and supported in technical
guidelines and standards. They are by definition systems that are installed on a constructed
structure and comprise vegetation planted over a substrate followed by different layers,
depending on the type of green roof [23, 25–27].

Build-up Engineered Ecosystems

As mentioned above, green roofs are NBS, also known as vegetated roofs, eco-roofs, or living
roofs, that comprise an engineered system with different layers. These systems include flows
of energy, water, nutrients, and very specific organisms that are not normally quantified and
are not properly valued [25, 27]. They can be classified, according to standard guidelines [28],
as being intensive, semi-intensive, and extensive, depending on their structural composition
and maintenance specifications (Table 1; Fig. 2).
In intensive green roofs, it is possible to find a wide variety of plant species, from grasses
and small shrubs to trees, supported on substrate thicknesses normally greater than 25 cm,
although the topography will vary according to the design. Maintenance needs are identical to
a garden with respect to fertilization, irrigation, and plant accommodation. They are accessible
to the public, performing functions of leisure areas and social interaction. The implementation
and maintenance costs are higher when compared to an extensive green roof. On the other
hand, extensive green roofs are characterized by plant species, such, herbs, grasses, aromatic

Fig. 1 Integration of nature-based solutions in the built environment

 Circular Economy and Sustainability

Table 1 Comparison between the different classifications of green roofs (adapted from [29])

Criteria Types of green roofs

Intensive green roof Semi-intensive green Extensive green roof

roof

Maintenance High Periodic/moderate Low

Substrate layer >25 cm 15–25 cm 8–15 cm
Vegetation Trees, shrubs, lawn Grass-herbs, shrubs Succulent (sedum), mosses, grass
Weight of the >350 kg/m2 150–350 kg/m2 80–180 kg/m2
system (3.43 kN/m2) (1.47–3.43 kN/m2) (0.59–1.77 kN/m2)
Accessibility In general, without Limited stepping No stepping, unless for
limitation maintenance

plants, mosses, and succulents (such as Sedum), set on a substrate layer of 8–15-cm thickness.
They require low maintenance as low watering input. They are usually not accessible to the
public. Concerning the costs of implementation and maintenance, these are much lower when
compared to the other categories. Finally, semi-intensive green roofs are characterized by
small plants such as shrubs and grass, supported by a layer of substrate typically varying
between 15 and 25 cm. They are able to perform multiple functions, with areas of gardens and
the possibility of public access. They require less maintenance than intensive ones, although it
should be performed on a regular basis [25, 29].
Other types of green roofs are also widely applied, such as the biosolar roof; the major
advantage of which is to provide renewable energy through photovoltaic panels, in combina-
tion with the other benefits provided by the plants and subsequent generated ecosystem. The
vegetation allows additional performance benefits for the panels [30, 31]. The blue-green roofs
are another variation, wherein a roof structure vegetation is combined with elements of
stormwater management, in order to promote the increase of both volume of stored water
and amount of water release [32]. The biodiverse roofs are designed to house a higher
biodiversity, in terms of fauna and flora, than the conventional categories of green roofs. They
comprise different substrate thicknesses and may have structural elements to provide habitat
and shelter for different species [33]. Cities like Toronto created their own guidelines for
promotion of this type of green roof [34]. Brown roofs were initially thought as a self-
colonization spot, where seeds would be brought, through the wind and birds, and were left
as in a brownfield. The substrate was based on crushed concrete. The promoters of this concept

Fig. 2 Typical green roof cross-sectional layers and classification (not to scale)
Circular Economy and Sustainability

have now put it aside due to its poor value in terms of storing and providing water, besides the
unwanted vegetation that may appear and it can either give the impression of an unkempt
system or it can damage the roof (https://livingroofs.org/biodiversity-and-wildlife). The use of
rooftops for urban agriculture (productive green roofs) is also gaining interest to facilitate local
agricultural sustainability in urban areas, besides other social-economic benefits [35].
The components that in general integrate a green roof are those that set on the constructed
structure, already waterproofed; some of these components may coincide with the same
product and have different positions. Main components that integrate a green roof system
are vegetation, substrate, irrigation system (specially for regions with long dry periods), filter
layer, drainage layer, protection layer, and roofing membranes, resting on an insulated
structure (Fig. 2) [23, 28]. These components typically exist on multilayer green roofs, some
of which can be omitted on classic green roofs, such as the filter layer. Also, it can be
considered an inverted roof, also referred to as “upside down” roof, that is characterized by
a reverse arrangement of certain layers. This means that the thermal insulation layer is above
the waterproofing, meaning that the waterproofing is applied directly onto the load-bearing
roof structure. It is important to acknowledge the functions and purposes of each layer in order
to properly design the green roof and meet the expectations. The local climatic conditions must
also be taken in consideration to achieve the optimum results. The phase of green roof concept
is crucial to have a cost-effective system, with selected materials following a circular approach
that have an adequate weight for the building in question. Briefly, the main layers comprising a
green roof are [23, 28]:

& Vegetation: It is considered the first (top) layer of the roof, set on a technical substrate. The
selection of plant species should consider the type of green roof envisaged, the ecosystem
services that should be provided, the climatic conditions, and the irrigation requirements.
The plants are the most visible part of the green roof and act as an important indicator of
the health and operational status of the system. Further on, plants have an important role in
relation to biodiversity promotion below and above the ground (rooting system), besides
providing protection against substrate erosion and reflecting part of the solar radiation.
& Irrigation system: this component is of outmost importance, especially when facing with
the unpredictability of climate change and in regions where long periods without precip-
itation are expected. An irrigation plan may be outlined, although the use of water should
be kept to a minimum and when strictly necessary, aiming at a proper and efficient water
management. During the plant rooting phase, more water input is usually required, while
afterwards the water demand decreases dramatically.
& Substrate or technical media: the substrate acts as the support for plants and houses the
biodiversity (microfauna and macrofauna) associated to the green roof system. Provides
also water and nutrients. The substrate characteristics will vary according to the green roof
design and technical specifications established for an efficient system operation, namely
regarding water storage and drainage, thermal insulation, and proper conditions for plant
development. Usually, a technical/commercial substrate provided by a certified supplier is
adequate for this purpose, being tailor-made for green roof application, with performance
guarantee. They are special mixtures of light materials, composed mainly of mineral
components, with an organic content adequate to either extensive or intensive categories.
The use of soil is not suitable, in general, due to problems related with compaction;
hydraulics constraints; clog of the filter layer; and presence of propagules, seeds, or parts
of weed species with high maintenance costs to control. Soil can be used in some cases,
 Circular Economy and Sustainability

when the intensive green roof is setup according to the classic model, but still with high
restrictions and following the standard guidelines (https://www.greenroofs.pt/en/faq
accessed on: 28/01/21).
& Filter layer: also known as a filter sheet or separation layer, geotextile-based, is manly
designed to prevent substrate particles of being washed into the drainage layer and
consequently clog it.
& Drainage layer: This layer follows the filter membrane and intends to drain the excess
water from the substrate so it does not get waterlogged. That way, it prevents the substrate
from becoming saturated, keeping humidity stable, and contributing to sustaining a healthy
microfauna population. This layer often is made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE),
polystyrene, or lightweight expanded clay. There has been an effort to bring to the market
more ecological solutions, such as the one made of waste generated by collecting and
subsequently processing cork, insulation cork board (ICB) (technical panel GUL - green
urban living), having shown the potential to replace the polyolefin reference product [36].
& Protection layer: this layer protects against mechanical damage acting as waterproofing
and insulation of the green roof, usually made of polyurethane and rubber. On inverted
roofs, the protection layer is made by extruded polystyrene (XPS) that is installed because
of the thermal insulation.
& Roofing membrane: this membrane sets the physical separation between the layer above
and the structural supports below. If a specific layer has not been introduced before, in the
upper layers, it can act as an impermeable membrane with anti-root characteristics.

Green Roofs Contribution to the Cities

Retrofitting: Long Live the Roof

Green roofs can be a solution that triggers a shift in urban context concerning the use of
available space in the top of the buildings, since 40 to 50% of the impermeable surface area, in
most developed cities, is attributed to the roofs [37]. The retrofitting of existing buildings with
green roofs is of paramount importance, not only to counteract with the impermeability
negative effects but also because they are also responsible, to a certain extent, for carbon
emissions. For instance, 45% of all carbon emissions in the UK come from existing buildings
(e.g., appliances, heating), and it is predicted that 87% of all those buildings will still be
operational in 2050 [38]. The environmental impacts can be reduced by between 1.0 and 5.3%
if a common flat roof is replaced by a green roof [39]. The retrofitting of buildings with green
roofs can thus be seen as a way to reduce the carbon footprint, the environmental impact of the
built environment, and the climate change effects.
Not all buildings are suitable for retrofitting; of special concern are the historical buildings
which are required to go through a thorough evaluation [40]. It is important to consider in new
buildings the inclusion of green roofs already in the design stage, so that their structural
integrity is taken in account. Recently, the development of more sustainable green roofs gains
interest, that encompass a different design solution, with a careful selection of the build-up
materials and components towards a circular economy, since green products/materials are not
inherently sustainable. For this, materials should be locally supplied (in terms of their origin
and supplier company), if possible, to be reused, recycled, or compatible to biological cycles,
with the least embedded non-renewable energy, assuring durability and meeting the standard
Circular Economy and Sustainability

requirements for structural integrity of the system [12]. Products/materials should be designed
and conceived differently if a pad to circularity is taken. The promotion of circularity
principles throughout the lifecycle of buildings is thus embedded in the Circular Economy
Action Plan, when referring to the key product value chains of construction and buildings, and
envisaged in the new comprehensive Strategy for a Sustainable Built Environment [41]. The
role of green roofs in the urban Water-Energy-Food-Ecosystem nexus has been addressed [42],
but is of most importance to consider another component, i.e., the materials. The nexus of
Water-Energy-Materials-Food-Ecosystem fosters the relevance of circular economy associated
to the building materials and their life expectancy and end-of-life use.
In general, green roofs have longer lifetime than conventional/exposed roofs due to the
reduction of exposure of the roof membrane. The green roof system can thus protect the
membrane (i) from mechanical damage (e.g., direct stepping and dirt), (ii) from solar radiation
(e.g., as much as 87% can be shield of solar radiation while a conventional roof receives 100%
direct exposure), and (iii) by buffering the temperature extremes during the day (minimizing
the damage of daily expansion and contraction of the roof materials) [43, 44]. The green roof
life span in countries with technical standards for their construction is expected to have the
same duration with the building’s waterproofing (30 to 40 years). They may have an expected
increase of life span up to 40 years when compared to conventional roofs (20 years). This leads
also to less frequent roof replacements and less intensive operational actions during the
building’s life, consequently reducing the future maintenance and associated costs [40, 44].
For example, Berlin is a city with green roofs reaching approximately 100 years in age [45].
When considering a roof building retrofit, it is critical to assess the building structural
bearing capacity in order to evaluate what type of green roof can be accommodated or not. The
load-bearing capacity of the roof structure together with the structural capacity of the building
and its age will determine the type of vegetation, substrate depth, and construction methods to
be adopted [39]. According to Wilkinson and Dixon [40], structural and physical suitability of
a green roof retrofit must consider (1) roof structure and covering typologies, (2) available
space, (3) structural capacity, (4) waterproofing membranes and insulation, (5) drainage, (6)
heritage, (7) green roof access, (8) how to determine which green roof type is best suited to
different structures, and (10) access for maintenance.

Green Roofs Beyond Esthetics

As manmade systems, green roofs cannot be mistaken as natural, but once established, they
develop interconnections and gain life of their own. At a first glance, the green roofs esthetic
potential may be perceived to what one might experience looking upon any garden, although
this is limited and not representing the total esthetic benefits of green roofs [24]. Sutton [24]
emphasized three categories of beauty: enjoyable beauty, admirable beauty, and ecological
beauty, whereas even ecological esthetic guidelines applied to green roofs have also been
proposed. An ecological approach to beauty goes beyond the superficial characteristics and
emerges in “unseen forms and processes, deeply and holistically engaging our personal
experience.” The green roof esthetic element is the most intangible benefit, although it is
relevant to engage the client/user not just for the visual component but to educate him/her
about the nature dynamics, ecological dimension, and roof metamorphoses, while awakening
other human senses [24].
A green roof, besides having a relevant esthetic component in terms of human visual
perception, should also be integrated in the landscape, especially in city centers and where
 Circular Economy and Sustainability

historical buildings need to be taken into consideration. When addressing intensive green
roofs, the connection to leisure areas is an invitation to connect with nature within the built
environment (Fig. 3).
Beyond esthetics, green roof provides an array of benefits and ecosystem services that can
be briefly summarized in stormwater retention to reduce peak flow and runoff, water quality
improvement for water utilization, thermal benefits to improve the microclimate and reduce the
energy costs within the buildings, urban heat island effect mitigation, air cleaning for easy
comfort in urban areas, and ecological and socio-economic benefits [26, 29]. Green roofs are
also being increasingly considered for urban food production, especially after the recent novel
coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic crisis that led cities to think about the population
demand for food, the dependence on imports, and the impact of unpredicted food supply
chains disruptions [46].

Green Roofs as Integrated Solutions

Green roofs are integrated solutions combining the existing knowledge, empowering multiple
functions, and providing a panoply of ecosystem services. Green roofs system conception may
fit on the permaculture basis that intends to be “a system of assembling conceptual, material,
and strategical components in a pattern which functions to benefit life in all its forms” [47].
Permaculture strategies focus on the opportunities, rather than the obstacles, following the
dynamics of natural systems and mimic features to achieve higher resilience, sustainability,
and productivity. For that, working with nature rather against it is a permaculture’s intrinsic
principle. The observation of natural systems is the inspirational platform for the creation of
regenerative systems, where each element plays many functions. The core of permacultures is
design. When designing for a site, the following components should be taken into consider-
ation: site components (e.g., water, earth, landscape, climate, plants), energy components (e.g.,
technologies, structures, sources, connections), social components (e.g., legal aids, people,
culture, trade, and finance), and abstract components (e.g., timing, data, ethics) [47].
Mollison and Slay [48] enumerated the design principles in permaculture that embrace
various disciplines and can be used as a tool to combine all separated parts of the design into a
functional and synergistic system. These principles are applied when making decisions about
the landscape at different scales:

& Relative location: the location of every element (e.g., house, pond) is considered in relation
to how they can assist each other. This approach highlights the connection between

Fig. 3 Green roof located in Porto, Portugal, in the context of the building and city integration
Circular Economy and Sustainability

elements in the sense of how they benefit from each other, being thus possible to determine
the optimum location for them. The inputs and outputs of the elements are considered so
that a circular relationship is established;
& Each element performs several functions: identify, through functional analysis, as much as
more functions as possible for each element, allowing for the maximization of the design
efficiency;
& Each relevant function is supported by many elements: identify the critical functions of the
system (e.g., water, food, energy), and ensure that they are supported in two or more ways.
With this approach, a resilient design is set, and it is assured that critical functions will
continue if an element from the system fails;
& Efficient energy planning: it is based on the principle of zones and sectors where placing
the elements in a carefully planned way into the design will allow for an efficient energy
use;
& Use of biological resources: aims at the use of biological resources (e.g., plants and
animals) in a way oriented for energy and materials recycling, to determine the sustain-
ability of the system;
& Energy cycling: it focuses on the promotion of cycling to increase the yield, through
capturing, storing, and using energy and nutrients onsite and so to perpetuate life;
& Small scale intensive systems: the intention is to have systems managed with less
resources, energy efficient, and at the same time reaching maximum productivity;
& Accelerating succession and evolution: using and accelerating natural plant succession to
establish favorable sites and soils;
& Diversity: a productive and interactive system may be sustained by a polyculture and
diversity of beneficial species. The focus is not on the number of different elements within
the system but rather their functional connections. The stability of a system is not dictated
by diversity but instead by multiple functions where the resources development is en-
hanced, and self-regulation is sustained;
& Edge effect: by taking advantage of the edge effect, it is possible to increase the produc-
tivity and yields of a system. This concept refers to a higher diversity that exists in the
region where edges of two ecosystems overlap and share resources;
& Attitudinal principles: these principles are people-focused, related to the designer attitude
towards the system being conceived, such as working with nature.

Reports are scarce related to the application of permaculture to green roofs, such as the
roof top analysis that was undertaken (as an area for the development of permaculture
design) in Shiraz in order to become a Garden City, through roof gardening [49].
However, for other NBS such as constructed wetlands, more detailed information is found,
e.g., the work by Abrahams et al. [50], where a wetland was created for wastewater
purification, biomass production, flood resilience, and biodiversity enhancement, and by
Stefanakis [51, 52] where an industrial effluent is described for wastewater purification,
effluent reuse in irrigation of commercial plants, and reed biomass exploitation for
compost production and biogas production. Calheiros et al. [53] did not go deep into to
the subject but highlighted the importance and contribution of permaculture when design-
ing constructed wetland systems.
Overall, green roofs can be considered interfaces for energy and resource exchange
between a constructed structure and the environment. They are integrated solutions that need
an interdisciplinary framework [25].
 Circular Economy and Sustainability

Green Roof Inclusion in Cities

Human health and well-being are positively influenced by nature, as entailed in the biophilic
concept that expresses the innate affinity that human beings have with nature. To bring nature
into the city, actions must be taken, through the creation of more natural systems in the city
sites and on the buildings (e.g., green roofs and façades). Singapore is an example that
illustrates that densely populated cities, highly urbanized, are able to work with nature and
take into consideration the biophilic urbanism [21]. This territory was able to achieve that,
establishing a strong commitment to innovation in urban planning, where regulations and
strategies were set [53]. Green roofs have been considered part of a green strategy to provide
ecosystem services and also the best management practice to mitigate the adverse effects of
urbanization and contribute to climate change adaptation and mitigation [25, 26, 29], although
there are still constraints associated to the building life cycle process (i.e., planning and
design), and the construction and operation and management stages [54]. For green roof
inclusion in cities, it is thus important to (1) identify and overcome barriers, (2) set guidelines
and standardization, (3) establish policies, incentives, and strategies, (4) leverage organizations
delivering NBS services, and (5) promote awareness, dissemination, and investment in
education. In more detail:

1. Identify and overcome barriers: the main barriers associated to the green roof installation
have been highlighted by Li and Yeung [55]: (i) possibility to increase the costs
concerning design, construction, and maintenance, (ii) lack of incentive from the govern-
ment towards developers and owners of existing buildings, (iii) technical difficulties
during the design and construction process, (iv) the age of existing building, (v) poor
structural integrity of the building to deal with green roof loading, (vi) lack of awareness
about green roofs in public and private sectors, and (vii) lack of promotion from the
government side among the public and private sectors.
2. Guidelines and standardization: to build trust in green roof systems, it is important to
guarantee a scientific knowledge–based approach and assurance of the best practices.
Guidelines and standardization support the general principles and requirements for plan-
ning, design, execution, and maintenance aligned with the best practices. Several technical
guides, guidelines, manuals, and codes for green roof implementation have been issued
with general orientations or are focusing on a specific climate or country that allows for
setting a platform for green roof inclusion in cities [23].
3. Establish policies, incentives, and strategies: The success of implementation and
adoption of NBS, and in particular green roofs, will be dictated by the investment
made on the policies, incentives, and strategies by the government. According to Ngan
[56], green roof policies and incentives can fall into four categories: (i) direct financial
incentives, (ii) indirect financial incentives, (iii) ecological compensation measures,
and (iv) integration into development regulations. Strategies for green roof inclusion
can be envisaged at a city or country scale or considering a broader scale, e.g., the
European scale, with several programs and strategic directives launched by EU, as
mentioned before [23].
4. Leverage organizations delivering NBS services: The adoption of NBS depends in part on
the market development capacity of the sector to answer the actual challenges and on
having the effective policy support measures in place. Besides that, with clear policies,
incentives, and strategies, the market will be able to deliver the solutions to match the
Circular Economy and Sustainability

needs. Kooijman et al. [57] identified two types of organizations delivering NBS products
and services: (i) nature-based enterprise (NBE), associated to an economic activity, and
(ii) nature-based organization (NBO), not associated to economic activity. The main
difference between them is that NBE “use nature as a core element of their product/
service offering for the planning, delivery, and/or stewardship of NBS and engage in
economic activity” and NBO “use nature as a core element of their product/service
offering for the planning, delivery, and/or stewardship of NBS but do not engage in
economic activity.” From their conclusions, there is a need of organizations that are able
to deliver large-scale implementation of NBS and market development. Furthermore, the
recognition of NBE as important actors to leverage NBS and to job creation is an
important dimension for NBS inclusion in cities, which also applies in particular to green
roof systems [57].
5. Promote awareness, dissemination, and invest in education: awareness and dissemination
of green roofs is of outmost importance to deliver trust and knowledge about the
technology, especially to inform about the benefits that have direct impact on the end-
users or consumers and that will support afterwards the willingness to pay for this NBS.
Furthermore, it is also important to show that besides the individual gains, there are also
benefits for the community [58]. Concerning education about green roofs, there is an
increasing need to integrate this thematic in the syllabus and curriculum of the schools and
in higher education level, and also to make tools available for teachers to develop an
interdisciplinary and creative approach. Hands-on examples will trigger the attention and
the comprehension for this technology [59].

The main drivers to green roof implementation have been identified by Zhan and He [58] as
policy pressure, market pressure, and innovation and technology. The way to include more
green roofs in the cities thus encompasses the strengthening of green roof drivers, foster
motivations, and overcome the identified barriers, through the involvement of the top players
and stakeholders (e.g., designer, engineer, constructor and builder, contractor, building oper-
ator, owner, end-user, government agent) [58].

Conclusions

The way in which the occupation of the urban territory was developed and the cities were
evolved, led to a disruption in natural flows and a series of problems associated to urban
sprawl. Green infrastructures operate at different scales and rely on nature to generate
environmental (e.g., conservation of biodiversity or adaptation to climate change), economic
(e.g., job creation and property valuation), and social (e.g., water drainage) benefits. In
addition, they play an important role in mitigating the effects of urbanization, aiming to
strengthen urban ecosystems in order to be more resilient to the challenges of climate change,
contributing to the transition to a low-carbon economy and circularity of urban metabolism.
The change of territories involves the conversion of monofunctional areas to multifunctional
areas, using nature-based solutions with the support, if necessary, of pre-existing grey infra-
structures. The inclusion of green roofs in cities is an important NBS, which provides several
ecosystem services that play a pivotal role in the Water-Energy-Materials-Food-Ecosystem
nexus. With this approach, buildings shift from a static to a dynamic and interactive status with
their surroundings and with the citizens.
 Circular Economy and Sustainability

This paper delivers an overview on how green roofs could be part of the urban metabolism
and spark a transformation towards circular and resilient cities (aligned with the UN and EU
trends); having in consideration as mainstream strategy to rethink the positioning of stake-
holders, decision-makers, enterprises, educational units, research centers, and involvement of
the society to effectively take action. The needs to understand the social, economic, and
environmental vulnerabilities to delineate strategic actions for resilience adapted to local
necessities were also highlighted. A full systematic approach providing quantitative data on
the cost-benefits of green roofs was not carried out, although this aspect is of relevance to have
supportive data on green roof technology, and it would be of interest to address it in future
publications.

Author Contribution Cristina S. C. Calheiros: Conceptualization, writing-original draft, review, and editing
Alexandros I. Stefanakis: Conceptualization, writing, and review

Funding CSC Calheiros received the support of national funds through FCT - Foundation for Science and
Technology within the scope of UIDB/04423/2020 and UIDP/04423/2020.

Data Availability Not applicable.

Code Availability Not applicable.

Declarations

Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests.

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