1.1.

DEFINITION OF LIMIT DBU

Special limit
1 − cos x • lim (1 + x) x = e
1
• lim =0 x→0
x→0 x
!mx n
k • lim √
n
=e
• lim 1+ = emk n→∞ n!
x→+∞ x s r
x
q √
1 n

• lim 1+ =e • n→∞
lim 2 2− 2+ 2 + ... + 2=π
x→+∞ x | {z
n
}
x
1 1
  x
a −1

• lim 1− = • lim = ln a, ∀a>0
x→+∞ x e x→0 x
x
x 1
   − 1
• lim = • lim 1 + a e−x − 1 x
= ea
x→+∞ x+k ek x→0

Exercise 1.3
Find the limit
 x x–1
4x tan x– sin x

6
1. lim 5. lim x3 9. lim 1 + 13. lim x+3
x→0 sin 3x x→0 x→∞ x x→∞ x–2
√ √
2. lim cos 3x– cos x
x2
6. lim 1–xcos x 10. lim x
1 + 3x
x→0 x→0+0 x→0
ln x– ln a
14. lim x–a
,
 n+5  x x→a
sin 5x– sin 3x 1 x+a
3. lim sin x 7. lim 1 + n
11. x→∞
lim x–a
x→0 n→∞
 3x  x 1
sin ax 1 x
4. lim 8. lim 1 + 12. lim . 15. lim (1 + sin x) x
x→0 sin bx x→∞ x x→∞ x+1 x→0

Solution:

1. 2. We factor the numerator:

4x
L = lim 3x–x 3x + x
sin 3x
x→0 cos 3x– cos x = –2 sin sin
3 · 4x 2 2
= lim = –2 sin x sin 2x.
x→0 3 sin 3x
4 3x
= lim This yields
3 x→0 sin 3x
4 1
= lim sin 3x cos 3x– cos x (–2 sin x sin 2x)
3 x→0 3x lim = lim
x→0 x 2 x→0 x2
lim 1
4 x→0
= . sin x sin 2x
3 lim sin3x3x = −2 lim · lim
x→0 x x→0 x
x→0
2 sin 2x
= −2 · 1 · lim
Since 3x → 0 as x → 0, we can write: 2x→0 2x
sin 2x
lim 1 = −2 · 2 lim = –4.
4 x→0 2x→0 2x
L=
3 lim sin3x3x
x→0
4 3. We use the following trigonometric iden-
=
3 lim sin3x3x tity:
3x→0
4 4
= = . x–y x+y
3·1 3 sin x– sin y = 2 sin cos .
2 2
c Dejen K. 2020 14
1.1. DEFINITION OF LIMIT DBU

Then we obtain Here

sin 5x– sin 3x 2 sin 5x–3x cos 5x+3x sin x
lim = lim 2 2 lim = 1 and lim cos x = 1.
x→0 sin x x→0 sin x x→0 x x→0
2 sin x cos 4x Hence,
= lim
x→0 sin x
= lim (2 cos 4x) . sin2 x2
x→0 L = 2 lim
x→0 x2
sin2 x2 4
!
As cos 4x is a continuous function at
x = 0, then = 2 lim ·
x→0 x2 4
2x
!
lim (2 cos 4x) = 2 lim cos 4x sin 2 1
x→0 x→0 = 2 lim x2
·
x→0 4
= 2 · cos (4 · 0) = 2 · 1 = 2. 4
1 sin2 x
4. = lim  22 .
2 x→0 x
2
sin ax
L = lim
x→0 sin bx x
! Here 2
→ 0 when x → 0 , therefore,
sin ax a bx
= lim · · 1 sin x2
!2
1 2 1
x→0 sin bx b ax L = xlim x = ·1 = .
sin ax bx a
!
2 2 →0 2
2 2
= lim · ·
x→0 ax sin bx b
6. Use the trigonometric formula:
lim sinaxax
a x→0 x
= . 1– cos x = 2sin2 .
b lim sinbxbx 2
x→0
Then the limit can be written in the form
Obviously, ax → 0 and bx → 0 as x → 0 √
. Then 1– cos x
L = lim
sin ax x→0+0 x
a lim ax a 1 a
L = x→0
q
sin bx = · = . 2sin2 x2
b lim b 1 b = lim
x→0 bx x→0+0 x
q
5. We apply the following transformations: √ sin2 x2
= 2 lim
tan x– sin x x→0+0 x
L = lim s
x→0 x3 √ sin2 x2
sin x
– sin x = 2 lim
= lim cos x 3 x→0+0 x2
x
s
x→0
 √ sin2 x2 4
sin x cos1 x –1 = 2 lim 2
·
= lim x→0+0 x 4
x3
v 
x→0
√ u sin2 x2
u
1
sin x (1– cos x) = 2 lim t x2 · √ 
= lim x→0+0 4
x→0 x3 cos x 4

sin x 1– cos x
 √ v
2 u sin2 x
u
= lim · 2 . 2
x→0 x x cos x = lim u t  2
2 x→0+0 x
As 1– cos x = 2sin2 x2 , we have v
2

2x
1 u lim sin
u
sin x 1– cos x
  u
2
L = lim · 2 =√ tx→0+0  2
x→0 x x cos x # 2 x
2
sin x 2sin2 x2
"
· 2
v"
= lim 1
u
sin x2
!#2
x→0 x x cos x = √
u
lim
t
x x
sin x sin2 x2 2 →0+0
lim · 2 lim 2 2
1 √ 2
2
x→0 x x→0 x 1
= . =√ · 1 =√ .
lim cos x
x→0 2 2

c Dejen K. 2020 15
1.1. DEFINITION OF LIMIT DBU

2a
We used here the fact that the limit re- Introduce the new variable: y = x–a
. As
mains the same when replacing x → 0 to x → ∞, y → 0 and, hence,
x
2
→0
2a 2a
x–a = , x=a+ .
7. y y
n+5
1

lim 1+ Substituting this into the function gives
n→∞ n
x
1 n
5 # 2a
" 
1
  
= lim 1+ 1+ L = lim 1+
n→∞ n n x→∞ x–a
2a

1
n 
1 5

= lim (1 + y)a+ y
= lim 1 + · lim 1 + y→0
n→∞ n n→∞ n 2a
= lim (1 + y)a · lim (1 + y) y
= e · 1 = e. y→0 y→0
2a 2a
=1·e =e .
8. By the product rule for limits, we obtain
3x
1 12. First we transform the base:

lim 1+
x→∞ x x x
 
x x x
1 1 1 L = lim
  
= lim · lim 1 +
1+ · lim 1+ x→∞ x + 1
x→∞ x x→∞ x x→∞ x 
x + 1–1 x

3
=e·e·e=e . = x→∞
lim
x+1
x
1

lim 1–
= x→∞ .
x+1
9. Substituting x6 = y1 , so that x = 6y and
1
y → ∞ as x → ∞ , we obtain Let – x+1 = y. Then x + 1 = – y1 , ⇒

6
x x = – y1 –1 and y → 0, if x → ∞. Now
lim 1+ we can find the limit:
x→∞ x
!6y x
1

1 L = lim 1–
= lim 1+ x→∞ x+1
y→∞ y 1
"
1
!y #6 = lim (1 + y)– y –1
y→0
= lim 1+ 1
y→∞ y lim (1 + y)– y
" !y #6 y→0
1 =
= y→∞
lim 1+ 6
=e . lim (1 + y)+1
y y→0
h 1 i–1
10. lim (1 + y) y
y→0
√ =
1
lim x 1 + 3x = lim (1 + 3x) x 1
–1
1

x→0 x→0 1
1 h 1 i3 = lim (1 + y) y = .
= lim (1 + 3x) 3x
·3
= lim (1 + 3x) 3x y→0 e
3x→0 3x→0
 3
1
= lim (1 + 3x) 3x = e3 . 13. We can transform this limit as follows:
3x→0
x + 3 x–1
 
11. We first transform the base of the func- L = lim
x→∞ x–2
tion: 
x–2 + 5 x–1


x+a x
 = x→∞
lim
L = lim x–2
x→∞ x–a 5 x–1
 

x–a + 2a x
 = x→∞
lim 1 +
= x→∞
lim x–2
x–a "  x–2 #
5(x–1)
x–2

2a x
 5 5

= lim 1 + . = lim 1+ .
x→∞ x–a x→∞ x–2

c Dejen K. 2020 16
1.2. CONTINUITY AND ONE SIDED CONTINUITY DBU

Replace the variable: 15. The limit can be represented in the fol-
5 5 5 lowing form:
= y, ⇒ x–2 = , ⇒ x = + 2.
x–2 y y 1
L = lim (1 + sin x) x
Here y → 0 as x → 0 . Then the limit is x→0
1 sin x
" 5(x–1)
 x–2 # x–2 = lim (1 + sin x) sin x · x
5 5 x→0
L = lim 1+ i sinx x
x→∞ x–2 h
= lim (1 + sin x) sin x
1
.
h 5
1 iy ( y +2–1)
x→0
= lim (1 + y) y
y→0 After taking logarithm, we have
h 1 i5+y
= lim (1 + y) y
1 i sinx x
!
y→0
h
1 i5 1 iy ln L = ln lim (1 + sin x) sin x
x→0
h h
= lim (1 + y) y · lim (1 + y) y
y→0 y→0 sin x h
 
1 i
h 1 i5 = lim ln (1 + sin x) sin x
= lim (1 + y) y · lim (1 + y) x→0 x
y→0 y→0 sin x  h 1 i
5
=e ·1=e . 5 = lim ·lim ln (1 + sin x) sin x .
x→0 x x→0

14. Let x–a = t . It is easy to see that t → 0 We notice that lim sinx x = 1 . Besides
x→0
as x → a . Then that, sin x → 0 as x → 0 , therefore,
ln x– ln a we can replace the transition x → 0 in
L = lim
x→a x–a the second limit with the equivalent limit
ln (t + a) – ln a sin x → 0 . This yields
= lim
t→0 t
1
ln t+a
 h i
= lim a ln L = 1 · lim ln (1 + sin x) sin x
sin x→0
t→0 t h 1 i
1 t

= ln lim (1 + sin x) sin x .
= lim ln 1 + . sin x→0
t→0 t a
1
Make one more change of variable: As lim (1 + sin x) sin x = e
sin x→0
t
= z, z → 0 as t → 0. ln L = ln e = 1.
a
Hence, the limit becomes
Thus, L = e
1 t
 
L = lim ln 1 +
t→0 t a
1
= lim ln (1 + z)
z→0 az
1 1
= lim ln (1 + z) z
a z→0
1

1
= ln lim (1 + z) z
a z→0
1 1
= ln e = .
a a

1.2 Continuity and One Sided Continuity

We are now ready to define the concept of a function being continuous. The idea is that we
want to say that a function is continuous if you can draw its graph without taking your pencil
off the page. But sometimes this will be true for some parts of a graph but not for others.
Therefore, we want to start by defining what it means for a function to be continuous at one

c Dejen K. 2020 17