Unit 2- Animal

Physiology
Chapter 3- Breathing and Gas
Exchange
How do the cells get energy?
Cells get their energy by oxidising the foods such as glucose, during the process of
respiration.

● The cells need continuous supply of oxygen from the blood. Carbon dioxide from
respiration needs to be removed from the body.
● The oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the blood and the air in the
lungs.
Respiration & Breathing
Respiration is the oxidation reaction that releases energy from foods such
as glucose.

Breathing is the mechanism that moves air into and out of the lungs,
allowing gas exchange to take place.
Structure of the Gas Exchange System
The lungs are enclosed in the chest
or thorax by the ribcage and a
muscular sheet of tissue called the
diaphragm.

The actions of ribcage and

diaphragm bring about the
movements of air into and out of the
lungs.
Structure of the Gas Exchange System
Diaphragm
- separates the contents of the thorax from the abdomen
- Not flat, but a shallow dome shape
- Fibrous middle part forming the roof of the dome
- Muscular edges forming the wall
Intercostal Muscles
- Joining each rib to the next are two sets of muscles called intercostal muscles.
❖ Internal intercostal muscles
❖ External Intercostal muscles
Air Passage into the lungs
When we breathe in, air enters our nose or mouth 1 and passes down the
trachea 2 (windpipe) . The trachea splits into two tubes called the bronchi 3
(singular Bronchus), one leading to each lung. Each bronchus divides into
smaller and smaller tubes called the bronchioles 4, eventually ending at the
microscopic air sacs called the alveoli 5(singular alveolus).

● In the alveoli, gas exchange with the blood takes place.

Bronchial Tree
The air passages of the lungs form a
highly branching network. This is why it
is sometimes called the bronchial tree.
Cartilage Rings in Trachea and Bronchi
The walls of trachea and bronchi
contain rings of gristle or cartilage.

Cartilage function

● Support the airways

● Keep the airways open when we
breathe in
Cartilage Rings in Trachea & Bronchi
● In the bronchi, cartilage forms complete,
circular rings.
● In the trachea, the rings are incomplete
and shaped like a letter C.
The open part of the ring is at the back of the
trachea, next to where the oesophagus lies as
it passes through the thorax.
When food passes along the oesophagus by
peristalsis, the gaps in the rings allow the lumps of
food to pass through more easily, without the
peristalsis wave catching on the rings.
Structure of the Gas Exchange System
The inside of the thorax is separated from the
lungs by TWO, thin moist membranes called the
pleural membranes. They make up a continuous
envelope around the lungs, forming an airtight
seal.
Between the two membranes is a space called
the pleural cavity, filled with a thin layer of liquid
called the pleural fluid. This acts as lubrication,
so that the surfaces of the lungs don’t stick to the
inside of the chest wall when we breathe.
Keeping the Airways Clean
The trachea and larger airways are lined with a layer
of cells that have an important role in keeping the
airways clean.
Some cells in this lining secretes mucus → Traps
particles of dust or bacteria that are breathed in
Other cells are covered with cilia → beat
backwards and forwards, sweeping the mucus and
trapped particles out towards the mouth
In this way,dirt and bacteria are prevented from
entering the lungs, where they might cause an
infection.
Ciliated cells in the lining of the trachea
Ventilation
Ventilation means moving air in and out of the lungs.

★ This requires a difference in pressure- the air moves from a place

where the pressure is high to one where it is low.

Ventilation depends on the fact that the thorax is an airtight cavity.

There are two movements that bring about ventilation: those of the ribs and
the diaphragm.
Breathing in (Inspiration)
- External intercostal muscles contract → Ribs move upwards &
outwards

Internal intercostal muscles relax

- Diaphragm contracts → Pulling the diaphragm down into a more

flattened shape

Both movements increase the volume of the chest and cause a slight drop
in pressure inside the thorax compared with the air outside.

● Air then enters the lungs. (INHALATION).

Breathing Out (Exhalation)
- External intercostal muscles relax
(only in deep breathing out)Internal intercostal muscles contract → Pulling the
ribs down and in
- Diaphragm muscles relax → diaphragm goes back to its normal dome shape
Volume of thorax decreases, pressure in the thorax is raised slightly above the
atmospheric pressure
Differences in pressure forces air out of the lungs
● Exhalation is helped by the fact that the lungs are elastic, so that they have a
tendency to collapse and empty like a balloon.
Note
During normal shallow breathing, the elasticity of the lungs and the weight
of the ribs acting downwards is enough to cause exhalation.

The internal intercostal muscles are only really used for deep (forced)
breathing out, for instance when we are exercising.
Inhalation & Exhalation
Key Points
● Ventilation is caused by changes in
volume and pressure inside the
lungs.

In exams, students sometimes talk about

the lungs forcing the air in and out- they
don’t.
Summary of Inhalation & exhalation
Action during inhalation Action during exhalation

External intercostal Contract Relax

muscles

Internal intercostal Relax Contract (Only in deep

muscles breathing out)

Ribs Move up and out Move down and in

Diaphragm Contracts and flattens Relaxes and becomes

dome-shaped

Volume of thorax Increases Decreases

Pressure in thorax Decrease Increases

Volume of air in lungs Increases Decreases

Differences of Inhaled air & Inhaled air
Differences of Exhaled & Inhaled air
● Exhaled air is warmer than atmospheric air and is saturated with
water vapor.
● The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere varies depending on
weather conditions.
How alveoli are adapted for gas exchange?
The lungs are absorbing oxygen into the blood and removing carbon
dioxide from the blood. This happens in the alveoli.

Adaptations of alveoli

(1) They have large surface area for diffusion.

(There are enormous numbers of alveoli. The two lungs contain about 700
000 000 of alveoli, giving a total surface area of 60 m 2
How alveoli are adapted for gas exchange?
(2) They have moist surface so that gases can dissolve before diffusion.

(The thin layer of fluid lining the inside of the alveoli comes from the blood.
Capillaries and cells of the alveolar walls are leaky- blood pressure pushes
the fluid out from the blood plasma into the alveolus. Oxygen dissolves in this
moist surface before it passes through the alveolar wall into the blood.)

(3) They have a thin surface.

(only one cell thick ao the gases do not have to diffuse very far)
How alveoli are adapted for gas exchange?
(4) They have a good blood supply.

(They are covered with tiny blood capillaries. Oxygen and carbon dioxide can
diffuse very quickly between the air in the lungs and the blood)

(5) Ventilation of the lungs

(Always maintain gas concentration gradient)

How oxygen & carbon dioxide are exchanged?
Deoxygenated blood from heart → lungs → capillaries surrounding the alveolus

Around the lungs, the blood is separated from the air inside each alveolus by only two
cell layers - the cells making up the wall of the alveolus and the capillary wall itself. This
is a distance of less than a thousandth of a millimeter.

❏ More carbon dioxide in the blood than the air in the alveolus → carbon dioxide
diffuses out of the blood into the alveolus
❏ More oxygen in the air in alveolus than the blood → oxygen diffuses across the wall
of the alveolus into the blood

The blood which leaves the capillaries and flow back to the heart has gained oxygen
and lost carbon dioxide→ the heart pumps oxygenated blood around the body again
to supply the respiring cells.
Comparing the carbon dioxide content of inhaled air & exhaled air
When we breathe in, the air is drawn through
A.
When we breathe out, the air is blown into B.
★ Limewater is clear but becomes cloudy
(or milky) when carbon dioxide is
bubbled through it.
The limewater in A will remain clear, but the
limewater in B will become cloudy.
This shows that the percentage of carbon
dioxide in exhaled air is higher than in inhaled
air.

If hydrogen carbonate indicator solution is

used instead, it changes from red to yellow.
Limewater & Hydrogen Carbonate Indicator

Limewater turns cloudy when it meets

with carbon dioxide.
Effect of Exercise on Breathing Rate
Graph using data from table
Effect of exercise on breathing rate
Effect of exercise on breathing rate
Exercise Rate of respiration in Rate and depth of
muscles increase breathing increases

(need more oxygen, (oxygen delivered to

Produce more carbon muscles more quickly,
dioxide) carbon dioxide removed
from muscles more quickly)
Effect of exercise on breathing rate
During exercise,

- rate and depth of breathing increase; heartbeat increases

- Eventually, a limit is reached
- Extra energy is produced by anaerobic respiration

Glucose → Lactic acid + Energy

After exercise,

- lactic acid is high in muscles and blood

- Lactic acid must be broken down by combining with oxygen in the liver

Lactic acid + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water

Therefore, breathing continues to be faster and deeper → taking in extra oxygen

Heart rate continues to be high → to transport extra oxygen to break down lactic acid and
transport lactic acid from muscles to liver
Effect of Smoking
Smoking is associated with the lung cancer, bronchitis and emphysema. It
is also a major contributor factor to other conditions such as coronary heart
disease, and ulcers of stomach and small intestine.

Pregnant woman who smoke are likely to give birth to underweight babies.
Bronchitis
● Tobacco smoke irritates the lining of the airways
● Mucus secreting cells produce more mucus in response (while smoking
destroy cilia)
● Mucus, dust, bacteria accumulates → bacteria multiply
● Stimulates the body’s immune system to send phagocytes to bronchi
● Large amounts of phlegm (mucus+bacteria+white blood cells) are
produced.
● People cough up. This condition is known as chronic bronchitis.

Bronchitis blocks normal air flow, so the

sufferer has difficulty breathing properly.
Emphysema
● Particles, bacteria and tar reach the alveoli
● Phagocytic white blood cells digest a pathway through the lining of the
alveoli
● The wall of the alveoli weakens
● Alveoli break down and burst
● Reduce surface area for gas exchange
● This condition is known as emphysema.
Emphysema

The blood of a person with emphysema carries less oxygen. In serious cases, this leads to
sufferer being unable to carry out even mild exercise, such as walking. Emphysema
patients have to have a supply of oxygen nearby at all times. There is no cure for
emphysema, usually the sufferer dies after a long and distressing illness.
COPD
A person who has chronic bronchitis and emphysema is said to be suffering
from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or COPD. COPD is a
progressive disease for which there is no cure.
Smoking & Lung Cancer
Evidence of the link between smoking and lung cancer first appeared in the 1950s.

Experiment

A number of patients in hospitals were given a series of questions about their

lifestyles. They were asked about their work, hobbies and housing and so on,
including a question about how many cigarettes they smoked. The same
questionnaire was given to two groups of patients. The first group were all
suffering from lung cancer. The second (control) group were in hospitals with
various other illness, but not lung cancer. To make it a fair comparison, the
Control patients were matched with lung cancer patients for sex, age and so on.
Smoking & Lung Cancer

The results didn’t prove that smoking caused lung cancer. But there was a
statistically significant link between smoking and the disease: this is called a
correlation.
Chemicals in Cigarette Smoke
Cigarette smoke contains a highly addictive drug- nicotine (colorless,
odourless chemical)
Smoke contains over 7000 chemicals, including carbon monoxide, arsenic,
ammonia, formaldehyde, cyanide, benzene and toluene.
More than 60% of the chemicals are known to cause cancer. These
chemicals are called carcinogens, and are contained in the tar that collects in
a smoker’s lungs.
Cancer happens when cells mutate and start to divide uncontrollably,
forming a tumour.
Smoking can increase the risk of lung cancer
If you smoke, you are not bound to get
lung cancer, the risk that you will get
it is much greater.

★ The more cigarettes you smoke,

the more the risk increases.

Studies have shown that the type of

cigarette smoked makes very little
difference to the smoker’s risk of getting
lung cancer. Filtered and low tar cigarettes
only reduce the risk slightly.
Giving up smoking can reduce the risk of getting smoking related diseases

The obvious thing to do is not to start

smoking.

If you are a smoker, giving up the habit

soon improves your chance of survival.

After a few years, the likelihood of your

dying from smoking related disease is
almost back to the level of a non-smoker.
Carbon Monoxide in Smoke
One of the harmful chemicals in cigarette smoke is the poisonous gas carbon
monoxide.
When this gas is breathed in with the smoke, it enters the bloodstream and interferes
with the ability of the blood to carry oxygen.
Carbon monoxide can combine with the haemoglobin much more tightly than
oxygen can, forming a compound called carboxyhaemoglobin.
The haemoglobin will combine with carbon monoxide in preference to oxygen → the
blood carries much less oxygen around the body.
★ Carbon monoxide from smoking is also a major cause of heart disease.
Carbon Monoxide in Smoke
If a pregnant woman smokes, she will be depriving her unborn fetus of oxygen. This
has an effect on its growth and development and leads to the mass of the baby at
birth being lower, on average, than the mass of babies born to non-smokers.
Giving up Smoking
The nicotine in smoke is a very addictive drug and causes withdrawal symptoms when
people stop smoking.

Withdrawal symptoms

● Craving for a cigarette

● Restlessness
● A tendency to put on weight (nicotine depresses the appetite)
Ways to have smokers to give up smoking
● Vaping (inhaling vapour containing nicotine from electronic cigarette or e-cigarette
● Use nicotine patches or nicotine chewing gum

They all work in a similar way, providing a smoker with a source of nicotine without harmful
tar from cigarette. The nicotine is reduced by the blood and reduces the craving for a
cigarette. Gradually, the patient reduces the nicotine dose until they are weaned off the habit.