CHAPTER 8

TRANSPORTATION AND
METERING OF FLUIDS
 transporting fluids from one place to another
measuring their rates of flow
PIPE, FITTINGS, AND VALVES
Pipe and tubing
nominal diameter the actual outside diameter
schedule number the wall thickness of pipe
Selection of pipe sizes
For turbulent flow of liquids in steel pipes larger than 1 in.
(25 mm) in diameter, the optimum velocity is
0.1
12 m
Vopt 0.36 (8.1)

where Vopt = optimum velocity, ft/s

m = mass flow rate, lb/s
= fluid density, lb/ft3
Joints and fittings to join pieces of tubing or pipe
thick-walled tube connected by
screw fittings
flanges
welding
A. bÑdW

thin-walled tubing are joined by

soldering
compression
flare fittings

brittle materials (glass, carbon, cast iron) joined by

flanges
bell and spigot joints
Screw fittings the ends of pipe are threaded
the thread are tapered
farthest from the end of the pipe are imperfect
a tight joint is formed when the pipe is screwed
into a fitting
tape of polytetrafluoroethylene (teflon) is wrapped
around the thread to ensure a good seal.
screw fitting are more weak than the pipe (use higher
schedule number)
standardized for pipe size up to 12 in but not usually
larger than 3 in. 12inch
3-

Flanges Horine
matching disk or(rings of metal bolted together
compressing a gasket between their faces
attached to the pipe by screwing them or by
welding
 blind flange or a blank flange
a flange with no opening
used to close a pipe
Welding
joining pieces of large steel pipe
for high pressure service

flanged and screw joints sources of emission of volatile

matters
welding leak proof
Allowances for expansion

pipe is subjected to varying temperatures and pressures

cause the pipe to expand and contract
fixed supports are not used (may tear loose, bend, or
break)
so the pipe rests loosely on rollers
or the pipe is hung from above by chains or rods
provision is made for taking up expansion
by bends or loops in the pipe, by packed expansion
joints
by bellows or packless joints or
by flexible metal hose
Prevention of leakage around moving parts

Common devices for minimizing leakage while permitting

relative motion are:

stuffing boxes

mechanical seals
Stuffing boxes
- provide a seal around a rotation shaft that moves axially

mechanic

FIGURE 8.1 Stuffing boxes: (a) simple form; (b) with lantern gland.
Mechanical seals
the sliding contact is between a ring of graphite and a
polish metal surface, usually of carbon steel
require less maintenance than stuffing boxes

FIGURE 8.2 Mechanical seal.

VALVES to slow down or stop the flow of a fluid

Gate valves - diameter of the opening = dia. of the pipe

direction of flow does not change
small pressure drop
not recommended for controlling flow
fully open or fully closed

Globe valves - so called because in the earliest designs the

valve body was spherical
widely used for controlling flow
the fluid passes through a restricted opening and
changes direction several times
pressure drop is large
FIGURE 8.3
Common valves:
(a) gate valve;
(b) globe valve;
(c) control valve with
pneumatic valve
activator.
10%
/
sot
70%
Plug cocks and ball valves

plug cock

as in a lab stopcock
fully open to fully closed
pressure drop is minimal when it is fully open

ball valve

sealing element is spherical

occasionally applied in flow control
Check valves

permits flow in one direction only

opened by the pressure of the fluid
when the flow stops, the valve automatically closes by
gravity or by a spring pressing against the disk

- → F-

FIGURE 8.4 Check valves: (a) lift check; (b) ball check.; (c) swing check.
Pumps →
liquid
transportation of liquids through pipes and channels
increase the mechanical energy of the liquid
velocity pressure elevation
positive-displacement pumps and
centrifugal pumps

Positive-displacement
apply pressure directly to the liquid by
reciprocating piston
rotating members loaner
Centrifugal pump ⑤
generate high rotational velocities y
convert kinetic energy of the liquid to pressure energy
 Developed head

FIGURE 8.5 Pump flow system.

Eq. (4.65) can be written

2 2
pb bV b pa V
a a
Wp gZ b gZa
2 2
or in fps units, (8.2)
2 2
pb gZ b bV b pa gZa V
a a
Wp
gc 2g c gc 2g c
The quantities in the parentheses are total heads, H
2 2
p V p gZ V (8.3)
H gZ and H
2 gc 2gc
Ha = total suction head dimension work per unit mass
Hb = total discharge head

Hb Ha H (8.4)
Wp
2 2
H p V Hg c pg c V (8.5)
Z and Z
g g 2g g g 2g
In Eq (8.5) each term has the dimension of length
Power requirement

The power supplied to the pump, PB

"

PB mWp 0
m H
(8.6)

where m is the mass flow rate

define: Pf m H (8.7)

The power delivered to the fluid, Pf

Pf
From Eqs (8.6) and (8.7) PB (8.8)

For fans, use average density, = ( a+ b)/2 for

Suction lift and cavitation
If the suction pressure is only slightly greater than the
vapor pressure, some liquid may flash to vapor inside the
pump, a process called cavitation.
suction pressure

greatly reduces the pump capacity Vp

causes severe erosion.

If the suction pressure is actually less than the vapor
pressure, there will be vaporization in the suction line, and no
liquid can be drawn into the pump.
To avoid cavitation
the pressure at the pump inlet must exceed the vapor
pressure by a certain value
called the net positive suction head (NPSH)
NPSH = 2-3 m (5 to 10 ft) for small centrifugal pumps
= up to 15 m (50 ft) for very large pumps.
For a pump taking suction from a reservoir

1 pa pv
NPSH h fs Za (8.9a)
g
or in fps units,
g c pa pv (8.9b)
NPSH h fs Za
g

where pa' = absolute pressure at surface of reservoir

pv = vapor pressure
hfs = friction in suction line

NPSHR = Minimum required NPSH specified by manufacturers

EXAMPLE 8.1. Benzene at 100 F (37.8 C) is pumped
through the system of Fig. 8.5 at the rate of 40 gal/min (9.09
m3/h). The reservoir is at atmospheric pressure. The gauge
pressure at the end of the discharge line is 50 lbf/in.2 (345
kN/m2). The discharge is 10 ft, and the pump suction is 4 ft
above the level in the reservoir. The discharge line is 1½-in.
Schedule 40 pipe. The friction in the suction line is known to
be 0.5 lbf/in.2 (3.45 kN/m2), and that in the discharge line is
5.5 lbf/in.2 (37.9 kN/m2). The mechanical efficiency of the
pump is 0.60 (60 percent).
The density of benzene is 54 lb/ft3 (865 kg/m3), and its vapor
pressure at 100 F (37.8 C) is 3.8 lbf/in.2 (26.2 kN/m2).

Calculate (a) the developed head of the pump and

(b) the total power input.
(c) If the pump manufacturer specifies a required
NPSHR of 10 ft (305 m), will the pump be suitable for this
service?
 Benzene -041¥ he;o

.si#.zb.--ioftg=40gaVminhfa=s.slpnf
"

µ%
,

2a=4ft
,

a. Pa .
latin Pr
-0.81b¥
--

La:-O 14.71min
'

Ppi _-
so lbf
100°F in '

a) Hb -

Ha=bH=nWp
f¥.¥*
b)
Pimply / ni flowrate ✗
density
-
-

NPSH.g /Paj-Pv-hfs/-2aPa'+gXi-a#0+nWp=Pb'+g2b'+aVbi+h
c) if NPSHR -10ft →

P 9 , g ,
p go 29 ,

BNUÑI

gmafnxgf y.t #xomIsec=fIb U Moi2Capacityatif-Vs-

hi -

0.04gal /min
t.gg#o-- 6.31
→

App 's
.
Solution.
(a) The pump work Wp is found by using Eq. (4.65). The
upstream station a is at the level of liquid in the reservoir,
and the downstream station b is at the end of the
discharge line, as shown in Fig 8.5. When the level in the
tank is chosen as the datum of heights and it is noted that
Va = 0, Eq. (4.65) gives
2
pb gZb b Vb pa
Wp hf
gc 2g c
The exit velocity Vb is found by using data from App. 3.
For a 1½-in. Schedule 40 pipe, a velocity of 1 ft/s
corresponds to a flow rate of 6.34 gal/min, and
40
Vb 6 . 31 ft s
6 . 34
With b = 1.0, Eq. (4.65) gives
Pd Pb Ñb hid his Pa
14.7 50 144 g z
y
,
6.312 5.5 0.5 144 14.7 144
Wp 10
54 P gc
/ 2 32.17 54P 54P
1b¥ -1b¥ ) "Y¥¥¥i
Gc
= 159.9 ft lbf/lb ftp.#+tt-' . ,

By Eq. (8.4) Wp is also the developed head, and

H = Hb – Ha = 159.9 ft lbf/lb (477.9 J/kg)

(b) The mass flow rate is

• •
s¥ñ¥*¥¥¥I→
40 54
P☐=µpH m 4 . 81 lb s 2 . 18 kg s
m=⑧ 7 . 48 60
The power input is, from Eq. (8.6),
¥¥tÉ¥¥i;"#¥¥*ii→÷E
'
ni at

4 . 81 159 . 9
PB 2 . 33 hp 1 . 74 kW
550 0 . 60
n
 Pa s !¥*i¥¥¥¥
(c) Use Eq. (8.9), pa / = 14.7 144/54 = 39.2 ft lbf/lb. The
vapor pressure corresponds to a head of
Pr
3 . 8 144
NPSH.gg/Paj-Pv-hfs)-ba 54
10 . 1 ft lb f / lb 30 . 2 J kg
P

The friction in the suction line is

0.5 !
Voronin
144
hf 1.33 ft lb f lb 3.98 J kg
54
s

p
The value of the available NPSH from Eq. (8.9),
assuming g/gc = 1, is
Pa Pv Hf Za
NPSH = 39.2 - 10.1 - 1.33 – 4 = 23.77 ft (7.25 m)
The available NPSH is considerably larger than the
minimum required value of 10 ft, so the pump should be
suitable for the proposed service.
*Positive-Displacement Pumps*

Reciprocating pumps - the chamber is a stationary cylinder

that contains a piston or plunger
e.g. piston pumps, plunger pumps,
and diaphragm pump

Volumetric efficiency -1¥

- ratio of the volume of fluid discharge to the volume swept
by the piston.

Plunger and Diaphragm

- used as “metering pumps” because the volume flow is
constant, controllable, and adjustable.
1. Piston - max. discharge pressure is about 50 atm
liquid is drawn through an inlet check valve into the
cylinder by the withdrawal of a piston
then is forced out through a discharge check valve
on the return stroke

2. Plunger - containing a close-fitting reciprocating plunger

in a heavy-walled cylinder of small diameter 1
the plunger fills nearly all
the space in the cylinder
discharge pressure 1,500
atm or higher
( (
3. Diaphragm - the reciprocating member is a flexible
diaphragm of metal, plastic, or rubber.

handling toxic or corrosive liquids amount up to 100

gal/min.
pressure up to 100 atm
Rotary pumps
e.g. gear pump, lobe pumps, screw pumps, cam pumps,
and vane pumps
contain no check valves
close tolerances between the moving and stationary
parts
operate best on clean, moderately viscous fluid
discharge pressures up to 200 atm or more

FIGURE 8.6 Gear pumps: (a) spur-gear pump; (b) internal-gear pump.
*Centrifugal pumps*
the liquid enters through a suction connection concentric
with the axis of a high-speed rotary element called the
impeller, which carries radial vanes integrally cast in it.
the liquid leaving the outer periphery of the impeller is
collected in a spiral casing called the volute and leaves
the pump through a tangential discharge connection.

FIGURE 8.8
Single-suction centrifugal pump.
Centrifugal pump theory

the liquid enters axially at the suction, station a

in the rotating eye of the impeller, the liquid spreads out
radially and enters the channels between the vanes at
station 1.
it flows through the impeller, leaves the periphery of the
impeller at station 2.
collected in the volute, and leaves the discharge at b

FIGURE 8.8
Centrifugal pump
 •

2. Shp .

It -60
↳ flow rate ? ? eff= ?
rpm
=
→ .
=

FIGURE 8.10 Characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump

operating at various speeds.
Comparison of Devices for Moving Fluids
considering the flow capacity, power requirements, mechanical
efficiency, reliability, and ease of maintenance

Positive-displacement machines
- handle smaller quantities of fluids at higher discharge
pressures than do centrifugal machines.
- no air binding and usually self-priming.
- used for controlling and metering flow
- require considerable maintenance
- produce the highest pressure
- cannot be used with slurries.
Centrifugal machines
- deliver fluid at a uniform pressure without shocks
or pulsations.
- run at higher speeds than positive-displacement
machines
- can handle corrosive liquids and slurries
- require less maintenance

Vacuum pumps
- a compressor that takes suction at a pressure below
atmospheric and discharges at atmospheric pressure
Measurement of Flowing Fluids

Full-Bore Meters
- venturi and orifice meters, rotameters

Selection installed cost and costs of operation

the range of flow rates it can accommodate
its inherent accuracy
Venturi meter

5- 15°

tb
ta

FIGURE 8.17 Venturi meter.

most commonly used with liquids

requires less power than other types
angle of discharge cone is 5o-15o
to minimize boundary layer separation
For incompressible fluid with no friction
Eq. (4.65) becomes
Pa Pb gRm Ha Pal
-
=
-

y
2 2 2 pa pb
b Vb a Va (8.22)

2
Db 2
Va Vb Vb
Da (8.23)

where Da = diameter of pipe

Db = diameter of throat of meter i.
= diameter of ratio Db/Da M =pIs -
Fasa Vbsb
=
 1 2 pa pb
Vb (8.24)
4
b a

Venturi coefficient (Cv )

- for the small friction loss between locations a and b

Cv 2 pa pb
Vb (8.25)
4
1

Cv = the venturi coefficient (determined experimentally)

= 0.98 for pipe diameters of 2 to 8 in.
= 0.99 for larger sizes
Volumetric and mass flow rates

Cv S b 2 pa pb (8.26)
q Vb S b
4
1

where q = volumetric flow rate

Sb = area of throat

Cv S b (8.27)
m q 2 pa pb
4
1
where m = mass flow rate
 Orifice meter

Venturi meter Orifice meter

expensive can change to meet the
requirement
occupies considerable
space larger power consumption
ratio of throat diameter to pressure off
pipe diameter cannot be
changed
the principle is identical
 C0 2 pa pb (8.28)
do
⑨ dp u0
4
1
where u0 = velocity through orifice (determined
experimentally)
= ratio of orifice diameter to pipe diameter do =

dp
pa, pb = pressures at stations a and b
C0 = the orifice coefficient
= 0.61 for flange taps and vena contracta taps
and when Re > 30,000

D0 u 0 4m
Re 0 (8.29)
D.
where D0 = orifice diameter
 NIJBÑI Dp -0.1M
EXAMPLE 8.4. An orifice / meter with flange taps is to be
installed in a 100-mm line to measure the flow of water. The
maximum flow rate is expected to be 50 m3/h at 15 C. The
manometer used to measure the differential pressure is to be
filled with mercury, and water is to fill the leads above the
surfaces of the mercury. The water temperature will be 15 C
Rm
throughout. (a) If the maximum manometer reading is to be
1.25 m, what diameter, to the nearest millimeter, should be
specified for the orifice? (b) What will be the power to operate
the meter at full load? Panin Pmercury a) Do -7mm
F-
_-

Vmax
b) Power ?
Solution (a) Equation (8.29) is used to calculate the orifice
diameter. The quantities to be substituted are
50 min
-1--597
:
q 0 . 0139 m 3 s
3 ,600 SIA
(App. 6) 62 . 37 16 . 018 999 kg m 3
lblfti
'
Kglm
C0 0 . 61 g 9 . 80665 m s 2
From Eq. (2.10), g
Rm him jig p
pa pb 9 . 80665 1 . 25 13 . 6 1 . 0 999
154 ,300 N m 2 For
ñ gives
Substituting these values in Eq. (8.38)
co Pa Pb
-

of --UoSo= of
0 . 61S 0 2 154 ,300
0 . 0139
1 4 999
From which 17.5758

S0 3 D20
1 . 296 10 So
-1T¥
1 4
4①
1 4

As a first approximation, call 1 4

=1.0. Then
40 . 6
D0 40 . 6 mm 0 . 406
ñ
0.041m
100 ñ 0.41
f- De
Dp
 4
And 1 1 0 . 406 4 0 . 986

The effect of this term is negligible in view of the desired

precision of the final result.
Check the Reynolds number. The viscosity of water at
15 C, from App. 6. is 1.147 cP or 0.001147 kg/m s
D20 0 . 041 2
S0 0 . 00132 m 2
4 4
q 0 . 0139
uo 10 . 53 m s
S 0 0 . 00132
Ed is
The Reynolds number, from Eq. (8.40),
1-
m.mil#mim*g
Do M Uo ¥ P

0 . 041 10 . 53 999
,

1.1471 CP
M
=

=
1.1471×10-1 kg /Ms Re 0 376 ,000
0 . 001147 ¥ ,
M
Re number is large enough to justify the value of 0.61 for C0.
b) From Fig. 8.18, for = 0.406, the permanent loss in
pressure is 81% of the differential. Since the maximum
volumetric flow rate is 0.0139 m3/s, the power required to
operate the orifice meter at full flow is
MY 1m 2

t
0.81 0.0139 154,300
P 0.81q p a pb
1,000
1.737 kW
mÉN-µ=¥H¥oo*¥¥¥*
f- in Wp
¥%
=

p q 1 AM
=
Area meters: Rotameters
- in the orifice, nozzle, or venturi

the variation of flow rate through a constant area

generates a variable pressure drop, which is
related to the flow rate

- area meters

pressure drop is constant, the area through

which the fluid flows varies with the flow rate.
the area is related to the flow rate.

f- is
Rotameter

consists of a gradually tapered

glass tube mounted vertically in a
frame with the large end up.
fluid flows upward through the
tapered tube and suspends freely
a float
the greater the flow rate, the
higher the float rides in the tube
can be used for either liquid or
gas flow measurement.

FIGURE 8.21 Principle of a rotameter.

Insertion Meters
sensing element is inserted into the flow stream
measure the average flow velocity or local velocity at
one point only. I

the position of the sensing element is important.

Pitot tube
measure local velocity along a streamline
consists of two tubes connected to a manometer
static tube measures the static pressure P0
the impact tube measures the stagnation pressure
of the fluid
 FIGURE 8.26
Impact tube Principle of pitot tube.

Static tube

For incompressible fluids

2 ps po (8.35)
uo CP
 D -0ft

EXAMPLE 8.5. Air at 200 F (93.3 C) is(forced through a long,

circular flue 36 in. (914 mm) in diameter. A pitot tube reading
is taken at the center of the flue at a sufficient distance from
flow disturbances to ensure normal velocity distribution. The
Rm
pitot reading is 0.54 in. (13.7 mm) H2O, and the static
pressure at the point of measurement is 15.25 in. (387 mm)
H2O. The coefficient of the pitot tube is 0.98. Lp
Yp
Calculate the flow of air, in cubic feet per minute,
measured at 60 F (15.6 C) Iand a barometric pressure of
29.92 in. (760 mm) Hg. P¥=P¥; 9HtYmiM= ? HOOF
, Hg29.92in

Solution Assume the Mach number correction is negligible.

The velocity at the center of the flue, which is that measured
by the pitot tube, is calculated by Eq. (8.35) using fps units
and a coefficient of 0.98.
Cp 2g c p s pb
uo 0 . 98 (8.36)
The necessary quantities are as follows. The absolute pressure
at the instrument is
p
latm
15 . 25
p 29 . 92 31 . 04 in. Hg
inHg 13 . 6
Paton

Since 1 lb mole occupies 359 ft3 at 32 F and 1 atm, the density

of the air is WINONA 400+32

µ
M
"

① sip
29 492 31 . 04
0 . 0625 lb ft 3
4¥ -1¥
M
=

.
"
359 460 200 29 . 92
V1 Tz P,
Vi
"¥¥ K

From the manometer reading -

ÑÑonÑINñmwa manometer tempura -

tip -02.07
Rm

0.54 pain
ps pb 62.37 2.81 lb f ft 2
12
↳ gkmlp.m-p.nl
ftp.f-fji
By Eq. (8.35), the maximum velocity is
B- Pb g,
1k¥.ly?Y-j;-Y--fI.-ftg
Cp
2 x(2.81x32.174)
umax 0.98 52.7 ft s
0.0625
p

This is sufficiently low for the Mach number correction to be

negligible. To obtain the average velocity from the
maximum velocity, Fig. 5.8 is used. The Reynolds number,
based on the maximum velocity, is calculated as follows.
From App. 8, the viscosity of air at 200 F is 0.022 cP, and
D Umar P
36 12 52 . 7 0 . 0625
Re max 670 ,000
0 . 022 0 . 000672 6.7×10
Reptar µ

¥f¥¥µ;¥÷no•¥*
The ratio V/umax, from Fig. 5.8, is a little greater than 0.86.
Using 0.86 as an estimated value gives
Umar

V 0 . 86 52 . 7 45 . 3 ft s

The Reynolds number Re is 670,000 0.86 = 576,000, and

V/umax is exactly 0.86 as estimated. The volumetric flow
°"

rate is "☒ # """

①
=

2 ¥ % Pz
400-100
V
36 520 31.04
f- is
q 45.3 60
12 4 660 29.92400-1200 Tz P,

f- TIDE
15,704 ft 3 min 7.41 m 3 s
I

¥ .fi/#min
 ④
-0

m Pa JERI
1lb mole ,ss9f-13,32°F

Vstd Pstd Ta

Pb
Pa

Pa

0mm
É¥¥.÷¥
Va
Pb Pa
*
ftp.t.iii-iiri-lii.IT?:.Yin
e-
 nwr-IF.io#+$iEIHFi+Y-i+:Y-:TWp--tn(
Pb Fig )
+

¥?i¥¥¥
↳ lb.tt/s?lbf

1=0%-0--0.05
DO
Pbj Tfw \¥g ,

in Wp

¥
.FI#/'iEi ihPg-f
 wuuuw

PB
TB

""

Ta r ao
p,
-1.304×10%90%1111.1 ]
N
-

ri n

""

¥-1:|
Go
oomtn.LI
/
Fin Thssqfti

M Tb Ta Cp
1b¥ .¥¥¥*