ion B-uFees kale. 6. pains na 22 V4 2093 The Influence of Strain Hardening and Strain- ALK. GHOSH Research Laboratories, The forns ix Rate Sensitivity on Sheet Metal Forming The current understating of sheet metal stamping processes is discussed ithe Light @f materials’ ability to distribute plastic strains in untarial and biaxial deformation, ‘the plastic Now properties, namely stain hardening and strainerate sensitivity. Disteiation of stain from uniusial tensile specimens and sheet stretched over @ rigid punch are preseulo for a numberof eel materials to Hltusrate the inne Portance of theee propertics. Some eects of deformation rate are also presented, Introduction ‘The most common mode of failure ix euld-lrning nf shit ‘metal components is the development uf a lacalizad (emg thickness) neck or tear (1,2! which wecuee generally aver mel radius a9 the sheet susface area i increased to eomfoent ti th pponek shape, The problem is une of distin defiminati ‘uifornily throughout the sheet, since « ranch rads neta nen strainconeentrator, by virtue of ite curvatite nnd frictional resistance [3,4]. A peak develops in the stnin disetbution ultimately produces neck or tear. Stecess in mantfacturing sherefre, dirty related to (the material's ability to distribute ‘strain more uniformly under an externally applied strewgradiont, and (i) the strain limits that can be tolerated pri (the des velopment of a neek¥ or tune. As illustrate! scuinatieally the fone he peak steain to reach the forming limit earlier and failure rents Gontier tool curvature and incremed librieation reduce the external stress gr For n given extern! sires grn however, a material's inhorent mbilty. to wlsuibute. strain coupled with its forming linit determine ils overall fn Although the contsbution of theie vo elencts eh complex manner with the natuee ofthe esternal sine the: e wl wsterial properties, namely’ the lardening nail sof.eninn Drocesses oscurring during deformation. In the material to foe Leite by tm Matern, Diss or uiiration i the ‘Mucriale Divison July 6, 1970; revined tonnuaciptfeetvel Seplomber 2, 264 / sucy 1977 Hhicciecteees ESTE DOCUMENTO FO! OBTIDO ATRAVES DO PROGRAMA IDECOMUTACAO. BIBLIOGRAFICA CAPESISESUIFINEPIBICT ing properties on steain gradient, the’ nerkinge phenwnenoss mud detailed sleain disteibutions, ace cesunined for th unin aul biasial deformation. Pivaly, the ‘the rate of deforimation ot Ue necking provess ad I Fornaio “Tho to primey sources of hacdening ‘ire: () steam hardening, and (i) strain= i A simplified eonsitutive description is given by o= Kee o = stexin hardening exponent, nd m = atenin-rate hardening exponent. (x —» O for auperplastie ne Aerial, while m (far nuit dtile mctals at room temperate.) In woekpioe sul rome resistant faethe dforsaatin, wd thereby farese Une steenation. tn the Sinilely, a the region nderging inning, strain hardens Uniaxial Deformation ncuron carefully inital? si Gradients. Metal deformation is always edit in plastic strain and strnin-rate. Tn whe tensile specimen, sich gradients, which are ‘vegin to grow with deformation. Cowsidering « iogeneous material, strain gradient can be de- nthe gradient in eros-aoetional aren initially Since the toad, 12), wt nny location = is given by Va) = etziace) @ wing equation (1) for stres, o(2), an expressing the ers sectional aten, A(z), ia term of tie original area, AaCé), one obtains Transactions of the ASME== Forming init steaw Distance Pe) = Klay te))~Asl2) ox (eked “ (8) with repect to mid noting ling ond along = wei, the seni 1 (tate) = gael [a saacddatiey + imeyatizteyt ea Ths, the strain gedient depends on three quoatities: (i) A. iain hardening, tnctor, 1/(n/e)— 1), Ui) the enicnt, (/Aa\G4Aa/A0), in the orignal aren, andl (ii) the stenin-rate sradient term, (m/0Ndé/Ae).“Steppt-stepennupatation a ‘necessary to determine this lst (ert. ‘The depensence of sai sradient on ¢/s for au nchitrary wale of (1/An}eddofis) m= Ht? rum inshown in Fig. 2. For fixed vale af ny iets ito to increase rapidly with ¢; while for a fixed ¢, —defde decrenson with increase inn. When m > 0, the qunatity within besohets in eauntion (4) derenses since dé/z hecomes incrensingly nesar tise with deformation. This slows the rate of inereare af ere, sand if m is suliciently Inrge (asin superplatie deforsntion} the rain gradient remains relatively low The case of m <0 is more coniplex. Dring deformation «fds con periodically change sigh (a log msn > 0) ma strains rate softening i offic by ntrain hardening in ones tw nulata bru (2A siniar lange in the sin if defile wry ‘sami atrain aging in various wold sation alloy ane resulta in the characteristic serrated fw behavior 3, {ntluance on Tensile Necking. The relatively slight gradionts in strain and strninrnte in tensile specimen begin to grow 4 Ueformation passes through the load maximum. “This oceure, no showa in Fig. (a), when the rate of hardening (de/de), while decreasing during deformation, comes to a balance wih the in: greasing flow stresn (a). Asis well knows, whon m = O and etenin hardening folows a power law, this occurs at¢ =n, Since strain ‘radients are extremely small up to this point, provider w Imessure of uniform atexin (¢,) and marks the onset of difluse recking. “Further deformation i sifwsly: untae (or ‘Stent al oye ee Journal of En: 'eering Materials and Technology ee, tule) it neeurs under atoulily falling toad, Steain cont tw localize with eventual formation of @ thickness neck oecuering when dafe = 4/2, ie, ne = 2n for powor law hardening tae terials (m= 0) 1) Since dé/te i sonall up to tho maximum load, even large values of wd not appreciably increase the woes stent (Fi Wb). eyanul Univ point, however, dé/ds rises enough to entse ‘s atrninernte indeed flow street increas, with an oven grater irense i ae. The rate of stability low iv thereby reduced fd oral necking condition is not satisfied ntl strain ato er thaw 2x. Ax predicted froin equation (4) (also shown in Fig. 2), a smaller —ue/de i maintained throughout Ua stag, aiid necking nuns not be visually apparent unit considerable ex. tension has neciumulate in the specimen. Even though this de- formation i quasitublo in nature, it i penetially “uniform” sul tefl. ‘Au analysis of stability lows ducing diffuse necki was mada a Jucy 1977 / 265teat” mately waa Fig. Ata and 8) Ax ste A HSLA Ste CR Aluminum 0) 1 204-16 Alueioun + 300-0 Aluminum 510 Aluminum 7 s1e9 ali) 2 1039 bras, © 2m Alay In reference [10], and it was found Usst even amall mean po ‘duce quasistable fow (with a nearly constant maxiinuin lon) ‘over an appreciable slrnin range. Fig. (a) compiles somo of hese data. “Low carbon stools (aluzinumtiled oF rimmed variety) with m as low 25 0.01-0.016 (at quasistatic spec), cas Postpone the onset of localized necking and accurnlnte largo ‘niounts of post uniform strain to account for nearly 40 percent of its total elongation to failuret (measured over 50.8 wm Rago Jeagth). In 3003-0 aluminum (n ~ 0.25, » ~ 04005), nearly 22 percent of the total elongation comes from beyond the max ‘mum load, while in high strengths low alloy (ISLA) steel ( ~ 0.46, m ~ 0.008), this is approximately 30 percent. In dispere sion hardened zine (n ~ 0.05, m ~ 0.00), neatly 90 percent of the lougatin is post-uniform, aud althougt is mi small corn pared to superplastic alloys, the deformation charasterivtes are similar. Even cold-rolled aluminum in Fig. 4(a) derives 50 pes 1} centof its extension from beyond the maximum loa! ( = 0,003). In materials exhibiting serrated flow or negutive mn, onthe other hand, deformation rapidly localizes beyond masini loud (Fi. — obo 1 4. Peaniaim Chogtion 189 ° ase co a6 Fie. 4) 266 / suLy 1977 Transactions of the ASME. a —i. A(c),clenly indenting m monotonic dependence. ‘The some- what greater elongation for ACK stel i belived to be & resll ‘of ()_ its high value ofr, and Gi) am increased effstive stein Hanlening inthe neck av the local steeweatate changes (12) White the functional dependence of Fig. 4(c) ix complee, av : elevated temperature (generally: mt increases and 1 deerenses) E the Mow i primarily eontellad by mand Use positon i slmenton near exalsthe tol elongation. Fur auch sos : w roth nue of mint specimen impertection (waned te z ten variation it crseaortional non) petit Ui te te ie setae rendece of oniering trains ee a s ome eee pena © sslero, f= 1 ~ (fractional sizeof iniperfection (~0.001-0.002) A pilot of this prediction is compared in Fig. 5 with the trond fing of sata for large nusabor of materials from referenes [1S ‘The agreement for Ute 24 (ha low) foil to bo eonanrkaby ‘own, while equation (5) does tot directly apply ta the lower (ie Wighor 1) “The influences of 1 and me UL poatuniform elongations be cone avin upon examining the disteibution uf axial stenia frum failed tensile specimens of the materials shown i Fig (0) wd (1). Mensured sth n 0.50 nun square grid, team atea dlstributions are shown in Figs. G(a) and (8). Tie interesting 40), Despite respectable stenin-hantoning properties, nace feature in Fig, O(a) i Unt tle difiee neck fe welder neg os (or = 0.55) nd aluminane alloys (n= 0.28 for 2035eT$, 0 = 0.46 small (or me < 0}, ataide of which the stain is hens confor for 31820) show small pos-iform extension ernise on is On the other hand, for o > 0 in Fig. (0), the neck vegion io either serm thease) oF slightly nogative (0.00% far NET diffuse wl ron wn ‘drops continuously from its peak sud 0.0 fr ‘The postemniturm elongatioes subi withowt ever attaining a uniform. value. Dispersion, for materials in Figs. 4(a) and (4), and 5182-0 aluminum at hardened zinc iva goo! example. ‘The postuniform defen 150°C (from referees (111) are ploited as m function of m in ivdistibuted ouaide the localised nosk so gradually thet eo ur “ Th a L Hy He cone tc te i aa| L ne | mee 2 fm 2 | ce tasevar yy Zot Alloy a : sit20 wuninon teagme ay epee 1SUA Sie! fo 016 0 88 = 0 a0 wo ” Distance tram Heh, Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology JULY 1977 / 267‘tremely long specimen ould be required to enpture the entice difuee nec. For all practieal purpose, a major part of ‘uniform flow thus becomes part ofthe Muniform stenin. Iu the xo of dispersion-hardoned sinc, this kind of lenin coil be as Tage 04 0.35, while ir Is only 0.05 "The zones of loalized neck, determined viwally, are nonely equal for these wheels of shout the samo Usiekies (0.91.5 mn). Short horizontal arrows indicating the limiting stenine (m= ‘mediately outside the localized uock) in Fig. 6(4) also show that Tocal necking steaing are significantly greater Una 2x for these materia, ‘The importance of m small m in cmventional stenin hardening materials just discussed is nt commonly recygaized Ti on Fi Ble) hones {Hat niform renin for hems nd nl ree Hes th n and thei local necking senins are lowe tlveussed more fully inthe next parngempl Vetlaion tm n and mm with Stain, The value of, determined from the slope of the best linear it uheough the log ¢ wernt lox data for brass, and 2030-74 nd 5182-0 alumni alloys overs vent for strains near manic the basis of the hut portion of the strestatenia data prior ‘uaximur load. Clendly' this terminal se value, desgnn Uniform steai, indicated in Fig. 6(a). Siniary, local strain becomes nearly equal to 2x’. ‘The rewn for this drop in ‘immediately prior to the mazinuun load is unknown, One possible mechanism is Uhe ence uf crust wlip lending Uo an Inaustion of stain hardening (10), An addin! effect may arne from strain-rato softening for materials wilh me <0. Since the uly advanced in atenin and strain Fate compared to its neighbors, any straincrato softening it may experience could eause an apparent loo ia the rate of atenin hardening * {hi terion val of nin elated othe ageing exens stew value aio ghcrved arin lnc rain Gop tosh 268 / suty 1977 Sinilae to the variation ia as a funtion of atenin nnd fs tuetility, the variations i on 9 faneions of lenin find alenio-rate prenice aunligoic rule, Whiel mt i, neaey indapedent of steain for alniin Uns) (ig 706), anu re ah 114) The dependence iitan ht eae i killed and ried steals ta wb room ternparatice (20) Transactions of the ASME./ (Fig. (6), im the ense of Cu-AL elect (aL 410 C) 21 it hs tye shown that inereaves wits rnin at low uti ents ad decreases with straint high rates, Kuntion (1) with a cats 2m is thus a poor approximation in many cares. A sisulanents ‘drop in m and ize in m are observed with inerensing deformation temperature in many’ materils (21, 22}, and n change iu mu a4 m function of strain isa common featie in sich eaves, Tt has bec shoven that the terminal valve of mn for auch materials must be considered in order to relate to ductility. An overall constitutive description: o(6, ¢, 7), would however be more desirable in that ‘ease than isolated measurement of n nul m, Biaxial Deformation Localized Hacking metal component involves the applient lone in the sheet plane. Although the understanding developed for ‘uninxial deformation basically applies who (o this kind of lond- ing the presence of an intermediate ste ean signifieantly alter ‘he strain level prior to the development of lncalized neck. From an applications pointof-view, a localized neck constitutes lailure and therefore, Use dependence of local nocking init stent (commonly known as forming limit) on material properties i uf reat interest. Originally developed by ester [23] and Govxlwin [24h fron ald steel production stampings, forming lint dingrans rep tesent the major strain in the shoet surface at Ue onset of m visible heck as a funetion of minor strain, Fig. 8 shows the forming Fimit dingrams for a number of materials obtained from lub ‘oratory (ests [26] involving stretching eheets over alemispherienl punch. ‘The strain combinations below a given diagram indicate ‘uecess while those above are failures (necking oF tenting). (De- sAfomat paces ie © cy ergarsa teeter ‘hia he portance ef mints wih Toseales tense Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology -6- Iilng evar ce formation with postive minor atraina is called stroteh-typa, and the negative minor strains idienta drawing.-type notion). Those Indioratory dingeani agree sell oct ees from netual stanp= ings however, thoy neo atm higher strain level thie forming limits from in-plane deformation. ‘The punch goomotry and its Frieonal consteaints influence tho strain gradient and stenin ppl to fallare and are believed to be reaponsible for this effect [ROL Tie understanding of punch forming lita Userfore must take these factors into account [3,4]. Tb must bo noted, inthis ion, that an inereasad friction lowers formabilty.pri- + by ineressing the strain eoncontrati ‘The elassien! plasticity predictions of local necking limits due it {0} nna dite necking Hits due to Swift (27) aro sum- maized in Fig. for wt isotropic, power-law hardening (mt = 0) tuateriat under uniforin, proportional strain paths. Within the range of atress-states between unincial and balanced biaxial tension, the Swift criterion (which is nearly the same as & maxi- ‘mum traction eriterion) predicts thnt the difuse necking strain is about On the other hand, fl [identified localized necking (or shout band formation) with the attainment of a plane stein condition (les =O). I tho negative minor steain aide thore is 8 sheet diesetion with dey = 0, and local necking strain drops from, ‘uniaxial tension (des/de, = 01/2) to a value of m in plane tension (day/te = ay) (oe Fig. 9). In reality there are theaya gradients in atesin sn stesinrnte before lonlzed necking. Hm > 0, the strain limits would therefore increase on account of ‘or example, AK. staal (re ~ 0.012) Bihar increasing sleet thickness oF do- ‘that is renter han rousing punt ruins rigs tesa limits, particularly for m > 0. ‘Me shown in Eig. 5, the pinch forming int (plane stew) for [ACK steal is rater an isn, while that for aluminurn alloy is nearly equnl to m Ti the biaxial lretehing regime (¢ > 0), howover, loealived necking is unexplainable by Ue Ill theory since no direction of zero length change exit in the shicot plane. A rationale for localized necking far «> 0 was provided by Marcin and Kexyinki LS) (ACK, who asaumed that an iabomogeacity duy 1977 / 269ly nuneled ly a thinned {rougllke region lying perpeniiculne to the dieetion of masi- mum prineipal sires (Fig. 102). Compared to the surevundinn, ‘material, the trough ould thin faster under an inpowed bins stresstate, ie (trough) > e (sueroundingy), while (trgh) = & (surroundings). The strain path in the trongh would turn toward plane strain and eventually reach fractr, ns show Fig. 10). On the bass of an isotropic hardening theory of laree plastic flow, the afrece paths fullowed Inv the patental failure sement [20] are itustrated in Fig. 10(e). Fru the hss of el ‘tres path or strain path, the M-K analysis predicts a inerensis, forming init with increasing binxility (¢/e, + Lz since mt the ‘imposed «/e increases, the trouzh tnkes Toner to react w state ‘of plane strain, thereby: aceminulting greater str i the ‘surrounding materia 20 J sury 1977 ‘The trons preicted by the MC analysts agres, in geneenl, with the expetimental forining Tinie diagrams for various mae Cerin (Tig, 8). ‘There are ome quantitative disagreements, how ever, discussed in reference 26). The general predictions {13} ‘Mustrated in Figs 11(2), (0), nd (e), ‘These arc: (i) Ue lovel ‘of the foreting Iieit dingrar i ised with increases in » and (is) the roe ia greater near plano strain than balancod binxial fension, (ii) tho Fracture steain (indicated by ey, i. thickness strain at feactire) ean have a strong influence om the forining Timit dingram near 6/e = 1.0. ‘Tho nat two observations mean thal falar in plase strain iv nonnally more “instability-con- tral lant near «7 = 6 i influcnced more by feseture process ice of stall m is realized from Fig TH(H), hich shoves Uhat the plane strain limits eould indoed be seater Una (elon v4 > 0) aa observed in Fig. 8. Transactions of the ASMEs Distributions of ievemettal stretching of AK steel snd bens sheets fve shown in Fig, 12. ‘These distribtions show that a peak de ‘elops in the radial stexin distribution enely during deformation FReenuse of strain lardening and frietional resistance on the punch, this peak progressively muvee wing from the pole al, ak ome stage, deformation concentrates in it enosgh to enue From stages 1 Utraugl 6 in bras de lo its higher» (0.53) compared to steel (n = 0.28). ‘Thi means chat with a smaller penk rain, brs eat produce the same size deme as weel at these stages. Huseever, bevel age 3 for sel, deformation spreuds primarily aro the peak rained region without nage shift in its beatin, peak continues ta move. This behavine for steel tives feo its fnrly attainment of diffise necking ntrine (~), haven whi the spread of deformation i penal de tis hgh m (0.012)? rasa om the other ia rearhordifuse necking ch Inter aed rapidly concenteatesxtrain wubeaqueitly without any appreciate broadening of the peak (since m = 0). “Tho rot of thix effet wn the pies Lond sense dixplae plots for theve materins fe shown i Fig, 13(@). In this exe, the inflection point in the eurve signals the viset of ifuse ruccking (roughly eonditinn of masini interface press Similar to the maxinwin lond in a tesile teat. Sustain i ereace ia the punch displacement bevond the diffue necking point i found to occur forsee, while this amount isles for brs. Gn = 11.06) shoves ri ‘Wecomen mote pronounced auberyurot to die aeeting Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology I 1 substantial inereme in the postinflction displacement hilo this effet is very small in 2086-14 aluminum (mi = — 0,005). “The influence of m and m ean also be related to the cireura- ferential stenin distributions during punch stretching (Fig. 12). Glenrly the punch geometry plays a very significant role in these distributions, Cireunferentinlsteain, defined as eg = In (-/r), there re = original relat dintane from canter and r = its cur- Feat valve, must increase with «in an equal mancor near the ple ron since thie ntew is relatively at and constenints are ful Frnt all diretion ‘Awny front the pule, however, the sheot plane inetines closer owned the vertical a Tanger iezease in 4, can be accommo ‘inv with » smaller increase inthe radial distance from the fonel is, Le, wih a smaller e “This eases «bo drop sens the fedge. ‘The elge aetunlly defor in plane strain, while the pole experiences balanced biaxial tension While brow shows this behavior well in tho ease of steel, the positive ms reins rapid strain Toealization and causes e to rise frond the ecpenk. Observation (12] of deerense in wi in ronsng binvinlty Cand particularly, a rapid decrease in n with tenn under biasial londing) in the ease of brass explains the fecveine shrpneee of fie éepeak. “Kurthermore, the rise in 4 tithe allows both A-KC steel nnd dispersiow-hardened zine to il. their sean ath to a mvore positive minor strain (Fig, 138). ‘Aven from Fig. 8, this means moving to higher point on the Timit diagram. A positive m thorefore improves sheet nemabilty jn three ways: (i) by rxsing the forming limit, tri distribution aroun ‘by moving to a higher point on the forming In contrast to this, the ateain path for brass shows io fram. Fig. LA), B elover Uo plane stexin and corresponds to a lower pint on the fo itdingrasn. ‘Thus the beneficial influence iC high 1 for Genet ix somesint obscured since it helps the strain peak move tnwnrd the edge, Ita dome height at failure nun, in comparison to 32 ram for A-KC alee, even. nienenrly donble, suty i977 / 271‘ a of the Lv Inet processes om the overall formability of a component (that involves combined ftressatates) are rather complex, eautributions are derived fran “uniform” nnd Mpost-uniform" cunipamente af de- Interestingly, the combined role of these eonstit- tuents in the total tensile elongation (60.8 rm gage length) and clumping conditions (iffereut failure strsin-tlates) ae fetiont of total tensile elongation for a variety of mnterials takes from ‘ference (18). This kind of correlation is eonsideenbly stronger than dome height versus n value nlone. Part gounetry a brication conditions would, however, modify suc correlation sand formubilty predietion in suels enter would require devel ‘adequate plasticity analyses ineorporating these fuetors Influence of Deformation Rate ‘onerations invalve b terial foruability uf np 22 J sury as77 | say settee Dome HGH 1 bo experience inerenring rales of nteain, KL dues not appesr imple, nwover, ts determing aetual stenin gates in vations parte slow nlamping althowiah ono ew extieante Chat strain ie xeuerally the reango of O-10/s. iformation rate M dotrimontal to materials in wr ailcient tine for diusion to occu. iternls, tho effect of speed is not swell documented; however, it duct not appear to be very Inege “The influence of rate on tensile necking can be understood from fan appropriate description of eonstitative law. Equation (1) predits (for m > 0) increased lond with increased rate of de- furmation withoat influencing the nocking behavior. Mowever, a better constitutive description for mil steel ond 11000 ‘luni (based an Figs, 70D) aud (€)) appencs to be oa) = ofa) + ae @ where até) at the lower stenin rate is assumed to be described bby Ke alone wd de ia expressablo in terms of & and € by Ae = Km' In (lis) a Shown by: schematic constevetion in Fig. 18(a), if the two stresestrain curves (corresponding to tro constant rates) neo separated by a constant Ga, their slope (dle/de) curve will be ientical, Thi means that maximum load will be reached at simalgrstewin whet the strain rate is imereasod. "To pa his jm unnbitative for, i i known for the lower tc ul dy, the maxima land (de/de = ¢) condition requires: (nes = Neat = (Be) = mé In fa) ® With m= 0.025, caletated fromm Fig, 714), at w= 0.25 for ‘mild stel frm reference (4, equation (8) predicts the dependence fof lenin at mnnsiewtin Toad (é) a4 a function of rate (solid Line) in Fig. 150). Experimental data from Chatfeld’s work (30) ix ypored on this to thow that «.(2) ean be prediclad well from values of m (at lower rate) and m- Teamust be emphasized, however, that mt defined by equation (1) is different from the im® value given ly equation (7). Fivaly, since do/de is greater for smaller tess, the stability toss beyond ¢. is more gradual at Nigher é, This lends ta n Drader diffuse nock at higher strain ates, Fig, 15(8) alo slow total cluagation aa a faction of Alforvustinn ente frum reference (20). "The effect i las wall-e. Fine mil normally stl data contain a ToL of setter. Transactions of the ASMErom streteing vee 9 58 ‘mm radius hemispherieal punch) ae a function of rate for AKC tel also show laege ncatter (Pig. 15(e)). Thore iva oneral trond of nome increase initially, followed tym gradual decrease in dome height 1s a funetion of punch speed. ‘This kind of belavioe may arise from the combined influence of changes in material proportice and interface frictional characteristies mmf ‘peed, and has not been explained in x qunnttati Ato in equation (6) is not constant and increases with stenin, 4 would not drop as much, if any, with iaerense in wtrain rate. Jin fact, some elevated tempera suggest that. in eeeses with rate in Ali porcont Mg alloy deformed at 300°C 131}, and in low carbon steel, deformed betieen 1000°C asd 1200°C [22]. I on the other hand, Ae decrensox with strain, a ‘even more rapid drop in ¢. would oocur wilh increasing stent tate, All spectrums of behavior are hve posible depending nj the intensity ofthe thermally activated proses (time-dependent) At the prevailing deformation rate nnd its competition ma ‘the atheemal hardoning (glide bse) process Measurements of dome heig Conclusions Detailed examination of sheet stamping materials indientes hat the strain hardening exponent, x, is the mot innportant Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology {actor in the distribution of strain prior to the onset of diffuse necking. The presence of 1 small but sitivity (mn exercises an important stabilizing inflaonen on tho Con ' high fracture stain provides low earbon steel "Thote effcts alto influence the forming lit, ue alloys, on the other hand, exhibit inferior formability ‘al room temperature, since » diminishes with deformation and iy negative, When m > 0.02, a in sine alloys at room anpernture and many metals at elovated temperature, the im- ortance of 1 on the overall deformation process i reduced, and Now becomes extremely uniforin exhibiting some of the chacac- teristics of extended ductility materials. Tncreas in deformation ‘component of deformation. “The proper constitutive law, whieh eponds upon the intensity of the thermally activated slip processes, nuist be characterized nlequately, however, to allow predietiona of thi type References 1, Keoler, 8. P, "Undorsts Machinery, 108, wing Shoot Motal Forsnability," suey as77 / 223cal Proportos tu the Sterteh Farming Proceatings of the Intrnatianal Cans rence on. Sciene ad Teche of om ond Sel ph ‘Trnusactions of the Tron aud Stee Hntitnte of apa,’ Vale TT 1971, pp. 827-851 Wang N. St, Large Plastic Detorrution af a Ciceulae Caused by Pusieh Stet ching,” Journal of Applial Mevhans sea, Vol, 37, 1940, yp 431-140, geht A Bea loin. FMage nh She Stretched Over itigid Punches." Meatiugic! Toancastions, al GA, 1875, pp. 1005-1004. '5_Disneombe, E.. "Plastic Lustability. and Groth of Grooves nid Patches in Pines Tunes Lnttnatina ar! of Mechanical Seienee, Vol. 1, 1972. pp 4 Ghowh, Ani. "A Namerieal Atnlgsis af the Tensile for Sheet Meta: eatin Metallurgica? Transactions, 1077 TPenning, Po, “Mathenintien of the Portevin emect cia Aitalyrgien, Vol. 30, 1972: yyy Hall, 2.0. 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