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CONTENTS

 Page
INTRODUCTION v

LEARNING UNIT 1: Instructional studies in context 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 What is instruction? 1
1.3 Some definitions and terms 6
1.4 Some concepts relating to instruction 7
1.5 The place, importance and value of instruction 10
1.6 Teacher roles and responsibilities in instruction 10
1.7 African teaching philosophies and perspectives 14
1.8 Conclusion 17
LEARNING UNIT 2: Practices and possibilities in instruction 18
2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Styles of instruction 18
2.3 Forms of instruction: training, teaching, facilitating, tutoring and mentoring 19
2.4 Instructional contexts 21
2.4.1 Formal contexts 21
2.4.2 Informal contexts 22
2.4.3 Non-formal contexts 22
2.5 Important instructional approaches 22
2.6 Important instructional strategies 25
2.6.1 Constructivist, active and cooperative instruction strategies 25
2.6.2 Direct instruction 26
2.6.3 Discussion 27
2.6.4 Small-group work 27
2.6.5 Cooperative learning 27
2.6.6 Problem-solving 27
2.6.7 Inquiry 28
2.6.8 Case study 28
2.6.9 Role-play 28
2.6.10 Writing 28
2.6.11 Connectivism and e-learning: the flipped classroom 29
2.7 Instruction at different levels in education 31
2.8 Conclusion 32
LEARNING UNIT 3: Models and theories of instruction 33
3.1 Introduction 33
3.2 The ADDIE model, ID4T instruction model and UbD model 33
3.3 Merrill’s five principles of instruction 36
3.4 Gagne’s nine events of instruction 37
3.5 Dick and Carey’s model 37
3.6 Instructional models based on multiple intelligences and different learning styles 39
3.6.1 Gardner’s multiple intelligences 39
3.6.2 Kolb’s learning styles model 40
3.6.3 Honey and Mumford’s model of learning 42
3.7 Conclusion 43

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LEARNING UNIT 4:  utting it all together: Designing your own instructional event, and
P
reflecting on your design 45
4.1 Introduction 45
4.2 Designing a learning event 45
4.3 Reflecting on and improving your design 47
4.4 Conclusion 48
REFERENCES 49

(iv)
INTRODUCTION

True teaching is not accumulation of knowledge; it is an awakening of

consciousness – African proverb

Dear Students

Welcome to the Instructional Studies in Context module. This module will take you through
general teaching and learning principles and various styles and models of instruction
that will equip you to be a good designer of teaching events or lessons. Knowing what
lesson preparation entails puts you in a much stronger position to make the necessary
decisions when designing instruction in a classroom. Lessons need to be meaningful and
relevant to your learners, and in order to plan, prepare and present successful lessons, as
an instructional designer you will need certain knowledge and skills, and a good dose of
creativity. Instructional studies also entails understanding the interrelationship between
the three main components of a lesson: the teacher, the learners, and the content, so
in this module you will also learn about a number of theories and concepts associated
with instruction.

The purpose of this module is to provide a foundation and additional scaffolding for
understanding teaching methodologies. It will also help to establish links and bridge
gaps between curriculum, assessment and practical teaching. We will talk about both
general theories relating to designing instruction and specific instruction strategies that
you will be able to apply to all subjects and teaching and learning situations.

Synonyms for instruction are educating, training, coaching, teaching, facilitating and
tutoring, and together we will be exploring multiple methods of instruction to educate
learners of differing ages, backgrounds and ability levels. We will be considering African
perspectives on pedagogy, and investigating various instructional approaches, strategies
and models that can be applied practically in a classroom. The module will culminate in
your own design of and reflection on instruction for a learning event.

As you work through the study material, use a notebook for making your own notes and
completing the various activities in the study guide. This will assist you when it comes to
preparing for the assignments and non-venue examination for this module. Your textbook
was selected as a guide to support you throughout your degree, and you will continue
to find it useful once you have qualified and are working as a teacher.

Look out for the following icons, as you work through the study guide:

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 Icon Description

Activities: This means that you need to write down your answers
for the activities..

This means that the section is dealt with in your prescribed textbook,
and that you need to read the section in your textbook before
continuing.

This means that you need to log in to myUnisa for a resource or an

activity.

Here is a brief overview of the module:

Learning unit Main content

1: Instructional studies in • What is instruction?

context • Concepts related to teaching
• Roles and responsibilities of teachers regarding
instruction
• African perspectives on teaching

2: Practices and possibilities in • Instructional styles

instruction • Instructional contexts
• Instructional forms
• Instructional approaches and strategies
• Instruction at different levels

3: Models and theories of • The ADDIE model

instruction • Instructional design for teachers model (ID4T)
• Understanding by design (UbD)
• Merrill’s five principles of instruction
• Gagne’s nine events of instruction
• Dick and Carey’s model of instructional design
• Gardner’s multiple intelligences
• Kolb’s learning styles
• Honey and Mumford’s learning styles

(vi)
Learning unit Main content

4: Putting it all together: • Designing a learning event

designing your own instruc- • Reflecting on and improving the design
tional event, and reflecting • Reflecting as a teacher
on your design

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LEARNING UNIT 1
Instructional studies in context

1.1 INTRODUCTION
After studying this Learning unit, you should be able to explain the nature of and concepts
associated with instruction. You should be able to explain the place, importance and value
of instruction; formulate and elucidate concepts related to instruction in understandable
ways, and develop and demonstrate an understanding of your role and responsibilities
in the context of instruction. You should also have developed an appreciation for and
give due consideration to African perspectives on education and instruction that have
been neglected and suppressed. We will deal with:
• What is instruction?
• The nature of and concepts related to instruction
• The place, importance and value of instruction
• The roles and responsibilities of teachers in the context of instruction
• African teaching philosophies and perspectives

1.2 WHAT IS INSTRUCTION?

Instruction can relate to being told or being informed about something, and also to
communicating how something should be done. Practitioners in the fields of education,
teaching and training use the term extensively. In this module, we will consider instruction
in its role in formal education. Instruction can also entail being told what to do without
another person doing the instructing (e.g. following a written method or computer
program). However, in the context of education, we talk about instruction that involves
people. A teacher is involved with the theory of instruction. Teaching is how instruction
manifests itself within a school or a classroom. In this module I will use the terms “teaching”
and “instruction” interchangeably, even though instruction often relates to getting people
to the point where they are able to do something, while teaching can be considered as
stimulating their thinking. Instruction therefore relates to that aspect of teaching that is
planned and purposeful. Teaching is often more holistic, in that it involves more than just
the instructional component.

Stop for a few minutes to consider the following question. Speak to other people (this
could include other students) and write down some ideas.

Activity 1.1

What is teaching?
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Did you notice that different people have different interpretations of the concept
“teaching”?

Please share your own definitions by participating in the myUnisa discussion for this
module. Did you notice that some definitions relate to teaching as knowledge, teaching
as a skill, or even teaching as an art form? All of these would be correct. Teaching is a
very complex endeavour.

In the next section, I would like you to form an overview of the concept of teaching.

The information in the text box below is taken from an OER by Bak, Behardien, Morrow
and Pendleberry (2010).
Teaching as an activity
You already know quite a lot about teaching. You would not be here, reading this mod-
ule, if you did not. You have been a student for many years in school, and perhaps also
in college, and you have probably also done some teaching. Let’s find some examples
of teaching to help us to think about teaching as an activity. For a start, recall three
examples of teaching from your own experience.

Activity 1.2

(1) In your workbook, briefly describe three examples of teaching that you have
experienced. Try to think of three examples that are as different as possible from
each other. Identify each example with a few words, or a sentence or two. Label
your examples (a), (b), and (c) to make it easier to refer to them later.
(2) Think about your three examples by answering the following eight questions:
(a) Are all three of your examples cases of teaching taking place in schools?
(b) Are all the ‘teachers’ in your examples people employed as teachers in schools?
(c) Are you the ‘teacher’ in any of your examples?
(d) Are any of your examples cases in which more than one teacher was involved?
(e) Are any of your examples cases of teaching in which the ‘teacher’ was younger
than the ‘learners’?
(f) Are any of your examples cases in which the learners were not school or col-
lege students?
(g) Are any of your examples cases in which only one learner was involved?
(h) Are any of your examples cases of teaching that took place over a long time
(more than the length of a school lesson)?
The point of the questions in activity 1.2 is to try to break the hold of the common idea
that teaching takes place only in classrooms in schools and colleges and other formal

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institutions of learning. Your three examples, (a), (b), and (c), are probably examples of
this specialized kind of teaching.

The common picture of teaching is too narrow

From your own experience, you know that teaching is found not only in classrooms
in formal institutions of learning. You know that in everyday life mothers teach their
children how to eat their food properly, grandfathers teach their grandchildren how
to grow vegetables, older brothers and sisters teach their younger brothers and sisters
how to dress themselves or clean their teeth, and school-going children might teach
an older relative how to speak English, or to read. When we think carefully about
teaching we are reminded that teaching is an activity, which is constantly present in
the everyday lives of normal human communities. In fact, most teaching takes place
outside of the walls and timetables of schools and colleges, and most teaching is done
by anyone who knows something that someone else does not and not only by people
called ‘teachers’ or ‘lecturers’.
The common picture of teaching is too narrow. It covers only a restricted range of
examples of teaching, and this is why it is misleading if we are trying to find out what
is distinctive of the activity of teaching in order to think clearly about the appropriate
shaping of its internal time and space. In introducing Activity 1.2 one of the things we
suggested is that you already know a lot about teaching because ‘you have been a
student for many years in school’. We can now see that this might have taken you off
on too narrow a path. To say that you have been a ‘student’ for many years is different
from saying that you have been a ‘learner’ for many years. You have been a learner
for many more years than you have been a student and many of the things you have
learnt you learnt outside of schools and colleges. And a lot of what you have learnt
you were taught by people who were not officially teachers. In the first five or six years
of your life, before you ever went to school, you learnt some of the most important
things you will ever learn, such as how to speak a language and be a human being.
Throughout your life, many different people with whom you have come into contact
have taught you many different things.
In addition, in introducing Activity 1.2, we suggested that you ‘have probably done
some teaching’. Perhaps you took this to mean that you have probably already taught
in a school, or some other formal institution of learning. However, thinking in terms of
the general activity of teaching, it is extremely unlikely that you have done no teach-
ing at all. Think of examples such as mothers teaching children how to use a spoon to
eat their food, uncles teaching their nephews how to restart a car which has stopped,
sisters or brothers, teaching each other or their friends, how to dress fashionably or
how to play some game, or of a grandmother teaching a grandchild how to thread
a needle. As a normal member of a human community, you must be able to think of
many examples of teaching that you have done, although they might not have come
to mind when you were thinking of examples for Activity 1.2.
Think, also, of how teaching some kinds of things can take extended periods, perhaps
even years. Think, for example of the time it takes to teach a person how to read or
write, and the time it takes to teach a person how to speak another language fluently.
These examples also help us think about another way in which the common picture
of teaching can be very misleading. That picture suggests that in all cases of teaching
only a single teacher is involved. However, we know that we were taught how to read
or write by a series of teachers, over a number of years. We can also think of other
examples in which a number of teachers are involved – a novice motorcar mechanic
might be taught his skills by the half a dozen experienced mechanics already working
in the garage.

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Now think of some additional examples of teaching, examples that break free of the
common picture.

What have we learnt so far?

Here are the main points of our discussion about how we can tell whether someone
is teaching:
(1) A person who is teaching must be engaging in some appropriate action and must
be engaging in that action with appropriate intentions.
(2) We can tell what the appropriate actions and intentions are only in terms of the
formal purpose that defines the activity of teaching.
(3) The formal purpose of an activity is a concept that is shared in a community; it is
neither personal nor subjective.

Characteristics of practices
We shall here briefly introduce five characteristics of practices:
(1) Practices are necessarily social.
(2) Practices have histories and traditions.
(3) Practices are flexible in relation to changing conditions.
(4) A practice can change, but only within the boundaries of our understanding of
what makes it a distinctive practice.
(5) Practices have their own internal standards of success and excellence.

1. Practices are necessarily social

In a stronger way than in the case of some other activities, practices are shared and
sustained in communities of practitioners. To see something as a practice places much
more emphasis on the way in which it is necessary that it is social. This is not merely a
point about how some activities – such as, for example, playing a team game or having
a discussion – necessarily involve a number of participants acting in co-ordination with
each other (a person cannot play hockey or chess, or teach, by themselves.) However,
it is a point about how what could even count as an example of participating in the
activity cannot be a matter of personal intentions or individual decision. There are
some practices, such as writing a novel, which might be done by a single person work-
ing on their own, nevertheless, what counts as writing a novel cannot be a matter of
individual decision.
We have already considered examples of this kind in relation to Pat doing housework
and Martha doing gardening. Our shared understanding of housework and garden-
ing draws a boundary around what could count as an example of participating in the
practices of housework or gardening. This boundary might not be very sharp but we
know that there is a boundary because we know, for example, that dozing in front of
the TV cannot be a kind of housework or gardening. This boundary was established by
something like agreement amongst those who participate in the activity and people
who talk and think about these things. The origins of this understanding are unlikely
to have been an explicit agreement at a particular moment – like agreeing to name a
new child ‘Thandi’. However, there is implicit agreement about the concepts in terms
of which we understand this part of our world. Because this understanding is shared
and communal, rather than individual or personal, we can say that it is based on inter-
personal agreement. And in this way practices are essentially social.

2. Practices have histories and traditions

Unlike some other activities, practices have histories and traditions. The practices of
cooking, building shelters, playing soccer or thinking scientifically, and, of course, school

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teaching, all have histories during which particular traditions have developed of how
to participate in the practice, and of what counts as good or excellent participation.
To become a participant in a practice involves critically appropriating its history and
traditions, and anyone who imagines themselves as having invented a practice without
having taken account of its history and traditions is simply naïve or ignorant.

3. Practices are flexible in relation to changing conditions

The traditions that are embedded in a practice, and that serve, partly, to define it, are
not rigid or static. Practices can be thought of as open and ongoing projects that stop
changing only when they cease to have vitality and significance in our communal
lives. Over time practices change, sometimes gradually, but sometimes quite rapidly.
What brings such changes about is changes in our knowledge of the practice and
how its definitive goals can be better served, changes in relevant technologies, and
circumstances, and creative innovations from some of its participants. In these ways,
practices remain open to revision and improvement.

4. A practice can change, but only within the boundaries of our understanding of what
makes it a distinctive practice
Although practices are open to revision, those revisions and improvements remain
within the broad boundaries that mark out the scope of the practice. There is an impor-
tant difference between improving a practice and either abandoning the practice or
substituting a different practice for it. Over time a practice like playing cricket changes,
although the question of whether such changes count as improvements is always a
matter of controversy. The practice of playing cricket doesn’t change by everyone
simply ceasing to play cricket, or by substituting another game, such as baseball, for
cricket. There is something essential to the practice of playing cricket, and changes
take place within, as we might put it, the framework of that essence – otherwise the
changes in question are not changes in the practice of cricket at all.

If we think back to what we have discovered in the formal purpose of the activity of
teaching we can see how this might work. That formal purpose, now being seen as a
formal purpose of the practice of teaching, makes a conceptual and practical boundary
to what we are prepared to accept as an example of teaching. The formal purpose of
teaching is to bring it about that someone tries to learn something. How this might be
done is not specified for this purpose, and we know that there are many ways of doing
this. Improvements in the practice of teaching might arise from changes in relevant
technology, changes in our knowledge of the conditions for learning, or even from a
practitioner discovering a way of accomplishing this purpose that had previously not
been thought of.

5. Practices have their own internal standards of success and excellence

A very important fifth characteristic of practices is that they have internal standards of
success and excellence. Someone can participate well or poorly in the practice of, for
example, cooking. Some participants are much more successful than others are and
some even achieve excellence in this practice. The criteria for success or excellence
are internal to the practice – one cannot judge the excellence of choir singing in terms
of the criteria appropriate for judging the excellence of participating in the practice
of gymnastics – and such judgments are not subjective or personal opinion. We can
add here that when the standards of success and excellence of one practice are used
in judging success or excellence in another practice, that practice can be corrupted
or distorted.

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Reading 1.1

Activity 1.3

Write up some notes under each of the five headings about practices related to teach-
ing as a practice. Can you think of practical examples from your own experience? How
does teaching manifest itself as a social, flexible, historically rich, changing-within-
boundaries and standards-based practice?

Are you beginning to see that teaching and instruction is a very complex endeavour,
and that even after a number of years’ studying to be a teacher, as a teacher you will be
involved in ‘life-long learning’?

There are many forms of teaching, and teaching is often defined in different ways. Let’s
look as some definitions of this concept.

1.3 SOME DEFINITIONS AND TERMS

Fraser, Loubser and Van Rooy (1990:3) state that “teaching is an activity which aims at
presenting certain (learning) content to somebody else in such a way that that person learns
something from it”. They add that teaching is “intentional, dynamic, systematic and well
founded”: teaching is intentional because it has an educational aim, it is dynamic because
it should yield learning results, it is systematic because it is deliberately planned and it
is well founded because it is based on definite guidelines (e.g. a curriculum document)
and it is evaluated continuously.

Orlich, Harder, Callahan, Trevisan and Brown (2010) explain that teaching is both a science
and an art: an art because it requires a teacher to make decisions, and a science because
it requires knowledge of techniques.

You will notice that it is very difficult to separate “teaching” from “learning”. The science
of teaching is called didactics, while the word “pedagogy” refers to a more holistic study
of the educational process involving not-yet-adult learners.

Are there other words that are similar in meaning to “teaching”? How many similar words
can you find?

Please share your list by participating in the myUnisa discussion for this module.

Activity 1.4

Words similar to “teaching”:

instructing, educating …
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Your textbook takes this one step further, and asks the question, “What is
good teaching?” Summarise this section in your notebook.
Textbook chapter 1

We now turn to a few concepts and definitions often associated with instruction.

1.4 SOME CONCEPTS RELATING TO INSTRUCTION

Let’s take a look at some of the concepts commonly association with instruction. These
definitions are not exhaustive, but they do provide you with a starting point from which
to formulate your own understanding and formulation of these concepts.

Teaching: The goal of teaching is to ensure that meaningful learning takes place. This
means that teaching is more than instructing, and more than presenting lessons – teaching
involves all the teacher’s activities before, during and after lessons. Smith and Ragan
(1999) make the following distinction between teaching and instruction: teaching is a
learning experience facilitated by a person, whereas instruction does not always involve
human interaction – for instance, you could receive instructions on your phone or via a
computer app. Definitions of teaching are varied and complex. If we look at the roles you
are expected to fulfill as a teacher, you will understand why teaching is a multi-faceted
and complex endeavour.

These roles should be understood as everyday functions of the collective of all educators
at a school. They seldom have to be carried out completely, in all their detail or all of the
time, by individual teachers. However, teachers will carry out the roles appropriate to their
specific position in the school. All classroom teachers will develop in the seven roles as
appropriate to their practice. These roles are specified in the Revised Policy on Minimum
Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications, which appears in Government Gazette
no. 38487 (Department of Higher Education and Training 2015).

Before we continue, let us look at some definitions of terms that we will use throughout
this module:

Teacher: A professionally qualified person who undertakes to teach in a formal environ-

ment such as a school or college. In informal contexts, it could refer to anyone who
teaches something to someone else.
Instruction: The teaching and learning activities that are planned and executed during a
lesson. Instruction is designed with a specific purpose in mind and to achieve certain
goals. The ultimate decision a teacher makes regarding instructional choices must

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 contribute to learning and be of educational value to learners. The term “instruc-
tion” can include various forms such as training, teaching, facilitating, mentoring
and tutoring. Smith and Ragan (1999:3) consider instruction to be the delivery of a
focused educational experience.
Training: Smith and Ragan (1999) describe training as a form of instruction where very
specific job-related skills are taught. Often the skills will be used almost immediately.
Training is also used in terms of sporting activities or military exercises, so repetition
is involved.
Mentoring: English Oxford Living Dictionaries defines a mentor as an experienced person
in a company or educational institution who trains and counsels new employees
or students (https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/mentor). Mentoring can
involve two adults, one of whom advises and trains the other. Lancer, Clutterbuck
and Megginson (2016:6) state that “the mentor has wisdom and experience, but
uses them to help the mentee become courageous and develop their own wisdom
rather than to impart knowledge.” Brecht (2010) explains that cognitive mentorship
is about bringing thinking to the surface. The thinking of both the mentor and the
mentee is made clear to the other person.
Facilitating: A facilitator normally works with a group. The role of a facilitator is to make
things easier for the group, but not to tell them what to do or give them the solution.
The group normally has a problem to solve, and the facilitator enables them to reach
their solution collectively. The facilitator also assists with group dynamics. Hogan
(2002) explains that facilitators may direct learning by making planning decisions for
the group. The facilitator may act as negotiator by helping learners share ideas, or
may delegate roles to group members so that they can become more independent.
Tutoring: English Oxford Living Dictionaries tells us that this word stems from the Latin
meaning to guard or to watch (https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/tutor).
Tutoring entails one person assisting an individual or small group. A tutor is in many
instances a personal teacher who assists a learner with a particular subject. Sometimes
tutors have less experience or qualification than a professional teacher or lecturer.
Gagne (1987:319) states that cross-age and peer tutoring can take place. The tutor
also adapts instruction to the learner.
Learners/pupils/students: These terms are sometimes used synonymously (in other
words, to mean the same thing). Generally, any person who is learning can be con-
sidered a learner. In the South African school context we often use the term “pupil”,
and in South Africa we refer to post-school learners as “students”. Internationally, the
term “students” is also used to refer to learners of school-going age.
Learning: This is the goal of teaching and instruction. Broadly, it refers to the acquisition
of knowledge and skills. It also refers to an understanding of concepts that could
not be understood or an ability to do something that could not be done before the
teaching or instruction took place.

Teaching methods are those specific teacher and learner activities that you plan and
execute during a lesson. The methods depend on your learners, the content and the aims
of your lesson. A teacher needs to consider how to optimise learning through the choice
of teaching methods. Westwood (2008:v) tells us:
A teaching method is characterised by a set of principles, procedures or strategies to
be implemented by teachers to achieve desired learning in students (Liu & Shi, 2007).

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 These principles and procedures are determined partly by the nature of the subject
matter to be taught, and partly by our beliefs or theories about how students learn

So, defining a teaching method is not as simple as one might first think. Carl (2015:95)
explains that there is a “close connection between learning experiences, learning
opportunities and teaching methods.” He further describes the connection as arising
from the fact that the teacher’s actions and the learner’s actions result in a learning
opportunity where the learner could be actively involved and a meaningful experience
could result from this involvement. Carl defines a teaching method as the “ways or means,
which will acquaint the learners with the content in a manner that will lead to learning.”

Activity 1.5

1.1. How many synonyms (words with the same meaning) can you find for the word
“teaching”? Create a list here:
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1.2. Can the synonyms in your list all be used in the school context?
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2. How many teaching methods do you know? Identify as many others as you can
by consulting books and the internet.

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3. In some circles learning to become a teacher is called teacher training, while

others call it initial teacher education. What are your thoughts about the difference
between the two? Is learning to teach about acquiring a set of skills, or is learning
to teach a deeper, life-long process? Is training part of learning to teach?

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Perhaps the term “education” is more holistic than “training”. It encompasses growing
and developing the whole student. Education refers to developing a holistic knowledge,
and the skills and values related to teaching, whereas training refers to just a narrow set
of skills.

1.5 THE PLACE, IMPORTANCE AND VALUE OF INSTRUCTION

Lowery and Hayes (2014:xiii) introduce the concept of teaching as “an essential part of life
[that has been] on this earth for a very long time”. People throughout the ages have so
valued their cultures and traditions that handing these traditions down to their children
was an important part of life. Therefore, teaching and instruction have always been
part of human existence. Teaching was often undertaken by the most educated people
(Mda 1997), which led to a high regard for teachers. Teaching has changed, and the days
when teachers were “mere transmitters of knowledge to passive, uninvolved learners
are long gone” (Kruger 1997:218). Today, teachers need to involve learners creatively in
their learning and incorporate relevant technology. Kruger explains that teachers need
to be knowledgeable regarding up-to-date instructional methods. They also need to
know how to adapt methods to learners at different levels and individual learners. Kruger
also reminds us that teachers must have a holistic view of teaching, involving physical,
cognitive, social and moral aspects and volition, and not just knowledge and intellect.
Teachers are the most critical layer of the curriculum, since they breathe life into the
curriculum and integrate what they know about their learners and their communities
into the instructional environment. A teacher’s role in forming and building knowledge,
skills, orientations, beliefs and values should never be underestimated.

1.6 TEACHER ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN INSTRUCTION

As a teacher, you will be making many decisions every day. Orlich et al. (2010) remind us
that with decision-making comes responsibility. They point out that some decisions are
made for teachers, such as the curriculum, the number of learners in the class, and the time
school starts. Teachers, however, still make many other decisions every day. You may not
even be aware of the decisions you are making, as you make them almost automatically.
Orlich et al. (2010) note that teachers who do take responsibility for decision-making try
to get as much information as possible about their students and their subject, and then
develop a teaching plan aimed at success.

One of your roles and responsibilities regarding instruction is to align your teaching to
the relevant curriculum. The CAPS documents are underpinned by the wider framework
of the South African Constitution. This wider framework has set out some general aims
for the curriculum. Let’s have a look at these.

10
General aims of the South African curriculum
(a) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12 gives expression to the knowledge,
(1)

skills and values worth learning in South African schools. This curriculum aims
to ensure that children acquire and apply knowledge and skills in ways that are
meaningful to their own lives. In this regard, the curriculum promotes knowledge
in local contexts, while being sensitive to global imperatives.
(b) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12 serves the purposes of:
(2)

• equipping learners, irrespective of their socio-economic background, race,

gender, physical ability or intellectual ability, with the knowledge, skills and
values necessary for self-fulfilment and meaningful participation in society as
citizens of a free country;
• providing access to higher education;
• facilitating the transition of learners from education institutions to the workplace;
and
• providing employers with a sufficient profile of a learner’s competences.
(3) (c) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12 is based on the following principles:
• Social transformation: ensuring that the educational imbalances of the past
are redressed, and that equal educational opportunities are provided for all
sections of the population;
• Active and critical learning: encouraging an active and critical approach to
learning, rather than rote and uncritical learning of given truths;
• High knowledge and high skills: the minimum standards of knowledge and skills
to be achieved at each grade are specified and set high, achievable standards
in all subjects;
• Progression: content and context of each grade shows progression from simple
to complex;
• Human rights, inclusivity, environmental and social justice: infusing the principles
and practices of social and environmental justice and human rights as defined
in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. The National Curriculum
Statement Grades R–12 is sensitive to issues of diversity such as poverty,
inequality, race, gender, language, age, disability and other factors;
• Valuing indigenous knowledge systems: acknowledging the rich history and
heritage of this country as important contributors to nurturing the values
contained in the Constitution; and
• Credibility, quality and efficiency: providing an education that is comparable
in quality, breadth and depth to that of other countries.
(4) (d) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12 aims to produce learners that
are able to:
• identify and solve problems and make decisions using critical and creative
thinking;
• work effectively as individuals and with others as members of a team;
• organise and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and effectively;
• collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information;

11 ISC3701/1
 • communicate effectively using visual, symbolic and/or language skills in various
modes;
• use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility
towards the environment and the health of others; and
• demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by
recognising that problem-solving contexts do not exist in isolation.
(e) Inclusivity should become a central part of the organisation, planning and teaching
(5)

at each school. This can only happen if all teachers have a sound understanding of
how to recognise and address barriers to learning, and how to plan for diversity.
The key to managing inclusivity is ensuring that barriers are identified and addressed
by all the relevant support structures within the school community, including teachers,
district-based support teams, institutional-level support teams, parents and special
schools as resource centres. To address barriers in the classroom, teachers should use
various curriculum differentiation strategies such as those included in the Department
of Basic Education’s Guidelines for Inclusive Teaching and Learning (2010).

Reading 1.2
Source: Department of Basic Education (2011:4–5).

You should always have the greater aims of the curriculum in mind, even if you are not
following the CAPS curriculum, as this will assist you in making some of the other decisions
you need to make when planning instruction. In terms of instruction, your other roles
and responsibilities include:
• Analysing the learning needs. This means that you design lessons that cater for the
needs of the learners in your classroom by adapting, refining and redesigning learning
activities so as to optimise the learning for your specific learners.
• Articulating your learning intentions. You write out your lesson planning to ensure
that you have considered the detail of how your lesson will proceed. You have clear
learning goals and outcomes. These aims and outcomes allow you to make a good
selection of content, material and teaching methods. When you are doing lesson
planning, these are usually the first things that you formulate.
• Selecting content to enable you to achieve your teaching aims and learning outcomes/
objectives. You do this by considering your curriculum.
• Selecting the relevant teaching and learning material. Learning material is often
referred to as teaching resources, or LTSM (learner-teacher-support material). Analysing
your learning needs carefully and writing out your aims/goals/outcomes/objectives
will guide you in your choice of learning material.
• Selecting appropriate teaching methods to achieve your teaching aims and learning
outcomes/objectives. This will be the driving force of your lesson. How will the teaching
and learning take place? Who will do what?
• Planning for both the formal and informal formative assessment as well as the
summative assessment. Formative assessment guides your actions as a teacher in
terms of how learners are progressing towards meeting the lesson aims and outcomes.

12
 Formative assessment provides feedback to the learners while they are learning.
Summative assessment is the way in which you will evaluate student learning at the
end of the lesson/section of work/term and so on.
• Reflecting on your lesson. Spend time thinking about how learning could be enhanced
or supported. Too many teachers consider the teaching and learning only after they
have marked a test or examination. Reflection on your teaching should be built into
your day. Don’t consider the lesson from your own perspective only; think about how
the learners experienced your lesson.
• Keeping abreast of the latest ideas in teaching as these relate to methods and
technology. Don’t be afraid to try new ideas. This will involve reading current journal
articles and books, and attending professional development workshops.

Ultimately, your role and responsibility regarding instruction relate to learning. Nowadays,
teachers are held accountable for the learning and assessment results in their classrooms
to a greater degree than in the past. If you look at the some of the criteria for teaching
method selection, it is clear that the selection of a teaching method is not undertaken in
a haphazard manner, but must be carefully considered and chosen by the teacher. This
choice is part of the responsibility of teaching.

Activity 1.6

Spend some time thinking about these questions, and write down your ideas. Expand
your answers in your workbook.
(1) Which of the CAPS overarching aims will you find a) easiest and b) most difficult
to meet? Why do you say so?
(2) Which of the above roles and responsibilities will you find a) easiest and b) most
difficult to fulfil?
Why do you say so?
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
(3) Why do you think some teachers use the same methods for all their lessons?
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
(4) How can you ensure that you offer a greater variety once you are a teacher?
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................

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 ................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................

Never lose sight of the fact that as a teacher, you have a huge responsibility. If you examine
the CAPS document, you will notice that a great deal is expected of you. In terms of
making a difference in the classroom, your choice of a specific method or methods is
going to have an enormous influence on the learners and how they learn – which is your
primary responsibility.

The following section in your textbook deals with the intricacies of selecting a teaching
method. Selecting and implementing a teaching method is a complex and multifaceted
endeavour. It is one of your responsibilities as a teacher, and will have consequences for
learning.

Textbook chapter 2

Do you see that you can select either teacher-centred approaches or learner-centred
approaches? Each strategy you select is likely to have both advantages and disadvantages,
and you will need to weigh these up in order to make your decision. You cannot say that
only one approach should be used all the time.

1.7 AFRICAN TEACHING PHILOSOPHIES AND PERSPECTIVES

In this section we are going to talk about African perspectives on teaching and instruction.
African-based perspectives are more community oriented than individually oriented.
Many of the more modern ideas of inclusive education and connectivism can be traced
to African roots.

Ngara (2007:8–9) offers this insight:

In the African sense, a child is a child of every adult in the community. Teaching
the child in traditional Africa was therefore not the monopoly of the biological
parents. Every responsible adult could teach any child about the community’s ways
(etiquette, survival, welfare, etc). There was a division of labor and specialization
whereby youths were apprenticed to skilled masters of healing arts, blacksmithing,
hunting, midwifery, craftwork, etc. Any adult who happened to be free could enjoy
teaching children traditional games including counting, puzzles, riddles and recit-
ing children’s poems (to the new moon, to the rain, to the sun, etc). Grandparents
were not relegated into seclusion by virtue of old age but they remained with the
family, imparting their acquired wisdom and philosophical ideas of the community.
Children would congregate at the home of a well-known storyteller whose services
they reciprocated by bringing firewood.

As you can see, in this context instruction is communal and based on rich traditions rather
than being individual and atomistic, as more Western approaches tend to be. Dei (2010:35)

14
talks about the “cult of individualism” in Western countries as opposed to a “community
of leaders” or “collaborative responsibility,” which is more in tune with African philosophy.
Dei says that within the Western paradigm, those students who do well do not feel an
obligation to assist those who are struggling. Dei suggests that learners should develop a
sense of obligation towards one another, and he gives examples of cooperative learning,
study groups and working in pairs as ways to foster this mutual obligation. Dei explains
that within the Western paradigm, those who fail fail as individuals, while an African
perspective would see failure as a collective problem. Dei (2010:39) further explains that
African-centred educational philosophy supports inclusive education – African-centred
education makes provision for a diversity of learners who come from different backgrounds.
Dei (2010:42) further proposes that learners develop a connectedness and identification
with their schools, and suggests that teachers should aim to get students to “own” their
knowledge. Adult–peer mentorship encourages ties between teachers, learners, family
and community, and this in turn will promote leadership in learners. You can see from
Dei’s writing that connectedness and inclusivity can be traced back to African roots,
although they have surfaced in recent thinking about education.

Reagan (2005:61), on the basis of the work of Fafunwa (1974), identifies the following goals
of traditional African education:
• To develop the child’s latent physical skills
• To develop character
• To inculcate respect for elders and those in positions of authority
• To develop intellectual skills
• To acquire specific vocational training and a healthy attitude toward honest labour
• To develop a sense of belonging and to participate actively in family and community
affairs, and
• To understand, appreciate and promote the cultural heritage of the community at large

In citing Moumouni’s (1968) four features of traditional African education, Reagan presents
similar ideas to those of Dei:
• The great importance attached to it, and its collective and social nature;
• Its intimate tie with social life, in both a material and a spiritual sense;
• Its multivalent character, in terms of both its goals and the means employed; and
• Its gradual and progressive achievements, in conformity with the successive stages
of physical, emotional, and mental development of the child.

Integrated within the discourse on African philosophy is the notion of ubuntu. Letseka
(2000:179) defines this concept as “an important measure of human wellbeing or human
flourishing in traditional African life. Botho or ubuntu is treated as normative in that
it encapsulates moral norms and virtues such as kindness, generosity, compassion,
benevolence, courtesy, and respect and concern for others.” Letseka emphasises the
human aspect arising from our connection to other people. African ways of knowing
cannot be separated from ways of living, which include language, knowledge, cultural
practices and heritage.

In reviewing the book, Non-Western perspectives on learning and knowing: perspectives from
around the world by Sharan B Merriam, Carruth (2012) distils some of Merriam’s findings.

15 ISC3701/1
An African perspective was cited as an example of a non-Western perspective. Carruth
notes that, in the book, non-Western perspectives are cited as valuing knowledge learnt
informally or from experience, and that there is a focus on interdependence in non-
Western perspectives as opposed to the independence that is favoured in the Western
context. Carruth also draws attention to Merriam’s finding that in non-Western contexts
knowledge has a number of dimensions (spiritual, emotional etc.), but that in terms of
Western perspectives knowledge is compartmentalised.

Dei (2010:42) reminds us that “African-centred philosophical ideals are not simply for Black
and African students. African-centred ideas are shared by many Indigenous communities
and are relevant to global humanism. For this reason, the African school is defined by its
philosophical grounding rather than its racial characteristics”. Ngara (2007) reaffirms that
pedagogy in Africa should include different layers of knowledge and that indigenous
knowledge has a vital role to play in education.

As you work through the remaining units in this module, please look out for ties between
some of the concepts we will be dealing with and African perspectives – for example,
there are parallels between social constructivism or connectivism and African thinking
and perspectives on education. You will also find communalism and ubuntu mirrored in
some Western ideas.

Activity 1.7

(1) Why is it important that, as teachers in Africa, we have a good understanding of

African teaching perspectives?
(2) What aspects of African-based teaching can you integrate into your own teaching
philosophy?
(3) How will this be of benefit to you, the learners and your school?
(4) Dei (2010) mentions that individualism is a non-African concept, while African
concepts are more community based. What is your experience in this regard at
the schools you attended or have visited?
(5) Reagan (2005) states that one of the goals of African education is to instil a sense of
belonging. What is your experience in this regard at the schools you have visited?
How can schools improve this sense of belonging?

It is important that you consider different cultural approaches to issues in education. You
will find that many of the ideas about education across the world are based on similar
philosophies.

Activity 1.8

Please go to myUnisa and listen to PODCAST 1 for feedback on this section.

16
1.8 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have looked at some of the concepts associated with instruction. An
important point we agreed on was that there is no single concept of teaching or instruction,
and that these terms cannot be narrowly defined. We also considered some definitions
of concepts closely related to teaching. In terms of instruction, we examined some of
your roles and responsibilities as these relate to the instructional choices you make as a
teacher. An African perspective on pedagogy was presented as an important contribution
to our understanding of teaching. In the next unit, we will look at some of the forms,
styles, approaches and strategies encountered in instruction.

17 ISC3701/1
LEARNING UNIT 2
Practices and possibilities in instruction

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we will distinguish between and evaluate differing standpoints regarding
instruction. We will look at different forms of instruction, different contexts for instruction
and different approaches to instruction. Education, teaching, and instruction are not
context free, and they cannot be defined in singular terms. Definitions will be based on
different philosophies and beliefs regarding teaching and learning. This will enable you
to make judicious instructional decisions and may even present you with new or different
ways of understanding instruction and the vital role you play in instructional design.
After studying this unit, you should be able to identify and critically evaluate different
standpoints, alternative practices and exciting possibilities in instruction. You will be
able to highlight and critically appraise the similarities and differences between various
forms of instruction, and you will explore different levels of instruction. The content for
this learning unit includes:
Different styles of instruction

• Different forms of instruction

• Instructional contexts
• Instructional approaches and strategies
• Instruction at different levels

2.2 STYLES OF INSTRUCTION

There are three main styles of instruction, which are usually informed by a teacher’s own
personality. They are the permissive, the democratic and the authoritative approach
to teaching and learning. A permissive teaching style is one where the learners can do
just about anything they please in a classroom, as the teacher sets few or no rules. In
other cases, the teacher may have set rules, but is inconsistent in imposing them, and
expects the learners to organise and monitor themselves. This can result in frustration for
learners who are not ready for this responsibility or whose peers take over the classroom.
At the opposite end of the spectrum is the authoritative stance. The teacher who adopts
this stance does not allow learners much input into the lesson: they are there to receive
knowledge and to follow instructions. The democratic teacher is one who is flexible within
the learning arrangement. Democratic teachers include their learners in decision-making
in the classroom regarding classroom norms and rules. These teachers consider and value
learners as individuals who are able to contribute to their own learning. A teacher’s style
is a personal quality. Many teachers are not aware that they have a leaning towards a
certain style, and teachers often develop a certain style because they experienced it as
a dominant style when they themselves were learners. Your teaching style may also be

18
affected by your knowledge of different teaching styles. As a teacher, you need to try a
variety of styles and forms of teaching. This will enable you to determine the best style
for certain age groups, subjects, and time frames.

2.3 FORMS OF INSTRUCTION: TRAINING, TEACHING,

FACILITATING, TUTORING AND MENTORING
Instruction should suit the needs of the learners and the outcomes envisaged. Forms
of instruction have developed to meet various needs. As we discussed in Learning unit
1, there are many different words that mean “teaching”. Look at this grid and analyse it
as a way to differentiate between different forms of instruction. Do you agree with the
positioning of “teaching”?

Table 2.1 Teaching in terms of goals and process

Process of learning/think- Practical application

ing is as important as the of knowledge/skills is
knowledge and skills important

Long-term goal
Teaching Mentoring
oriented

Short-term goal
Facilitating Training
oriented

What would your matrix look like if you had to create one to differentiate between these
terms related to instruction?

A Venn diagram can also help us to understand the similarities and differences between
the different forms of instruction. One interpretation is to see teaching as including all
the other forms of instruction, as in the diagram below:

Figure 2.1: Possible interpretation of instructional forms

19 ISC3701/1
Or would your diagram look like this, perhaps? Would you agree with the arrangement
of the words, with facilitating occupying the largest portion of teaching and training the
smallest? Should training be there at all? These are things you need to think about when
considering the various forms of instruction.

Figure 2.2: Possible interpretation of instructional forms

Perhaps teaching includes fewer instances of the other forms of instruction, and we get
a diagram like this:

Figure 2.3: Possible interpretation of instructional forms

20
Or are the forms perhaps too different to be placed together in a single diagram? What
do you think?

Activity 2.1

Were you able to integrate these concepts? Do they all fit into your diagram meaning-
fully? It’s quite difficult to distinguish between them, isn’t it?

2.4 INSTRUCTIONAL CONTEXTS

Whenever people interact, there is the potential for teaching and learning
to take place. Instruction can take place in many contexts: it can take place
at home, at work, and in specific instructional institutions such as schools or
colleges. Bear in mind our earlier definition of teaching as involving instruction
by human beings, while instruction can take place without the presence of
another person (reading a manual, following computer instructions).

2.4.1 Formal contexts

These relate to formal institutions such as schools, colleges, and universities, where
instruction takes place in set classrooms or lecture venues. Instruction is organised
by means of set timetables, and learners are grouped according to various criteria: for
example, at school level the learners are of similar age, while in post-school situations
this may not be the case. These institutions are there to provide an already agreed upon
or policy sanctioned curriculum. Formal institutions are registered with a relevant body
that oversees their functioning and quality of instruction. However, formal contexts also
include distance institutions offering formal programmes. It is necessary in the modern
world not to focus on the setting as the only determinant of formal education. More
and more courses are offered online, which means that formal learning does not always
take place within a specific setting. However, the module or certificate is part of a formal
programme. It is the context that is formal. With regard to the formal school context,
Turner and Meyer (2000:70) explain that:
the instructional context is a distinct but overlapping aspect of the classroom context
and includes the influences of the teacher, students, content area, and instructional
activities on learning, teaching, and motivation. The various contexts within a class-
room, such as the instructional context, are naturally difficult to define because
they are simultaneous and interdependent, making them fluid rather than static. In
addition, definitions vary widely depending on whether they have been examined
from psychological, educational, sociological, or anthropological perspectives.

The EDU/EDPC (2007:5) documents define formal learning as follows:

[Learners] may learn during courses or during a training session in the workplace;
this is formal learning. The activity is designed as having learning objectives and in-
dividuals attend with the explicit goal of acquiring skills, knowledge or competences.

21 ISC3701/1
Formal learning contexts therefore are goal oriented, there are professional or skilled
teachers or instructors, and the learning is measured.

2.4.2 Informal contexts

The EPU/EPDC documents (2007:5) state that learners “may learn in activities without
learning objectives and without knowing they are learning; this is informal learning.”

This means that informal learning takes place in most contexts where people interact,
and that people could learn something informally without having any prior intention of
learning. You could learn informally through a discussion with friends, or by watching a
movie, as in both these circumstances you did not deliberately set out to learn something.

2.4.3 Non-formal contexts

The EPU/EPDC (2007:5) define non-formal learning as follows:
[Learners] may learn during work or leisure activities that do not have learning
objectives but individuals are aware they are learning; this is non-formal learning.
Individuals observe or do things with the intention of becoming more skilled, more
knowledgeable and/or more competent.

People may learn through non-formal activities such as pursuing hobbies. They may attend
workshops or seminars relating to their hobbies with the intention of learning more. You
could learn in non-formal contexts such as cooking classes or watching a YouTube clip
on how to catch fish using a fishing rod.

Activity 2.2

(1) Think of what you have learnt in the three instructional contexts we have just
discussed.
(2) What could a learner at school learn formally, informally or non-formally?
(3) Log on to myUnisa and listen to PODCAST 2 on this topic.

As human beings, we are learning all the time, in different contexts and in different
situations. Isn’t it exciting to be part of a career in human learning?

2.5 IMPORTANT INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES

A number of approaches and strategies relating to instruction have developed over time.

A number of instructional approaches have developed out of theories of learning. The three
basic theoretical approaches are based on behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism.
As a teacher, you need to understand these. Please watch the following video clip, which
will help you understand the link between learning theories and instructional theories.

22
 Activity 2.3

Log on to myUnisa to watch a YouTube clip on learning theories before continuing

with this section.
It will be under Additional Resources.

Can you see how our thinking about learning has evolved? Perhaps you experienced all
three approaches to learning while you were a learner yourself. Let us consider these
three approaches in more detail.

Behaviourism emphasises behaviour that can be observed (Seels & Glasgow 1998:180).
Seels and Glasgow also explain that this approach focuses on actions that are visible
rather than complex or vague internal processes. In addition, these authors attempt to
find a relationship between a stimulus and a response. The well-known behaviourist BF
Skinner suggested that learning should be broken down into small bits or steps. Learning
is seen as “programming,” so filling in answers or repetition is important to bring about
the desired result (behaviour).

Seels and Glasgow (1998:181) describe cognitive psychology as focusing on the organisation
of memory and thinking, and view the mind as an information-processing system. These
authors are interested in processes such as comprehension and problem-solving.

Constructivist approaches claim that learners can only interpret information in the context
of their experiences. Learners need to actively construct meaning and knowledge. Cohen,
Manion and Morrison (2005:167) explain that there are two broad types of constructivism,
namely cognitive constructivism and social constructivism. Both see learning as continually
developing. Cognitive constructivism considers learning that, as a search for meaning,
involves language and higher-order thinking, and is derived from experience. Social
constructivism proposes that teachers and other learners provide scaffolding to support
a person’s learning.

In the table below I have set out some of the differences between these three approaches.
You may have experienced some of these approaches while you were at school. Today,
many of our classrooms are still based on behaviourism or instructivism.

23 ISC3701/1
Table 2.2 Broad differences in learning theories (Jennings & Surgenor [s.a.])

Activity 2.4

(1) Why is it “easier” for a teacher to adopt a behaviourist approach in the classroom?
(2) What is the effect of the behaviourist approach on learning?
(3) If you were a school principal, how might you encourage your teachers to change
from a behaviourist to a constructivist approach?
(4) Which perspective is more closely aligned to African ideas and world-views?

In terms of African perspectives, a collaborative, constructivist approach is dominant.

The more Western perspective is rational and objective, and only more recently
have Western approaches moved closer to social constructivist ones. Teachers may

24
prefer behaviourist approaches because they can tick off observable behaviour on a
checklist as evidence of teaching and learning. However, not all learning is observable
as behaviour. This ties in with an approach being either teacher centred or learner
centered. Your textbook provides a brief outline of teacher-centred versus learner-
centred approaches.

Textbook chapter 2

Instructional strategies are an integral part of instructional studies. Morrison, Ross, Kalman
and Kemp (2011:149) suggest the following as pertinent questions to ask before deciding
on an instructional strategy:
What is the best way to teach a fact, a concept, a rule, a procedure, an interpersonal skill, or
an attitude?
How can I make the instruction meaningful?
How can I teach an objective that focuses on interpersonal skills?
What is the best way to present the content so that each learner will master the objectives?

Start by focusing on a broad approach, such as either a teacher-centred or a learner-

centred approach. Direct instruction or lecture-based instruction is a teacher-centred
approach, while inquiry-based strategies are more learner-centred. To help you choose
between the two, think about whether you want your learners to “reproduce” (what you
said or did) or “produce” (their own ideas or actions) in their learning. Your next level of
decision-making involves the actual method or strategy you will use.

2.6 IMPORTANT INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

We will focus on a few major forms of instructional strategies. In this module, we take
a general look at these strategies, so that in time you will be able to adapt them to the
specific subjects and grades that you teach.

2.6.1 Constructivist, active and cooperative instruction strategies

Baviskar, Hartle and Whitney (2009:542) briefly define constructivism as a theory of learning
and not a theory of curriculum design. Therefore, when a lesson is said to be constructivist,
it does not necessarily follow a specific formula. Instead, a constructivist lesson is one
that is designed and implemented in a way that creates the greatest opportunities for
students to learn, regardless of the techniques used.

Constructivism is regarded as the umbrella term for several forms of constructivism, such
as radical constructivism and social constructivism.

Baviskar et al. set out four criteria that must be met in order for a lesson to be
considered constructivist (2009:544). The first criterion is that prior knowledge must

25 ISC3701/1
be elicited during the lesson. The second is the creation of cognitive dissonance. This
means that the learners realise that there is a gap between their current knowledge
and the new knowledge. The third criterion is the application of knowledge with
feedback. This is similar to Piaget’s (1978:6) notions of assimilation and accommodation.
When presented with new knowledge, a student will integrate it with an existing
knowledge structure, provided there no inconsistencies. However, if a student detects
an inconsistency, then accommodation of the knowledge structure takes place, and
the student re-organises the knowledge. The fourth criterion is an opportunity for
the student to reflect on learning. This means that tasks go beyond traditional recall
of knowledge.

Carr-Chellman (2016:97) explains that constructivist classrooms should be characterised by:

• Authentic activities
• Social contexts
• Multiple perspectives
• Knowledge construction (rather than knowledge transmission)
• Metacognition (reflections on own constructions)

Do you notice that active learning within social contexts is highlighted in this approach?
Do you also notice the close ties between this list and African perspectives? Learners are
further involved in the learning process when the teacher allows for multiple perspectives
(learners’ own ideas), while meta-cognition (thinking about how you are learning) is also
important.

Constructivist instruction requires that learners experience something new and then
reflect on that experience. Very often the constructivist view of learning and supporting
teaching methodologies propose active learning or guided discovery.

Your textbook briefly summarise some ideas regarding constructivist approaches to

teaching and learning:

Textbook chapter 1

Your textbook provides a comprehensive account of the instructional strategies used in

teaching. Let us talk about the most common (and overused!) one first.

2.6.2 Direct instruction

Direct instruction is a teacher-centred instructional approach that is focused on teacher
activity. The teacher uses presentation strategies such as lectures, discussions or
explanations, which do not entail any learner involvement. A transmission model is
followed – this is what Freire (1978) describes as a banking model of education. Although
more modern approaches that understand how we learn have been advocated as being
more successful, there are still times when direct instruction is necessary, even if only

26
for a small part of the lesson. Direct instruction assumes that the learner does not know
anything about the topic or concept, and cannot become involved in developing the
knowledge. However, direct instruction should not only have negative connotations. The
following chapter of your textbook describe direct instruction clearly:

Textbook chapter 3

2.6.3 Discussion
This is often seen as a bridge between direct instruction and more constructivist approaches.

The following chapter of your textbook will guide you through this topic:

Textbook chapter 4

2.6.4 Small-group work

The following chapter of your textbook will guide you through this topic:

Textbook chapter 5

2.6.5 Cooperative learning

The following chapter of your textbook will guide you through this topic:

Textbook chapter 6

2.6.6 Problem-solving
The following chapter of your textbook will guide you through this topic:

Textbook chapter 7

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2.6.7 Inquiry
The following chapter of your textbook will guide you through this topic:

Textbook chapter 8

2.6.8 Case study

The following chapter of your textbook will guide you through this topic:

Textbook chapter 9

2.6.9 Role-play
The following chapter of your textbook will guide you through this topic:

Textbook chapter 10

2.6.10 Writing
The following chapter of your textbook will guide you through this topic:

Textbook chapter 11

Please ensure that you are able to answer the following questions with regard to each of
the instructional strategies you have just read up about:

1. What are the important features of the strategy?

2. What are the benefits of or reasons for using the strategy?
3. What are the issues to consider before selecting the strategy?
4. When should you consider using the strategy, and when should you avoid using it?

Later on in this module, I will be asking you to justify your selection of teaching approaches
and strategies in your design of a lesson. This requires you to evaluate each one and be
able to discern when it is appropriate for teaching, and when a better choice is available.
Answering the questions above will help you to do this.

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 Activity 2.5

Please log on to myUnisa and listen to PODCAST 3.

Activity 2.6

In your workbook, complete the following table dealing with the different instructional
strategies we have covered in this section. Choose two subjects you are familiar with,
and write down an activity under the strategy that would be suitable for them. Try to
include an activity for each instructional strategy.

Direct instruction

Problem-solving
Small-group

Cooperative

Case study
Discussion

Role-play
Strategy

learning

Writing
Inquiry
work

Subject
1 .....................

Subject
2 ......................

2.6.11 Connectivism and e-learning: the flipped classroom

Connectivism is a theory of learning proposed by Siemens (2005) that states that the
internet has now created new ways and opportunities for learning to take place (Gregory
2016). Siemens proposed that learning can take place through people interacting in online
spaces. Traditional learning needs to move towards connected learning (Haung, Chen,
Yang & Loewen 2013:7). Connected learning has the following characteristics (Haung et
al 2013:8):
• Building the capacity of knowledge transferability
• A problem-oriented approach – learning may start with the question and not the
learning material
• An open classroom as opposed to a “closed” classroom
• Effective use of information technology
• Social interaction is an integral part of connected learning

Take particular note of the third and the fifth bullets. Can you see a link between this
“modern” approach and African perspectives? It can be said that African perspectives

29 ISC3701/1
on teaching encompass an open approach and a high level of social interaction. African
perspectives also acknowledge the connectedness of people (e.g. through ubuntu).

In the move away from the cognitive, instructivist and behaviourist approaches and
towards the social, constructivist and connectivist approaches (Robson 2013:177), facilitative
technologies involve greater use of discussion boards and forums, webinars and wikis.
We must not forget that all this is now happening through mobile technology, which
makes learning immediate and personal.

One example from among the many different ideas regarding e-learning is that of the
flipped classroom.

To demonstrate the flipped classroom, you are going to experience it.

You will need to log in to myUnisa and watch two YouTube clips, entitled Flipped classroom
1 and Flipped classroom 2. Then come back to this section of the study guide to continue.

Activity 2.7

Log on to myUnisa to watch Flipped classroom 1 and Flipped classroom 2 under Ad-
ditional Resources.

Although these clips show that video is the resource used for the work students have to
do at home, Sams and Bergmann (2013) explain that this is not always necessary. These
authors require that we ask when our learners need us the most – while we are proving the
content (knowledge), or when we want them to apply it? Most teachers will answer that
the application of the knowledge is the most problematic. This is usually the homework
we give learners based on the knowledge and understanding that we have instilled in
them in class. In another YouTube clip, Bergmann (2016) explains that traditionally we
teach in a group space (teacher and learners together), and then we expect learners to
tackle more difficult areas such as application and analysis on their own at home – in an
individual space. He points out that getting students to cover the direct instruction in
the individual space allows for the teacher and students to work collaboratively in the
group classroom space. This allows the teacher to intervene and assist students when
and where they need it.

There are some problems associated with this method. The first of these is the availability
and cost of data. How could teachers overcome this? One possibility is to provide discs
with the videos or lectures on them, or to allow students to use the school computer
laboratory after school. Another way is to provide students with the content that they
can work through at home in a low-tech way – you could ask them to read a chapter of
the textbook in preparation for the next day’s homework or project, or you could provide
them with written notes or a poem they have to read. Try to think of things that students
can do at home to prepare for the next lesson. This still allows you to “flip” the lesson.
Bergmann (2016) also suggests that you could allocate time for both (the video and the
homework) in class. He suggests splitting the class into two groups; while one group is
watching the teaching material, the other group starts with the activity. After this, they

30
swap. It really becomes the teacher’s choice regarding when it’s best to work individually
and when it’s best to work as a group.

You may want to make videos of your own lesson or use a screencast (voice recording
over a PowerPoint) or use existing videos (e.g. YouTube, National Geographic, Khan
Academy, or OER Africa). However, if you decide on existing videos, it is vital that you
view the material before your lesson to ensure that it is suitable. Another important
consideration relates to keeping learners safe online if you use an internet resource. This
is where your own work is a preferred option, or where they watch outside material under
your supervision. Remember that the instructional decision you make forms part of your
responsibility as a teacher.

2.7 INSTRUCTION AT DIFFERENT LEVELS IN EDUCATION

Instruction can take place at all levels of education. The concept of life-long learning
definitely applies to humans. Humans have the capacity to learn from the cradle to
the grave, and society provides for these different levels of instruction. Often, South
Africa is criticised for its focus on the matriculation examination results. The comment is
sometimes made that matric begins in Grade 1 or even earlier. South African schooling is
now compulsory from Grade R (when children are 5 or 6 years old) as part of ECD (Early
Childhood Development), for which the programme starts at birth. Formal schooling, from
Grade R to Grade 12, provides for the needs of learners up to Grade 12. Many learners
continue their education through university, while others follow other adult education
courses. Some teachers feel more comfortable with certain age groups than with others.
As you qualify to be a teacher, consider the age of learner you have selected. What led
you to make this selection? How do you feel about teaching other age groups? Which
age group is the most important? Is it important to know about instructional principles
and pedagogy related to the age group you do not teach?

Activity 2.8

(1) Find out about the different levels of instruction, specifically what the most
important instruction principles for that particular age group are. Share your ideas
in myUnisa Discussion Forum.
Early childhood (ages 0–4)
Grade R and Foundation Phase (age 5 to Grade 3)
Intermediate Phase (Grades 4 to 6)
Senior Phase (Grades 7 to 9)
Further Education and Training (Grades 10 to 12)
Higher Education (beyond Grade 12)

(2) What is your experience or opinion of multi-grade classrooms? What are the positive
and negative aspects of a multi-grade classroom?
(3) Consider an African perspective, where such formal segregation would not take
place. What are the advantages and disadvantages of segregating learners?

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2.8 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we looked at some important instructional concepts. We looked at how
different styles of instruction (permissive, democratic and authoritative) affect teaching
and learning. We also looked at various forms of instruction and the difference between
them, and how they contribute to the concept of teaching. Instruction also takes place in
different contexts (formal, informal and non-formal). The broad instructional approaches
(behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism) led us to look at various instructional
strategies that can be implemented in day-to-day instruction. I concluded this learning
unit by reminding you that as humans we are always learning, and we considered three
levels of instruction in education. In Learning unit 3 we will take a look at some of the
theoretical models that inform instructional practices.

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LEARNING UNIT 3
Models and theories of instruction

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will investigate a variety of instructional models and theories. As Gagne
(1987:244) tells us, these instructional theories are based on learning theories. You will
remember that learning theories can broadly be classified as behaviourist, cognitive or
constructivist.

Instructional theories propose relationships between instructional events, how these

actions affect learning, and the learning outcomes that are produced by the instructional
event. These instructional theories are not just for school instruction – they are for all
instruction.

I have not mentioned all the possible instructional design models, as there are far too
many! Please compare these models, and reflect on how these models are similar to or
different from your own instructional design methods. How can these models enable
you to develop improved instructional design practices?

In this learning unit we will cover the following content:

• The ADDIE model
• Instructional design for teachers (ID4T)
• Understanding by design (UbD)
• Merrill’s five principles of instruction
• Gagne’s nine events of instruction
• Dick and Carey’s model of instructional design
• Gardner’s multiple intelligences
• Kolb’s learning styles
• Honey and Mumford’s learning styles

3.2 THE ADDIE MODEL, ID4T INSTRUCTION MODEL AND UBD

MODEL
The ADDIE model
The basic instructional design model is called the ADDIE model, and numerous instructional
design models are based on it. The name of this model is in fact an acronym:
Analyse needs. In this phase you will do a needs analysis of both the curriculum and the
learners, a task analysis and an instructional analysis (Seels & Glasgow 1998:13). This
may lead you to write a goal or aim for your instruction.

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Design instruction. In this phase you will write up objectives, plan instruction and develop
tests (Seels & Glasgow 1998:13).
Develop materials. This is where you will write the materials that are needed.
Implement the instruction. In this phase, the actual teaching takes place.
Evaluate and revise the instruction. Review the instruction, reflect on learning and pro-
pose or develop improvements. This will lead you to a new phase of analysing needs.

Figure 3.1 The ADDIE model

This model has its history in military applications, and has no formal author (Morrison et
al 2011:13).

The ID4T model

Carr-Chellman (2016:3) proposes the ID4T model, which excludes the analysis of needs
and reformulates the remaining four steps in the following way (Carr-Chellman 2016:10):
1. Write instructional goals – this is where you write the aim of the lesson in the form
of a fairly short sentence.
2. Write learning objectives – this is where you state what the learners will do/say/
demonstrate to show you that they are achieving the goal. There may be several
learning objectives in a single lesson.
3. Write aligned assessment/test items – set the assessment tasks so that they match
the instructional goals and objectives you have just set out. You do this to ensure
alignment from beginning to end.
4. Analyse learner characteristics or prerequisites – what learners already know about
the concept, how they prefer to learn, how they have responded in the past to
different teaching approaches and content.

34
5. Select materials – these are the learner-teacher-support materials (LTSM) that you
will incorporate during the lesson (pictures, books, flashcards, counters etc.)
6. Select and design activities – here you will design the actual activities that the learners
will be involved in. These activities will enable the learners to meet the aims and
objectives of the instruction.
7. Select (and develop) media or technology – find or create media that will support
the activities in the previous step.
8. Implement the plan – this is when the lesson or instruction episode actually takes
place, and includes learner assessment.
9. Evaluate and revise the instruction – this is where you assess and reflect on the
lesson and make improvements.

Activity 3.1

(1) Comment on the third step in the ID4T model. Are you surprised that this occurs
so early in the instruction process? What are the advantages and disadvantages
of planning assessment before instruction?
(2) Please log on to myUnisa and listen to PODCAST 4.

The UbD model

The UbD model is set out in the book entitled Understanding by design, by Wiggins and
McTighe (2005), from which it takes its name (abbreviated as UbD). The model rests on a
“backward design” (Wiggins & McTighe 2005:13). These authors propose that designing
instruction should start with identifying the desired results that the instruction intends
to bring about. This could also be considered an outcomes approach. The focus is on
what content is valued and what understandings are necessary in instruction. Wiggins
and McTighe propose that instructional designers should then determine what will be
accepted as evidence that this learning or understanding has taken place. Finally, they
suggest planning the learning experiences and the instruction. Their model consists of the
following steps, which follow the sequence of some other models, but in reverse order:
1. Identify the desired results. What should the learners learn?
2. Determine acceptable evidence. What will the learners do to show you they have
learnt what you wanted them to?
3. Plan the learning experiences and the instruction. What activities and experiences
will you provide so that they can learn what you intended them to learn?

Activity 3.2

(1) Why is this referred to as “backward design”?

(2) What is your opinion of determining the outcome before you have taught the lesson?
(3) Can you think of an advantage and a disadvantage of doing this?
(4) Are some subjects better suited to this type of instructional planning?

35 ISC3701/1
Although some models set out long lists while other set out shorter lists, the type of
thinking involved in designing instruction is complex and multifaceted. You may prefer
a particular model to another – however, it is important that as a teacher you consider
other models to add to your growing knowledge of instruction.

3.3 MERRILL’S FIVE PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION

Merrill (2002:44–45) sets out five principles of instruction:
1. Learning is promoted when learners are engaged in solving real-world
problems. Merrill adds to this by stating that in problem-centred learning, learning
is supported when learners are shown what they will be able to do after completing
the lesson, module or course. Furthermore, he adds that learning is promoted when
learners are engaged on the problem level, and not just on the operation level.
Learners are involved with the whole task, and not just with the individual tasks in
solving the problem.
2. Learning is promoted when existing knowledge is activated as a foundation
for new knowledge. Merrill (2002:46) believes that learners must be asked to
recall, relate or apply previous knowledge. Furthermore, they must be given new
experiences that will form the foundation of new knowledge, and finally, they should
be encouraged to reflect on a structure to organise their knowledge.
3. Learning is promoted when new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner.
This is facilitated by demonstration that is consistent. This means providing both
examples and non-examples, demonstrating procedures, and providing visualisations
for the procedures. Learners should also be guided to relevant information, multiple
representations and to comparing multiple demonstrations. According to Merrill,
this also means that media play a relevant role in instruction. However, he warns
that multiple forms of media should not compete for the learners’ attention.
4. Learning is promoted when the learner applies new knowledge. Merrill suggests
that problem-solving is guided by feedback and coaching, and that the coaching
should be gradually reduced. Merrill also contends that learners are involved in
solving a sequence of varied problems.
5. Learning is promoted when new knowledge is integrated into the learner’s
world. Merrill (2002:50) contends that learners should be allowed to demonstrate
their new knowledge or skills publicly. Learners should also be enabled to reflect
on and defend their new knowledge, as well as explore new ways to use their new
knowledge or skills.

Activity 3.3

Merrill’s principles of instruction are really about how learners learn. Re-write each
of the five principles as principles for teachers. For example: A teacher should … … .

Do you see how closely related teaching and learning are? Were you able to re-write all
the principles?

36
3.4 GAGNE’S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION
Gagne was an educational psychologist, who formulated instructional principles based
on learning processes (Gagne 1987:304). He viewed the entire process of instruction as a
set of procedures designed to support learning, and stated that planning instruction is
a matter of arranging the situation to best support learning.

Gagne’s nine events of instruction (Gagne 1987:246–255)

1. Gaining attention – this involves doing, saying or presenting something that will
stimulate the learners’ interest or curiosity.
2. Informing learners of objectives so as to motivate them – this can be done by
describing or demonstrating what they will achieve through the instruction. Why
is the lesson important?
3. Stimulating recall of prior knowledge – ask learners to recall something previously
learnt. It can be a rule, concept, knowledge or skill
4. Presenting the stimulus material or content.
5. Providing learning guidance – this could include giving a variety of concrete
examples of the concept, providing a verbal description followed by an example,
elaborating on the concept, and using models or continued practice of a motor skill.
6. Eliciting performance – the learner has to demonstrate a newly learnt capability
(by speaking, writing, drawing, making etc.).
7. Providing feedback – the instructor provides feedback regarding the correctness
or degree of correctness of the learners’ performance.
8. Assessing performance – the instructor will provide additional opportunities for
performance to check that the learning is stable or whether the learning can be
applied.
9. Enhancing retention and transfer – this normally involves increased practice and
an increase in the variety of practice.

Activity 3.4

Please log on to myUnisa and watch the screencast on Gagne’s nine principles.

3.5 DICK AND CAREY’S MODEL

This model uses a systems approach to instruction. This means that all the components
are important to successful learning, and these components provide both input and
output (Dick & Carey 1996:2). Dick and Carey view the instructional process as a system
that results in learning, and the components of the instructional system are learners,
instructors, materials and the learning environment (Dick & Carey 1996:4). Although these
authors based their model on the ADDIE model, their model does not focus on the needs
analysis. Instead, their model starts by determining the instructional goal. Their model
consists of various feedback loops around ten interrelated concepts:

37 ISC3701/1
1. Identify instructional goals
2. Conduct instructional analysis
3. Analyse learners and contexts
4. Write performance objectives
5. Develop assessment Instruments
6. Revise instruction
7. Develop instructional strategy
8. Develop and select instructional materials
9. Design and conduct formative evaluation of instruction
10. Design and conduct summative evaluation

Activity 3.5

Log on to myUnisa under Additional Resources for this module. Then follow the link
to the diagram representing this model. You can see how the model includes feedback
loops to the various components.

Dick and Carey (1996:5–7) briefly explain their model, and state that instructional design
begins with determining your instructional goal. This comes from your needs assessment.
You then analyse your instructional goal and set out what learners will need to do to
show that they have achieved that goal. You will also need to set out what knowledge
and skills the learners need before instruction can take place. A corresponding analysis
is made of the learners and the contexts. The next step is to write out performance
objectives. These are what the learners will be able to do after the instruction. Once the
objectives have been written, you design assessment that matches the objectives. Using
the information up to this point, you identify a strategy that will assist you in achieving the
learner objectives and the instructional goal. You will need to consider the presentation
of information, practice, and feedback. The instructional strategies are also based on the
content, knowledge of the learning process and the characteristics of learners. In the next
step, you will produce the material you need, such as learner manuals (worksheets), teacher
guides or tests. This is followed by a formative evaluation of your instructional design.
The information gathered here helps you to revise your instruction while conducting
summative evaluation, which means that the value of the instruction is evaluated.

Activity 3.6

Dick and Carey’s model states that the performance objectives must be written. This
means that you must be able to see the student’s learning – the student will write,
draw, act out, dance, and so on. Are there some subjects in which the learning cannot
be written as performance objectives? Write your examples down here.

It may not always be possible to set out all learning as performance and behavioural
objectives. Some learning involves emotions and meta-cognition (how we monitor our
own thinking).

38
3.6 INSTRUCTIONAL MODELS BASED ON MULTIPLE
INTELLIGENCES AND DIFFERENT LEARNING STYLES
There are a number of theories that propose that we all have different learning styles or
learning preferences. Not all people involved in education agree with these theories or
models. What is important, however, is that we have some knowledge of them and that
we realise that the learners in our classrooms are unique. They all have preferences and
styles that make learning some things easier than learning other things. It is very important
not to label learners. The models and theories are there for you to adjust and adapt your
teaching continually. You should be revising activities each year to see how you can
improve on them and make them more engaging. Because you know the content, you
may find it surprising that the learners struggle with either the content or the concepts
(or both!). Remember to vary your instructional methods and styles.

3.6.1 Gardner’s multiple intelligences

Howard Gardner set out his theory of multiple intelligences in the mid-1980s. He considered
the traditional conception of intelligence to be too narrow, and also felt that traditional
“pencil and paper tests” do not measure human intelligence accurately (Gardner 2009:77).
He suggested eight intelligences that make up intelligence as a more holistic concept.
They are:

Figure 3.2 Gardner’s eight intelligences (Sajaganesandip 2015)

Gardner (2006:23) reached the following conclusions derived from this theory: no two
people have the same intellectual profiles, and having a strong intelligence does not

39 ISC3701/1
mean that you will necessarily act intelligently. You should avoid “labelling” learners as
having one or the other type of intelligence. An understanding of the different types of
intelligence as set out by Gardner should make you aware of providing different forms of
instruction and assessment in your class. The table below briefly sets out the key abilities
of each intelligence.

Table 3.1 Multiple intelligences

Intelligence Key abilities (from Baum, Viens, Slatin & Gardner 2005:14–19)

Verbal–Linguistic Perceiving, generating and sense-making through spoken or

written language, even subtle language meanings

Logical–Math- Using and appreciating numbers, logical thinking, and ab-

ematical stract relations

Musical Perceiving and understanding patterns of sound and being

intelligence able to create and communicate meaning through sound

Visual–Spatial Understanding visual or 3D information and re-creating im-

intelligence ages from memory

Bodily–Kinaes- Using the body or parts of the body to communicate or solve

thetic intelligence problems. Able to control all or some parts of the body.

Interpersonal Sensitive to the feelings and moods of other people. Works

intelligence effectively with others.

Intrapersonal Having a good understanding of themselves. Can use

intelligence that understanding to make decisions or anticipate future
reactions.

Naturalistic Understands the natural world well. Good understanding of

intelligence features of the environment. Good patterning ability.

Many instructional practices are based on theories of learning. In the next section, we will
look at theories of learning related to different learning styles. Although it is possible to
determine a person’s learning preference, very few people show an inclination to just a
single learning style. In terms of designing instruction to suit different styles of learning,
researchers have not reached consensus regarding how effective this is. What we do
know is that learners should be exposed to a variety of active learning experiences and
opportunities.

3.6.2 Kolb’s learning styles model

Kolb formulated the experiential learning theory (ELT), in which four modes of learning
were identified: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation,

40
and active experimentation (Kolb & Kolb 2012:1699), with nine distinct learning patterns
observed, as you can see in figure 3.3. Four styles correspond more directly to the learning
modes (N, S, W, and E); the four corners (NW, NE, SW and SE) correspond to two learning
modes, while the central block (C) balances all four modes. Learners in the N, S, W or E
blocks use the dominant mode associated with that side of the grid, while also balancing
learning modes from the other two sides.

So, for instance, learners in the N block emphasise feeling (concrete experiences), but are
equally comfortable in the world of activity and reflection, while learners in the NE block
only balance feeling and reflecting.

CONCRETE EXPERIENCE
(Feeling)

NW N NE
Feeling Feeling Feeling-Reflecting
Accommodating Reflecting Diverging
Experiencing

REFLECTING OBSERVATION
ACTIVE EXPERIMENTATION

(Reflecting or watching)
(Activity or doing)

W C E
Feeling-Thinking Feeling- Reflecting
Acting Reflecting Feeling-Thinking
-Thinking Reflecting
Balancing

SW S SE
Thinking Thinking Thinking-Reflecting
Converging Reflecting Assimilating
Thinking

ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALISATION
(Thinking)

Figure 3.3: Kolb learning styles (adapted from Kolb & Kolb 2005:198)

Activity 3.7

Log on to myUnisa, where you will find Kolb’s model explained in Screencast 1.

Kolb and Kolb (2012:1700–1701) give some characteristics of learners who display the nine
learning styles.

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Learners with an experiential style enjoy working in groups, role-playing, brainstorming,
and fieldwork.

Learners with a reflecting style “thrive in learning environments rich in discussions,

interactions, and through readings that provide them with a deeper understanding of
themselves and the world around them.”

Learners with a thinking style prefer well-structured, logical tasks and may prefer to work
alone.

Learners with a practical learning style “learn best through real-life projects, field trips,
and hands-on experiments.”

Learners with a divergent learning style prefer to work in groups where they gather
information and are able to listen with an open mind.

Learners with an assimilating style may prefer “lectures, readings, exploring analytical
models, and having time to think things through.”

Learners with a converging style enjoy doing simulations, practical applications, and
laboratory assignments.

Learners with an accommodating learning style like to work with others, do field work or
find different ways of doing a project.

Learners with a balancing learning style are able to change their learning style to match
the task.

The focus on nine different learning styles assists teachers in planning for a diverse range
of activities that may suit the different learning styles in the classroom. This is important,
because teachers may be tempted just to provide activities for a learning style that suits
them in particular. Remember that research indicates that learners should be provided
with different learning activities. You may find all nine styles in a single classroom.

3.6.3 Honey and Mumford’s model of learning

Honey and Mumford (1986) generated profiles of learning based on participants’ responses
to a questionnaire. People may display a predominant or preferred style reflective of the
following four profiles: activists, reflectors, theorists, and pragmatists.

These authors describe activists as learners who enjoy the “here and the now” and take
pleasure in immediate experiences. They tend to act first and think about the consequences
later. They enjoy brainstorming.

They describe reflectors as students who stand back, watch, and think before taking any
action. They prefer to collect information and embark on research before making any
decisions. They tend to think about things from all angles.

42
Honey and Mumford (1986:11) describe theorists as learners who integrate observations
into complex theories. They tend to be perfectionists. They are analytical and dedicated
to being scientifically objective.

They describe pragmatists as learners who like to try out ideas and techniques in practice.
They are practical people who like to solve problems in practice and enjoy the challenging
of solving a real problem.

According to Honey and Mumford (1986:25–29), these general aptitudes for each style
may apply.

Table 3.2 Honey and Mumford’s learning styles

Learning style May learn from

Activist New experiences, short activities, high visibility activities, being

thrown in at the deep end of a challenging task, being involved
with others

Reflector Being allowed to watch and think about an activity, undertaking

in-depth research, producing careful analysis and reports, being
given time to make a decision

Theorist Systems, models, concepts or theories; structured situations

with a clear aim; exploring logical interrelationships between
ideas

Pragmatist Activities that are practical, models to emulate or “real” prob-

lems to solve

The important thing for instruction is that we provide learners with different approaches
to learning, not only to suit their particular learning style, but also to balance them – for
instance, learners who are not reflective may benefit from learning via reflection, and
learners who are pragmatic may benefit from reflecting first and then acting. Did you
notice that there are similarities between Kolb’s learning styles and those of Honey and
Mumford? A learner should not be considered as just one particular type or having one
particular style only – we all have a variety of styles that we integrate in different ways,
depending on the learning or problem situation.

3.7 CONCLUSION
We have looked at a few of the many, many instructional models that exist. This is to give
you some idea of what is out there and to allow you to further explore instruction models.
Many of our instructional practices and models are based on theories of how learners
learn, and I’m sure you can see how the field of psychology of education integrates with
instructional design. It is important that you critically appraise these models and think

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reflectively about their design and how you can put them to use in a classroom. As a
teacher, you need to make informed educational and instructional decisions.

The instructional design models we discussed included different types of models (described
by D. Schneider on the Eductech wiki, http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/instructional_
design_model) as follows:

Some models describe a strategy in detail (e.g. Gagne’s nine events), some relate to
the quality of the design (Merrill’s first principles), others provide a method to create
instruction (the ADDIE and Dick and Carey’s models), while yet others help us to enhance
the instructional design (understanding different learning styles).

In the next learning unit you will have the opportunity to draw on what you have learnt
from the units you have studied so far in order to design a learning event.

Activity 3.8

(1) Which of the models in this learning unit did you find the most interesting or
useful? Why do you say so?
(2) Which of the models in this learning unit did you find the least interesting or useful?
Why do you say so?

44
LEARNING UNIT 4
Putting it all together: Designing your own
instructional event, and reflecting on your design

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will use appropriate design steps to design your own instructional event
or lesson. You will integrate some of the concepts we have talked about so far, and include
your own creative ideas. Remember that your goal is for your learners to be successful in
your classroom through active learning. You will also be asked to reflect on your design
and to improve or change it where needed.

Wiggins and McTighe (2005:13) hold the view that teachers are designers. An important
part of what you do as a teacher involves creating learning experiences that fulfil a specific
purpose. However, as is the case with all design professions, there are constraints. Time,
resources and the specified curriculum are among the constraints that will affect your
choices in terms of learning design. Teacher knowledge is an important resource for
learning design. How much you know of both the content and how to teach it effectively
will affect your instruction design. One of the most important activities you will engage
in as a teacher is lesson planning. The more detailed the design of your lesson, the more
control you will have over it. A clearly written out lesson plan guides your decisions
through the lesson and will assist you in reaching your instructional goals.

The content for this learning unit includes:

• Using appropriate design steps to design instruction
• Reflecting on design to improve it

4.2 DESIGNING A LEARNING EVENT

The following chapter from your textbook provides you with a guide to planning lessons,
which will assist you with this section.

Textbook chapter 2

Activity 4.1

Design your own lesson planning guide that you believe teachers should fill in as a les-
son planning template. Include lesson planning elements that you feel to be important.

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 Which elements from the units you have already studied will you include, and why? You
will be submitting this lesson plan design as an assignment (see Tutorial Letter 101).

An important part of your decision-making relates to how much detail is necessary in

lesson planning. Does it depend on the level of experience of the teacher, or should all
teachers plan equally thoroughly?

Activity 4.2

You are going to design a learning event (e.g. lesson, tutor class) by considering Table
4.1. Select a subject and grade for this lesson design. You will be submitting this learn-
ing event as an assignment (see Tutorial Letter 101).

Table 4.1 Designing a lesson or learning event

LESSON OR LEARNING EVENT

Subject:
Topic:
Grade level:
Duration:

Analysis of learning needs: (who are your learners, what are their learning needs,
what is required by the curriculum?)

Learning objectives (your goals for the lesson)

What is the content/skill that must be taught? Refer to your topic and expand.

What teaching materials (resources – LTSM) will you choose or design (worksheets,
texts etc.)? Will you integrate technology into this lesson? If so, how?

Macro level:
What teaching methods will you use? For what parts of the lesson will you use
them? How will you try to include some of the constructivist, learner-centred meth-
ods discussed in this module? How can you accommodate different learning styles?

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 Micro-level:
What specific activities will you be involved in during the lesson? Write them down
in order (introduction, lesson development, conclusion).
What specific activities will the learners be involved in during the lesson? Write
them down in order (introduction, lesson development, conclusion). What are you
wanting learners to learn from each activity?

Teacher Learners

What formative assessment will you include? (Questions you will ask, small tasks
during the lesson, etc.)

What summative assessment will this learning event lead up to? When will this take
place?

4.3 REFLECTING ON AND IMPROVING YOUR DESIGN

You cannot grow and improve as a teacher (even with many years of experience) if you do
not reflect on your lessons. Reflection means looking back at your lesson from different
perspectives. Some reflection takes place while you are teaching (reflection-in-action),
and you can also reflect after the teaching event (reflection-on-action). If you have written
down your lesson design according to the format in 4.2, then you will be able to look back
and identify where your lesson was very successful or where it may have been lacking.
You will need to look at each aspect and consider its strength or weakness. Also, consider
the lesson from the learners’ perspective. If you were a learner in the class, how would
you have enjoyed the lesson, and what and how much would you have learnt? Also, ask
yourself what you could do to improve the lesson if you were to teach it again.

Activity 4.3

Write a set of questions you would suggest teachers ask themselves as a way to reflect
on their lesson design:
(a) after they have prepared the lesson (before they teach it)
(b) while they are teaching the lesson
(c) after they have taught the lesson

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Now that you have taught the lesson, I would like you to reflect on the success of your
lesson plan.

Answer the following questions:

1. What were the strengths of this lesson? Consider this question from your perspective
and from the perspective of the learners.
2. What contributed to the success of the lesson?
3. What were the weaknesses of this lesson? Consider this question from your perspective
and from the perspective of the learners.
4. What contributed to the weaknesses of the lesson?
5. What changes will you put into place before designing the next lesson? Look back
at your written design.
6. Is your design clear enough to allow someone else to teach the same lesson from it?

Reflection also means looking at your entire practice as a teacher. This is very important
if you are to develop holistically.

4.4 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you drew all the elements of this module together into a lesson design. There
are many models of instructional design, and we have looked at just some of these.
As technology changes what we do and how we do it, newer approaches and models
will come to the fore, and so, as a teacher, you will need to keep up to date with these
approaches, models and theories. In the 1980s, there were over 40 instructional design
models – nowadays there are many, many more.

It is vital that you understand instructional design as one of your responsibilities as a

teacher. It is not the only thing you as a teacher will do, but it is one of the most important.
It is also very important for your own growth as a teacher that you engage with both the
needs of the curriculum and the needs of your learners to design learning events that
are meaningful and successful.

It is very important that, as a teacher, you not only keep abreast of the new ideas in
teaching and instruction, but also consider ideas emanating from societies that have
been neglected. The voices of these societies need to be heard and considered if we are
to teach meaningfully and successfully.

The various instruction models and theories should provide you with an opportunity
to reflect and to consider your role more critically and carefully. As you gain practice in
writing out instructional design plans (lesson plans), you will become more confident. Your
effectiveness as a teacher will rely on your ability to plan and prepare instructional events.

I have enjoyed presenting this module to you. I hope that you have enjoyed studying it,
and that you have learnt to think critically about your role in instructional design.

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