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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 6e (published by Wiley)  MPGroover 2015

28 FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING
Review Questions
28.1 What are the advantages and disadvantages of welding compared to other types of
assembly operations?
Answer. Advantages: (1) It provides a permanent joint, (2) joint strength is typically as
high as the strength of base metals, (3) it is most economical in terms of material usage,
and (4) it is versatile in terms of where it can be accomplished. Disadvantages: (1) It is
usually performed manually, so labor cost is high and the skilled labor to perform it is
sometimes scarce, (2) most welding operation are inherently dangerous because of the high
energy involved, (3) a welded joint is difficult to disassemble, and (4) quality defects are
sometimes difficult to detect.
28.2 What is meant by the term faying surface?
Answer. The faying surfaces are the contacting surfaces in a welded joint.
28.3 What is a fusion weld?
Answer. A fusion weld is a weld in which the metal surfaces have been melted in order to
cause coalescence.
28.4 Name three fusion welding processes?
Answer. The three listed in the text are (1) arc welding, (2) resistance welding, and (3)
oxyfuel welding.
28.5 What is an autogenous weld?
Answer. An autogenous weld is a fusion weld made without the addition of filler metal.
28.6 What is the fundamental difference between a fusion weld and a solid state weld?
Answer. In a fusion weld, the metal is melted. In a solid state weld, the metal is not
melted.
28.7 Name three solid state welding processes?
Answer. The three listed in the text are (1) diffusion welding, (2) friction welding, and (3)
ultrasonic welding.
28.8 What is the difference between a welding fixture and a welding positioner?
Answer. A welding fixture is a device for clamping and holding the components in a fixed
position for welding; whereas a welding positioner is a device for holding the parts and
moving and orienting them into a desirable position for welding, usually flat and
horizontal.
28.9 What are the reasons why most welding operations are inherently dangerous?
Answer. Most welding operations are carried out at high temperatures that can cause
serious burns on skin and flesh. In gas welding, the fuels are a fire hazard. In arc welding
and resistance welding, the high electrical energy can cause shocks that are fatal to the
worker. In arc welding, the electric arc emits intense ultraviolet radiation that can cause
blinding. Other hazards include sparks, smoke, fumes, and weld spatter.

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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 6e (published by Wiley)  MPGroover 2015

28.10 What is the difference between machine welding and automatic welding?
Answer. An automatic welding operation uses a weld cycle controller that regulates the arc
movement and workpiece positioning; whereas in machine welding, a human worker must
continuously control the arc and the relative movement of the welding head and the work
part.
28.11 Name and sketch the five joint types.
Answer. Five joint types are (1) butt, (2) corner, (3) lap, (4) tee, (5) edge. For sketches see
Figure 28.3 in the text.
28.12 Define and sketch a fillet weld.
Answer. A fillet weld is a weld joint of approximately triangular cross section used to fill
in the edges of corner, lap, and tee joints. See Figure 28.4 in text for sketch.
28.13 Define and sketch a groove weld.
Answer. A groove weld is a weld joint used to fill in the space between the adjoining edges
of butt and other weld types except lap. See Figure 28.5 in text for sketch.
28.14 Why is a surfacing weld different from the other weld types?
Answer. Because it does not join two distinct parts, but instead adds only filler metal to a
surface.
28.15 Why is it desirable to use energy sources for welding that produce high power densities?
Answer. Because the heat is concentrated in a small area for greatest efficiency and
minimum metallurgical damage.
28.16 What is the unit melting energy in welding, and what are the factors on which it depends?
Answer. The unit melting energy is the amount of heat energy required to melt one cubic
millimeter or one cubic inch of metal. The factors on which it depends are (1) specific heat,
(2) melting point, and (3) heat of fusion of the metal.
28.17 Define and distinguish the two terms heat transfer factor and melting factor in welding.
Answer. Heat transfer factor is the ratio of the actual heat received at the work surface
divided by the total heat generated by the source. Melting factor is the ratio of heat used for
melting divided by the heat received at the work surface.
28.18 What is the heat-affected zone (HAZ) in a fusion weld?
Answer. The HAZ is a region of base metal surrounding the fusion zone in which melting
has not occurred, but temperatures from welding were high enough to cause solid state
microstructural changes.
Problems
Answers to problems labeled (A) are listed in an Appendix at the back of the book.
Power Density
28.1 (A) (SI units) In a laser beam welding process, what quantity of heat per unit time (J/s) is
transferred to the metal if the heat is concentrated in a circle with a diameter of 0.25 mm?
Use the power density listed in Table 28.1.

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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 6e (published by Wiley)  MPGroover 2015

Solution: PD from Table 28.1 is 9000 W/mm2 for laser beam welding
P = PD  A = 9000 π(0.25)2/4 = 442 W = 442 J/s
28.2 (SI units) A heat source transfers 3000 J/sec to a metal part surface. The heated area is
circular, and the heat intensity decreases as the radius increases: 75% of the heat is
concentrated in a circular area that = 3.5 mm in diameter. Is the resulting power density
enough to melt metal?
Solution: Area A = (3.5)2/4 = 9.621 mm2
Power P = 0.75(3000) = 2250 J/s = 2250 W
Power density PD = 2250 W/9.6212 = 234 W/mm2. This power density is most probably
sufficient for melting the metal.
28.3 (USCS units) A heat source transfers 150 Btu/min to a metal surface for welding. The
heated area is approximately circular, and the heat intensity decreases with increasing
radius as follows: 50% of the power is transferred within a circle of diameter = 0.2 in, and
75% is transferred within a concentric circle of diameter = 0.4 in. What are the power
densities in (a) the 0.2-in diameter inner circle and (b) the 0.4-in diameter ring that lies
around the inner circle? (c) Are these power densities sufficient for melting metal?
Solution: (a) Area A = (0.2)2/4 = 0.0314 in2
200 Btu/min = 3.333 Btu/sec
Power P = 0.50(3.333) = 1.667 Btu/sec
Power density PD = (1.667 Btu/sec)/0.0314 in2 = 53 Btu/sec-in2
(b) A = (0.42  0.22)/4 = 0.0942 in2
Power P = (0.75  0.50)(3.333) = 0.833 Btu/sec
Power density PD = (0.833 Btu/sec)/0.0942 in2 = 8.85 Btu/sec-in2
(c) Power densities are sufficient certainly in the inner circle and probably in the outer ring
for welding.
Unit Melting Energy
28.4 (A) (SI/USCS units) Compute the unit energy for melting aluminum using (a) SI units and
(b) USCS units.
Solution: From Table 28.2, Tm for aluminum = 933 K (1680 R)
(a) SI units: Um = 3.33(10-6)Tm2 Um = 3.33(10-6)(933)2 = 2.90 J/mm3
(b) USCS units: Um = 1.467(10-5)Tm2 Um = 1.467 (10-5)(1680)2 = 41.4 Btu/in3
28.5 (SI/USCS units) Compute the unit energy for melting for plain low-carbon steel using (a)
SI units and (b) USCS units.
Solution: From Table 28.2, Tm for plain low carbon steel = 1760 K (3160 R)
(a) SI units: Um = 3.33(10-6)Tm2 Um = 3.33(10-6)(1760)2 = 10.32 J/mm3
(b) USCS units: Um = 1.467(10-5)Tm2 Um = 1.467(10-5)(3165)2 = 146.95 Btu/in3
28.6 (SI units) Make the calculations and plot on linearly scaled axes the relationship for unit
melting energy as a function of temperature. Use temperatures as follows to construct the
plot: 200C, 400C, 600C, 800C, 1000C, 1200C, 1400C, 1600C, 1800C, and

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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 6e (published by Wiley)  MPGroover 2015

2000C. On the plot, mark the positions of some of the welding metals in Table 28.2. Use
of a spreadsheet program is recommended for the calculations.
Solution: Equation (28.2) for SI units: Um = 3.33(10-6)Tm2. The plot is based on the
following calculated values.
For Tm = 200C = (200 + 273) = 473K: Um = 3.33(10-6)(473)2 = 0.75 J/mm3
For Tm = 400C = (400 + 273) = 673K: Um = 3.33(10-6)(673)2 = 1.51 J/mm3
For Tm = 600C = (600 + 273) = 873K: Um = 3.33(10-6)(873)2 = 2.54 J/mm3
For Tm = 800C = (800 + 273) = 1073K: Um = 3.33(10-6)(1073)2 = 3.83 J/mm3
For Tm = 1000C = (1000 + 273) = 1273K: Um = 3.33(10-6)(1273)2 = 5.40 J/mm3
For Tm = 1200C = (1200 + 273) = 1473K: Um = 3.33(10-6)(1473)2 = 7.23 J/mm3
For Tm = 1400C = (1400 + 273) = 1673K: Um = 3.33(10-6)(1673)2 = 9.32 J/mm3
For Tm = 1600C = (1600 + 273) = 1873K: Um = 3.33(10-6)(1873)2 = 11.68 J/mm3
For Tm = 1800C = (1800 + 273) = 2073K: Um = 3.33(10-6)(2073)2 = 14.31 J/mm3
For Tm = 2000C = (2000 + 273) = 2273K: Um = 3.33(10-6)(2273)2 = 17.20 J/mm3

Melting Energy vs Melting Temperature

20.00
18.00
Um
16.00
Titanium Aluminum
Um (J/mm^3)

14.00
12.00 Low C Steel Cast Iron
10.00 Nickel Copper (pure)
8.00 Cast Iron Nickel
6.00 Copper (pure) Low C Steel
4.00
Aluminum Titanium
2.00
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Temperature (degrees C)

28.7 (A) (SI units) A fillet weld on low carbon steel has a cross-sectional area of 25.0 mm2 and
is 300 mm long. Determine (a) the amount of heat required to perform the weld, and (b) the
amount of heat that must be generated by the heat source, if the heat transfer factor = 0.90
and the melting factor = 0.60?
Solution: (a) Equation (28.2) for SI units: Um = 3.33(10-6)Tm2
From Table 28.2, Tm for low carbon steel = 1760° K
Um = 3.33(10-6)(1760)2 = 10.32 J/mm3
Volume of metal melted V = 25(300) = 7500 mm3
Hw = 10.32(7500) = 77,400 J at weld
(b) Given f1 = 0.90 and f2 = 0.60, H = 77,400/(0.90  0.60) = 143,333 J at source

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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 6e (published by Wiley)  MPGroover 2015

28.8 (SI units) A U-groove weld is used to butt weld two pieces of 7.0-mm-thick austenitic
stainless steel plate in an arc welding operation. The U-groove is prepared using a milling
cutter so the radius of the groove is 3.0 mm; however, during welding, the penetration of
the weld causes an additional 1.5 mm of metal to be melted. Thus, the final cross-sectional
area of the weld can be approximated by a semicircle with radius = 4.5 mm. The length of
the weld = 250 mm. The melting factor of the setup = 0.65, and the heat transfer factor =
0.90. Assuming the resulting top surface of the weld bead is flush with the top surface of
the plates, determine (a) the amount of heat (in joules) required to melt the volume of metal
in this weld (filler metal plus base metal), and (b) the heat that must be generated at the heat
source?
Solution: (a) From Table 28.2, Tm for austenitic stainless steel = 1670°K
Um = 3.33(10-6)(1670)2 = 9.29 J/mm3
Aw = πr2/2 = π(4.5)2 /2 = 31.8 mm2
V = AwL = 31.8(250) = 7950 mm3
Hw = UmV = 9.29(7950) = 73,856 J
(b) H = Hw/(f1f2) = 73,856/(0.90  0.65) = 126,249 J
28.9 (USCS units) In an arc welding operation, a groove weld has a cross-sectional area = 0.045
in2 and is 14 in long. (a) What quantity of heat (in Btu) is required to accomplish the weld,
if the metal to be welded is medium carbon steel? (b) How much heat must be generated at
the welding source, if the heat transfer factor = 0.9 and the melting factor = 0.7?
Solution: (a) Equation (28.2) for USCS units: Um = 1.467(10-5)Tm2
From Table 28.2, Tm for medium carbon steel = 3060R
Um = 1.467(10-5)(3060)2 = 137.4 Btu/in3
Volume of metal melted V = 0.045(14) = 0.63 in3
Hw = 137.4(0.63) = 86.6 Btu at weld
(b) Given f1 = 0.9 and f2 = 0.7, H = 86.6/(0.9  0.7) = 98.1 Btu at source.
28.10 (USCS units) Solve the previous problem, except that the metal to be welded is aluminum,
and the corresponding melting factor is 60% of the value for steel.
Solution: (a) Equation (28.2) for USCS units: Um = 1.467(10-5)Tm2
From Table 28.2, Tm for aluminum = 1680R
Um = 1.467(10-5)(1680)2 = 41.4 Btu/in3
Volume of metal melted V = 0.045(14) = 0.63 in3
Hw = 41.4(0.63) = 26.1 Btu at weld
(b) Given f1 = 0.9 and f2 = 0.70(.60) = 0.42, H = 26.1/(0.9  0.42) = 69.0 Btu at source.
Energy Balance in Welding
28.11 (A) (SI units) The power developed in an arc-welding operation = 3000 W. This is
transferred to the work surface with a heat transfer factor = 0.90. The metal to be welded is
aluminum whose melting point is given in Table 28.2. The melting factor = 0.45. A fillet
weld is to be made with a cross-sectional area = 22.0 mm2. Determine the travel speed at
which the welding operation can be accomplished.
Solution: From Table 28.2, Tm = 933K for aluminum

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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 6e (published by Wiley)  MPGroover 2015

Um = 3.33(10-6)(933)2 = 2.9 J/mm3

v = f1 f2 RH/UmAw = 0.9(0.45)(3000)/(2.9  22) = 19.04 mm/s
28.12 (SI units) Solve the previous problem except that the metal to be welded is medium carbon
steel, and the melting factor = 0.60.
Solution: From Table 28.2, Tm = 1700K for medium carbon steel.
Um = 3.33  10-6(1700)2 = 9.62 J/mm3
v = f1 f2 RH /UmAw = 0.9(0.6)(3000)/(9.62  22) = 7.65 mm/s
28.13 (SI units) An arc welding operation on nickel performs a groove weld, whose cross-
sectional area = 30.0 mm2. Travel velocity = 4.0 mm/sec. Heat transfer factor = 0.82, and
melting factor = 0.70. Determine the rate of heat generation required at the welding source
to accomplish this weld.
Solution: From Table 28.2, Tm = 1725K for nickel
Um = 3.33(10-6 )(1725)2 = 9.91 J/mm3
f1 f2 RH = UmAw v
RH = Um Aw v/f1 f2 = 9.91(30)(4)/(0.82  0.70) = 2072 J/s = 2072 W
28.14 (USCS units) The power source in an arc welding operation on titanium generates 250
Btu/min, which is transferred to the work surface with heat transfer factor = 0.85 and
melting factor = 0.6. A continuous fillet weld is to be made with a cross-sectional area =
0.05 in2. Determine the travel speed at which the welding operation can be accomplished.
Solution: From Table 28.2, Tm = 3725R for titanium
Um = 1.467(10-5)(3725)2 = 204 Btu/in3
v = f1 f2 RH /UmAw = 0.85(0.6)(250)/(204  0.05) = 12.5 in/min
28.15 (USCS units) In an arc welding operation on low-carbon steel to make a fillet weld, the
cross-sectional area = 0.04 in2 and travel speed = 12 in/min. If the heat transfer factor =
0.95 and melting factor = 0.5, determine the rate of heat generation required at the heat
source to accomplish this weld.
Solution: From Table 28.2, Tm = 3165R for low-carbon steel
Um = 1.467(10-5)(3165)2 = 146.95 Btu/in3
v = 12 = f1 f2 RH/UmAw = 0.95(0.5)RH /(146.95  0.04) = 0.081 RH
RH = 12/0.081 = 148.1 Btu/min
28.16 (A) (USCS units) In a resistance-welding operation, two 3/32-in-thick aluminum plates are
joined. The melted metal at each joint forms a disk-shaped nugget with a diameter of ¼ in.
The power is on for 0.4 sec. The final nugget has a thickness = 1/8 in. Heat transfer factor =
0.80, and the melting factor = 0.50. Determine the rate of heat generation required at the
heat source to accomplish this weld.
Solution: From Table 28.2, Tm = 1680R for aluminum
Um = 1.467(10-5)(1680)2 = 41.4 Btu/in3
V = πtD2/4 = π (0.252/4)(1/8) = 0.0061 in3
Hw = UmV = 41.4(0.0061) = 0.254 Btu
H = Hw /(f1f2) = 0.254/(0.80  0.5) = 0.635 Btu
RH = H/T = 0.635/0.4 = 1.59 Btu/sec

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