Zener mechanism:

When a heavily doped junction is reverse biased, the energy bands become crossed at
relatively low voltages (i.e., the n-side conduction band appears opposite the p-side valence
band). As Fig. 1 indicates, the crossing of the bands aligns the large number of empty states
in the n-side conduction band opposite the many filled states of the p-side valence band. If
the barrier separating these two bands is narrow, tunneling of electrons can occur.
Tunneling of electrons from the p-side valence band to the n-side conduction band
constitutes a reverse current from n to p; this is the Zener effect.

Figure 1: The Zener effect: (a) heavily doped junction at equilibrium; (b) reverse bias with electron tunneling from p to
n; (c) l-V characteristic.

The basic requirements for tunneling current are a large number of electrons separated from
a large number of empty states by a narrow barrier of finite height. Since the tunneling
probability depends upon the width of the barrier (d in Fig. 1), it is important that the
metallurgical junction be sharp and the doping high, so that the transition region W extends
only a very short distance from each side of the junction. If the junction is not abrupt, or if
either side of the junction is lightly doped, the transition region W will be too wide for
tunneling. As the bands are crossed (at a few tenths of a volt for a heavily doped junction),
the tunneling distance d may be too large for appreciable tunneling. However, d becomes
smaller as the reverse bias is increased, because the higher electric fields result in
steeper slopes for the band edges. This assumes that the transition region width W does
not increase appreciably with reverse bias. For low voltages and heavy doping on each
side of the junction, this is a good assumption. However, if Zener breakdown does not
occur with reverse bias of a few volts, avalanche breakdown will become dominant. In the
simple covalent bonding model, the Zener effect can be thought of as field ionization of the
host atoms at the junction. That is, the reverse bias of a heavily doped junction causes a
large electric field within W; at a critical field strength, electrons participating in covalent
bonds may be torn from the bonds by the field and accelerated to the n side of the junction.
The electric field required for this type of ionization is on the order of 106 V/cm.
Avalanche mechanism:
For lightly doped junctions electron tunneling is negligible, and instead, the breakdown
mechanism involves the impact ionization of host atoms by energetic carriers. Normal
lattice-scattering events can result in the creation of EHPs if the carrier being scattered has
sufficient energy.

Figure 1: Electron-hole pairs created by impact ionization: (a) band diagram of a p-n junction in reverse bias showing
(primary)electron gaining kinetic energy in the field of the depletion region, and creating a (secondary) electron-hole
pair by impact ionization, the primary electron losing most of its kinetic energy in the process; (b) a single ionizing
collision by an incoming electron in the depletion region of the junction; (c) primary, secondary, and tertiary collisions.

For example, if the electric field 𝔈 in the transition region is large, an electron entering
from the p side may be accelerated to high enough kinetic energy to cause an ionizing
collision with the lattice (Fig. 2 a). A single such interaction results in carrier
multiplication; the original electron and the generated electron are both swept to the n side
of the junction, and the generated hole is swept to the p side (Fig. 2 b). The degree of
multiplication can become very high if carriers generated within the transition region also
have ionizing collisions with the lattice. For example, an incoming electron may have a
collision with the lattice and create an EHP; each of these carriers has a chance of creating
a new EHP, and each of those can also create an EHP, and so forth (Fig. 2 c). This is an
avalanche process, since each incoming carrier can initiate the creation of a large number
of new carriers.

We can make an approximate analysis of avalanche multiplication by assuming that a

carrier of either type has a probability P of having an ionizing collision with the lattice
while being accelerated a distance W through the transition region. Thus for nin electrons
entering from the p side, there will be Pnin ionizing collisions and an EHP (secondary
carriers) for each collision.
After the Pnin collisions by the primary electrons, we have the primary plus the secondary
electrons, nin (l + P). After a collision, each EHP moves effectively a distance of W within
the transition region. For example, if an EHP is created at the center of the region, the
electron drifts a distance W/2 to n and the hole W/2 to p. Thus the probability that an
ionizing collision will occur due to the motion of the secondary carriers is still P in this
simplified model. For ninP secondary pairs there will be (ninP)P ionizing collisions and
ninP2 tertiary pairs. Summing up the total number of electrons out of the region at n after
many collisions, we have

𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑛𝑖𝑛 (1 + 𝑃 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯ ) (1 )

Assuming, the electron multiplication Mn is

𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡 1
𝑀𝑛 = = 1 + 𝑃 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯ = (2)
𝑛𝑖𝑛 1−𝑃

Physically, we expect the ionization probability to increase with increasing electric field,
and therefore to depend on the reverse bias. Measurements of carrier multiplication M in
junctions near breakdown lead to an empirical relation

1
𝑀= (3)
1 − (𝑉 ⁄𝑉𝑏𝑟 )𝑛

where the exponent n varies from about 3 to 6, depending on the type of material used for
the junction.

Difference Zener and Avalanche breakdown mechanism:

Zener Avalanche
Doping Heavy Light
Mechanism Field ionization Impact ionization
“Hard”, Knee Point exists.
“Soft”, No Knee Point.
Characteristics 𝑉𝑏𝑟 can be found from I-V
𝑉𝑏𝑟 = 𝑉|𝐼=5 𝑚𝐴
characteristics
Temperature
Negative. (i.e. with increase in Positive. (i.e. with increase in
Coefficient
𝟏 𝒅𝑽𝒃𝒓 temperature breakdown temperature breakdown voltage
voltage decreases) increases)
𝑽𝒃𝒓 𝒅𝑻
𝑽𝒃𝒓 < 4(𝐸𝑔 ⁄𝑞 ) > 8(𝐸𝑔 ⁄𝑞 )
202 Chapter 4 Diodes

(c) For this design, use the diode exponential model to determine the actual change in VO when
a current IL = 1 mA is drawn from the regulator.

15 V

VO
IL

Figure E4.15

−16
Ans. (a) R = 2.4 k; (b) IS = 4.7 × 10 A; (c) –23 mV

4.4 Operation in the Reverse Breakdown

Region—Zener Diodes
The very steep i–v curve that the diode exhibits in the breakdown region (Fig. 4.8) and the
almost-constant voltage drop that this indicates suggest that diodes operating in the breakdown
region can be used in the design of voltage regulators. From the previous section, the reader
will recall that voltage regulators are circuits that provide a constant dc output voltage in the
face of changes in their load current and in the system power-supply voltage. This in fact turns
out to be an important application of diodes operating in the reverse breakdown region, and
special diodes are manufactured to operate specifically in the breakdown region. Such diodes
are called breakdown diodes or, more commonly, as noted earlier, zener diodes.
Figure 4.18 shows the circuit symbol of the zener diode. In normal applications of zener
diodes, current flows into the cathode, and the cathode is positive with respect to the anode.
Thus IZ and VZ in Fig. 4.18 have positive values.

IZ

VZ

Figure 4.18 Circuit symbol for a zener diode.

 4.4 Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region—Zener Diodes 203

4.4.1 Specifying and Modeling the Zener Diode

Figure 4.19 shows details of the diode i–v characteristic in the breakdown region. We observe
that for currents greater than the knee current IZK (specified on the data sheet of the zener
diode), the i–v characteristic is almost a straight line. The manufacturer usually specifies
the voltage across the zener diode VZ at a specified test current, IZT . We have indicated these
parameters in Fig. 4.19 as the coordinates of the point labeled Q. Thus a 6.8-V zener diode
will exhibit a 6.8-V drop at a specified test current of, say, 10 mA. As the current through the
zener deviates from IZT , the voltage across it will change, though only slightly. Figure 4.19
shows that corresponding to current change I the zener voltage changes by V, which is
related to I by

V = rz I

where rz is the inverse of the slope of the almost-linear i–v curve at point Q. Resistance rz is
the incremental resistance of the zener diode at operating point Q. It is also known as the
dynamic resistance of the zener, and its value is specified on the device data sheet. Typically,
rz is in the range of a few ohms to a few tens of ohms. Obviously, the lower the value of rz
is, the more constant the zener voltage remains as its current varies, and thus the more ideal
its performance becomes in the design of voltage regulators. In this regard, we observe from
Fig. 4.19 that while rz remains low and almost constant over a wide range of current, its value
increases considerably in the vicinity of the knee. Therefore, as a general design guideline,
one should avoid operating the zener in this low-current region.
Zener diodes are fabricated with voltages VZ in the range of a few volts to a few hundred
volts. In addition to specifying VZ (at a particular current IZT ), rz , and IZK , the manufacturer

VZ 0
VZ VZK

0 v
IZK

1
Slope 
rz
Q
IZT (test current)

V I

V  I rz

Figure 4.19 The diode i–v characteristic with the breakdown region shown in some detail.
204 Chapter 4 Diodes

Figure 4.20 Model for the zener diode.

also specifies the maximum power that the device can safely dissipate. Thus a 0.5-W, 6.8-V
zener diode can operate safely at currents up to a maximum of about 70 mA.
The almost-linear i–v characteristic of the zener diode suggests that the device can be
modeled as indicated in Fig. 4.20. Here VZ0 denotes the point at which the straight line of
slope 1/rz intersects the voltage axis (refer to Fig. 4.19). Although VZ0 is shown in Fig. 4.19
to be slightly different from the knee voltage VZK , in practice their values are almost equal.
The equivalent circuit model of Fig. 4.20 can be analytically described by

VZ = VZ0 + rz IZ (4.20)

and it applies for IZ > IZK and, obviously, VZ > VZ0 .

4.4.2 Use of the Zener as a Shunt Regulator

We now illustrate, by way of an example, the use of zener diodes in the design of shunt
regulators, so named because the regulator circuit appears in parallel (shunt) with the load.

Example 4.7

The 6.8-V zener diode in the circuit of Fig. 4.21(a) is specified to have VZ = 6.8 V at IZ = 5 mA, rz = 20 ,
+
and IZK = 0.2 mA. The supply voltage V is nominally 10 V but can vary by ±1 V.
+
(a) Find VO with no load and with V at its nominal value. 
+ +
(b) Find the change in VO resulting from the ±1-V change in V . Note that VO /V , usually expressed
in mV/V, is known as line regulation.
 a load resistance RL that draws a current IL = 1 mA,
(c) Find the change in VO resulting from connecting
and hence find the load regulation VO /IL in mV/mA.
(d) Find the change in VO when RL = 2 k.
(e) Find the value of VO when RL = 0.5 k.
(f) What is the minimum value of RL for which the diode still operates in the breakdown region?
 4.4 Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region—Zener Diodes 205

1 V)

IZ
 IL

VO

(a) (b)

Figure 4.21 (a) Circuit for Example 4.7. (b) The circuit with the zener diode replaced with its equivalent circuit
model.

Solution
First we must determine the value of the parameter VZ0 of the zener diode model. Substituting VZ = 6.8 V,
IZ = 5 mA, and rz = 20  in Eq. (4.20) yields VZ0 = 6.7 V. Figure 4.21(b) shows the circuit with the zener
diode replaced with its model.
(a) With no load connected, the current through the zener is given by
+
V − VZ0
IZ = I =
R + rz
10 − 6.7
= = 6.35 mA
0.5 + 0.02
Thus,

VO = VZ0 + IZ rz
= 6.7 + 6.35 × 0.02 = 6.83 V
+
(b) For a ±1-V change in V , the change in output voltage can be found from
+ rz
VO = V
R + rz
20
= ±1 × = ±38.5 mV
500 + 20
Thus,

Line regulation = 38.5 mV/V

206 Chapter 4 Diodes

Example 4.7 continued

(c) When a load resistance RL that draws a load current IL = 1 mA is connected, the zener current will
decrease by 1 mA. The corresponding change in zener voltage can be found from

VO = rz IZ
= 20 × −1 = −20 mV

Thus the load regulation is

VO
Load regulation ≡ = −20 mV/mA
IL
(d) When a load resistance of 2 k is connected, the load current will be approximately 6.8 V/2 k =
3.4 mA. Thus the change in zener current will be IZ = −3.4 mA, and the corresponding change in zener
voltage (output voltage) will thus be

VO = rz IZ
= 20 × −3.4 = −68 mV

This value could have been obtained by multiplying the load regulation by the value of IL (3.4 mA).
(e) An RL of 0.5 k would draw a load current of 6.8/0.5 = 13.6 mA. This is not possible, because the
+
current I supplied through R is only 6.4 mA (for V = 10 V). Therefore, the zener must be cut off. If this
is indeed the case, then VO is determined by the voltage divider formed by RL and R (Fig. 4.21a),

+ RL
VO = V
R + RL
0.5
= 10 =5V
0.5 + 0.5
Since this voltage is lower than the breakdown voltage of the zener, the diode is indeed no longer operating
in the breakdown region.
(f) For the zener to be at the edge of the breakdown region, IZ = IZK = 0.2 mA and VZ  VZK  6.7 V. At
this point the lowest (worst-case) current supplied through R is (9 − 6.7)/0.5 = 4.6 mA, and thus the load
current is 4.6 −0.2 = 4.4 mA. The corresponding value of RL is
6.7
RL =  1.5 k
4.4

4.4.3 Temperature Effects

The dependence of the zener voltage VZ on temperature is specified in terms of its temperature
coefficient TC, or temco as it is commonly known, which is usually expressed in mV/°C.
The value of TC depends on the zener voltage, and for a given diode the TC varies with the
operating current. Zener diodes whose VZ are lower than about 5 V exhibit a negative TC. On
the other hand, zeners with higher voltages exhibit a positive TC. The TC of a zener diode
with a VZ of about 5 V can be made zero by operating the diode at a specified current. Another
commonly used technique for obtaining a reference voltage with low temperature coefficient
The Schottky Diode-

Schottky diode is a metal-semiconductor junction diode that has less forward voltage drop than
the P-N junction diode and can be used in high-speed switching applications.

The Schottky-barrier diode (SBD) is formed by bringing metal into contact with a moderately
doped n-type semiconductor material. The resulting metal–semiconductor junction behaves like a
diode, conducting current in one direction (from the metal anode to the semiconductor cathode)
and acting as an open circuit in the other.

Schottky diode is also known as schottky barrier diode, surface barrier diode, majority carrier
device, hot-electron diode, or hot carrier diode. Schottky diodes are widely used in radio frequency
(RF) applications.

Schottky diode can switch on and off much faster than the p-n junction diode. Also, the schottky
diode produces less unwanted noise than p-n junction diode. These two characteristics of the
schottky diode make it very useful in high-speed switching power circuits.

Symbol and Circuit of schottky diode

Metal-semiconductor (M-S) junction

When a metal with work function qɸm is brought in contact with a semiconductor having a work
function qɸs, charge transfer occurs until the Fermi levels align at equilibrium (Fig.1).

For example, when ɸm > ɸs, the semiconductor Fermi level is initially higher than that of the metal
before contact is made. To align the two Fermi levels, the electrostatic potential of the
semiconductor must be raised (i.e., the electron energies must be lowered) relative to that of the
metal. In the n-type semiconductor of Figure shown below a depletion region W is formed near
the junction.The positive charge due to uncompensated donor ions within W matches the negative
charge on the metal. The electric field and the bending of the bands within W are similar to effects
as in p-n junctions.

Figure-1: A Schottky barrier formed by contacting an n-type semiconductor with a metal

having a larger work function: (a) band diagrams for the metal and the semiconductor before
joining; (b) equilibrium band diagram for the junction

The equilibrium contact potential V0, which prevents further net electron diffusion from the
semiconductor conduction band into the metal, is the difference in work function potentials ɸm -
ɸs. The potential barrier height QB for electron injection from the metal into the semiconductor
conduction band is ɸm- χ where qχ (called the electron affinity) is measured from the vacuum level
to the semiconductor conduction band edge. The equilibrium potential difference V0 can be
decreased or increased by the application of either forward- or reverse-bias voltage, as in the p-n
junction.

The two other cases of ideal metal-semiconductor contacts (ɸm <ɸs) for n-type semiconductors,
and (ɸm>ɸs) for p-type) result in non-rectifying contacts.

Rectifying Contacts-
When a forward-bias voltage V is applied to the Schottky barrier of Fig.2, the contact potential is
reduced from V0 to V0 - V (Fig. 2 a). As a result, electrons in the semiconductor conduction band
can diffuse across the depletion region to the metal. This gives rise to a forward current (metal to
semiconductor) through the junction. Conversely, a reverse bias increases the barrier to V0 + Vr,
and electron flow from semiconductor to metal becomes negligible. In either case flow of electrons
from the metal to the semiconductor is retarded by the barrier ɸm- χ .The resulting diode equation
is similar in form to that of the p-n junction as Fig. 2(c) suggests-
 Fig.2 Effects of forward and reverse bias on the junction of Fig. 5-40: (a) forward bias; (b)
reverse bias; (c) typical current-voltage characteristic

In the case of reverse bias, the reverse saturation current is not simply derived as it was for the p-
n junction. A reverse voltage increases the barrier for hole flow and the current becomes negligible.
In both of these cases the Schottky barrier diode is rectifying, with easy current flow in the forward
direction and little current in the reverse direction.

V-I Characteristics
Applications of Schottky Diode
 Schottky diodes are used as rectifiers in high power application circuits
 Schottky diodes are used in various applications like RF, power, detect signal, logic circuits
 Schottky diodes play an essential role in GaAs circuits
 Schottky diodes used in the stand-alone PV (photovoltaic) system to stop batteries from
discharging through the solar panels at nighttime as well as in the network connection system.
 Schottky diodes are used in voltage clamping applications.
OPTF_C07.qxd 11/6/08 10:57 Page 398

398 Optical sources 2: the light-emitting diode Chapter 7

these InGaAsP LEDs to single-mode fiber. A major impetus for these strategies has been
the potential deployment of such single-mode LED systems in the telecommunication
access network or subscriber loop (see Section 15.6.3) In this context, theoretical studies
of both LED coupling [Ref. 1] and transmission [Ref. 2] with single-mode fiber have
been undertaken, as well as numerous practical investigations, some of which are outlined
in the following sections. It is therefore apparent that LEDs are likely to remain a
significant optical fiber communication source for many system applications including
operation over shorter distances with single-mode fiber at transmission rates that may
exceed 1 Gbit s−1.
Having dealt with the basic operating principles for the LED in Section 6.3.2, we
continue in Section 7.2 with a discussion of LED power and efficiency in relation to the
launching of light into optical fibers. Moreover, at the end of this section we include a
brief account of the operation of an efficient LED which employs a double heterostructure.
This leads into a discussion in Section 7.3 of the major practical LED structures where
again we have regard to their light coupling efficiency. Also included in this section are
the more advanced device structures such as the superluminescent, resonant cavity and
quantum-dot LED. The various operating characteristics and limitations on LED perform-
ance are then described in Section 7.4. Finally, in Section 7.5, we include a brief discussion
on the possible modulation techniques for semiconductor optical sources.

7.2 LED power and efficiency

The absence of optical amplification through stimulated emission in the LED tends to limit
the internal quantum efficiency (ratio of photons generated to injected electrons) of the
device. Reliance on spontaneous emission allows nonradiative recombination to take
place within the structure due to crystalline imperfections and impurities giving, at best, an
internal quantum efficiency of 50% for simple homojunction devices. However, as with
injection lasers, double-heterojunction (DH) structures have been implemented which
recombination lifetime measurements suggest [Ref. 3] give internal quantum efficiencies
of 60 to 80%.
The power generated internally by an LED may be determined by consideration of the
excess electrons and holes in the p- and n-type material respectively (i.e. the minority
carriers) when it is forward biased and carrier injection takes place at the device contacts
(see Section 6.3.2). The excess density of electrons Δn and holes Δp is equal since the
injected carriers are created and recombined in pairs such that charge neutrality is main-
tained within the structure. In extrinsic materials one carrier type will have a much
higher concentration than the other and hence in the p-type region, for example, the hole
concentration will be much greater than the electron concentration. Generally, the excess
minority carrier density decays exponentially with time t [Ref. 4] according to the relation:

Δn = Δn(0) exp(−t/τ) (7.1)

where Δn(0) is the initial injected excess electron density and τ represents the total carrier
recombination lifetime. In most cases, however, Δn is only a small fraction of the majority
OPTF_C07.qxd 11/6/08 10:57 Page 399

LED power and efficiency 399

carriers and comprises all of the minority carriers. Therefore, in these cases, the carrier
recombination lifetime becomes the minority or injected carrier lifetime τi.
When there is a constant current flow into the junction diode, an equilibrium condition
is established. In this case, the total rate at which carriers are generated will be the sum of
the externally supplied and the thermal generation rates. The current density J in amperes
per square meter may be written as J/ed in electrons per cubic meter per second, where e is
the charge on an electron and d is the thickness of the recombination region. Hence a rate
equation for carrier recombination in the LED can be expressed in the form [Ref. 4]:

d(Δn) J Δn
= − (m−3 s−1) (7.2)
dt ed τ

The condition for equilibrium is obtained by setting the derivative in Eq. (7.2) to zero. Hence:

Jτ
Δn = (m−3) (7.3)
ed

Equation (7.3) therefore gives the steady-state electron density when a constant current is
flowing into the junction region.
It is also apparent from Eq. (7.2) that in the steady state the total number of carrier
recombinations per second or the recombination rate rt will be:

J
rt = (m−3) (7.4)
ed

= rr + rnr (m−3) (7.5)

where rr is the radiative recombination rate per unit volume and rnr is the nonradiative
recombination rate per unit volume. Moreover, when the forward-biased current into the
device is i, then from Eq. (7.4) the total number of recombinations per second Rt becomes:

i
Rt = (7.6)
e

It was indicated in Section 6.3.3.1 that excess carriers can recombine either radiatively or
nonradiatively. While in the former case a photon is generated, in the latter case the energy
is released in the form of heat (i.e. lattice vibrations). Moreover, for a DH device with a
thin active region (a few microns), the nonradiative recombination tends to be dominated
by surface recombination at the heterojunction interfaces.
The LED internal quantum efficiency* ηint, which can be defined as the ratio of the
radiative recombination rate to the total recombination rate, following Eq. (7.5) may be
written as [Ref. 5]:

* The internal quantum efficiency for the LED is obtained only from the spontaneous radiation and
hence is written as ηint. By contrast, the internal quantum efficiency for the injection laser combined
the internal quantum efficiencies for both spontaneous and simulated radiation. It was therefore
denoted as ηi (see Section 6.4.1).
OPTF_C07.qxd 11/6/08 10:57 Page 400

400 Optical sources 2: the light-emitting diode Chapter 7

rr rr
ηint = = (7.7)
rt rr + rnr

Rr
= (7.8)
Rt

where Rr is the total number of radiative recombinations per second. Rearranging Eq. (7.8)
and substituting from Eq. (7.6) gives:

i
Rr = ηint (7.9)
e

Since Rr is also equivalent to the total number of photons generated per second and from
Eq. (6.1) each photon has an energy equal to hf joules, then the optical power generated
internally by the LED, Pint, is:

i
Pint = ηint hf (W) (7.10)
e

Using Eq. (6.22) to express the internally generated power in terms of wavelength rather
than frequency gives:

hci
Pint = ηint (W) (7.11)
eλ

It is interesting to note that Eqs (7.10) and (7.11) display a linear relationship between
the optical power generated in the LED and the drive current into the device (see Sec-
tion 7.4.1). Similar relationships may be obtained for the optical power emitted from an
LED but in this case the constant of proportionality ηint must be multiplied by a factor
representing the external quantum efficiency* ηext to provide an overall quantum efficiency
for the device.
For the exponential decay of excess carriers depicted by Eq. (7.1) the radiative minority
carrier lifetime is τr = Δn/rr and the nonradiative minority carrier lifetime is τnr = Δn/rnr.
Therefore, from Eq. (7.7) the internal quantum efficiency is:

1 1
ηint = = (7.12)
1 + (rnr /rt) 1 + (τr /τnr)

Furthermore, the total recombination lifetime τ can be written as τ = Δn/rt which, using
Eq. (7.5), gives:

1 1 1
= + (7.13)
τ τr τnr

* The external quantum efficiency may be defined as the ratio of the photons emitted from the device
to the photons internally generated. However, it is sometimes defined as the ratio of the number of
photons emitted to the total number of carrier recombinations (radiative and nonradiative).
OPTF_C07.qxd 11/6/08 10:57 Page 401

LED power and efficiency 401

Hence Eq. (7.12) becomes:

τ
ηint = (7.14)
τr

It should be noted that the same expression for the internal quantum efficiency could be
obtained from Eq. (7.7).

Example 7.1
The radiative and nonradiative recombination lifetimes of the minority carriers in the
active region of a double-heterojunction LED are 60 ns and 100 ns respectively.
Determine the total carrier recombination lifetime and the power internally gener-
ated within the device when the peak emission wavelength is 0.87 μm at a drive cur-
rent of 40 mA.
Solution: The total carrier recombination lifetime is given by Eq. (7.13) as:

τrτnr 60 × 100 ns
τ= = = 37.5 ns
τr + τnr 60 + 100

To calculate the power internally generated it is necessary to obtain the internal

quantum efficiency of the device. Hence using Eq. (7.14):

τ 37.5
ηint = = = 0.625
τr 60

Thus from Eq. (7.1l):

hci 0.625 × 6.626 × 10−34 × 2.998 × 108 × 40 × 10−3

Pint = ηint =
eλ 1.602 × 10−19 × 0.87 × 10−6
= 35.6 mW

The LED which has an internal quantum efficiency of 62.5% generates 35.6 mW
of optical power, internally. It should be noted, however, that this power level will
not be readily emitted from the device.

Although the possible internal quantum efficiency can be relatively high, the radiation
geometry for an LED which emits through a planar surface is essentially Lambertian in
that the surface radiance (the power radiated from a unit area into a unit solid angle, given
in W sr−1 m−2) is constant in all directions. The Lambertian intensity distribution is illus-
trated in Figure 7.1 where the maximum intensity I0 is perpendicular to the planar surface
but is reduced on the sides in proportion to the cosine of the viewing angle θ as the appar-
ent area varies with this angle. This reduces the external power efficiency to a few percent
as most of the light generated within the device is trapped by total internal reflection (see
Light Emitting Diodes-

The light-emitting diode (LED) is a diode that will give off visible light when it is energized. In
other words, LED is an optical semiconductor device that converts electrical energy into light
energy.

When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward biased, free electrons in the conduction band
recombines with the holes in the valence band and releases energy in the form of light.The process
of emitting light in response to the strong electric field or flow of electric current is called
electroluminescence.
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are the most widely used semiconductor diodes among all the
different types of semiconductor diodes available today. Light emitting diodes emit either visible
light or invisible infrared light when forward biased. The LEDs which emit invisible infrared light
are used for remote controls.

Compound Semiconductors (e.g Ga As) having Direct Band Gap Energy are used to make LEDs.

Working of LED-

Light Emitting Diode (LED) works only in forward bias condition. When Light Emitting Diode
(LED) is forward biased, the free electrons from n-side and the holes from p-side are pushed
towards the junction.

When free electrons reach the junction or depletion region, some of the free electrons recombine
with the holes. Similarly free electrons recombine with holes in the depletion region. In the similar
way, holes from p-side recombine with electrons in the depletion region.

Because of the recombination of free electrons and holes in the depletion region, the width of
depletion region decreases. As a result, more charge carriers will cross the p-n junction.
Some of the charge carriers from p-side and n-side will cross the p-n junction before they
recombine in the depletion region. For example, some free electrons from n-type semiconductor
cross the p-n junction and recombines with holes in p-type semiconductor. In the similar way,
holes from p-type semiconductor cross the p-n junction and recombines with free electrons in the
n-type semiconductor. Thus, recombination takes place in depletion region as well as in p-type
and n-type semiconductor.

The free electrons in the conduction band releases energy in the form of light before they
recombine with holes in the valence band. In silicon and germanium diodes, most of the energy is
released in the form of heat and emitted light is too small.However, in materials like Gallium
Arsenide (GaAs) and Gallium Phosphide (GaP) the emitted photons have sufficient energy to
produce intense visible light.

Basic Principle –

The energy level of free electrons in the conduction band is high compared to the energy level of
valence electrons or holes in the valence band. Therefore, free electrons in the conduction band
need to lose energy in order to recombine with the holes in the valence band.

The free electrons in the conduction band do not stay for long period. After a short period, the
free electrons lose energy in the form of light and recombine with the holes in the valence band.
Each recombination of charge carrier will emit some light energy.

Emission of Light in Direct Band Gap Semiconductors (Direct Recombination)

The energy lose of free electrons or the intensity of emitted light is depends on the forbidden gap
or energy gap between conduction band and valence band.The semiconductor device with large
forbidden gap emits high intensity light whereas the semiconductor device with small forbidden
gap emits low intensity light.

In other words, the brightness of the emitted light is depends on the material used for constructing
LED and forward current flow through the LED.

In normal silicon diodes, the energy gap between conduction band and valence band is less.
Hence, the electrons fall only a short distance. As a result, low energy photons are released.
These low energy photons have low frequency which is invisible to human eye.

In LEDs, the energy gap between conduction band and valence band is very large so the free
electrons in LEDs have greater energy than the free electrons in silicon diodes. Hence, the free
electrons fall to a large distance. As a result, high energy photons are released. These high
energy photons have high frequency which is visible to human eye.

The efficiency of generation of light in LED increases with increase in injected current and with
a decrease in temperature.

Symbol of LED

Advantages of LED

1. Simpler fabrication-There are no mirror facets and in some structures no striped

geometry.
2. Cost-The simpler construction of the LED leads to much reduced cost which is always
likely to be maintained.
3. Reliability-The LED does not exhibit catastrophic degradation and has proved far less
sensitive to gradual degradation than the injection laser. It is also immune to self-
pulsation and modal noise problems.
4. Generally less temperature dependence- The light output against current characteristic
is less affected by temperature.
 Furthermore, raising the temperature does not increase the threshold current above the
operating point and hence halt operation.
5. Simpler drive circuitry-This is due to the generally lower drive currents and reduced
temperature dependence which makes temperature compensation circuits unnecessary.
6. Linearity-Ideally, the LED has a linear light output against current characteristic .This
can prove advantageous where analog modulation is concerned.

Drawbacks with LED

1. Generally lower optical power coupled into a fiber (microwatts)

2. Usually lower modulation bandwidth;
3. Harmonic distortion

Applications of LED

The various applications of LEDs are as follows

1. Burglar alarms systems

2. Calculators

3. Picture phones

4. Traffic signals

5. Digital computers

6. Multimeters

7. Microprocessors

8. Digital watches

9. Automotive heat lamps

10. Camera flashes

11. Aviation lighting

OPTF_C08.qxd 11/6/08 10:57 Page 447

Optical detection principles 447

giving a loss in response above 1.09 μm. Thus for second-generation systems in the longer
wavelength range 1.1 to 1.6 μm research is devoted to the investigation of semiconductor
materials which have narrower bandgaps. Interest has focused on germanium and III–V
alloys which give a good response at the longer wavelengths. Again, the performance
characteristics of such devices have improved considerably over recent years and a wide
selection of III–V alloy photodiodes as well as germanium photodiodes are now commer-
cially available.
In addition to the development of advanced photodiode structures fabricated from
III–V semiconductor alloys for operation at wavelengths of 1.3 and 1.55 μm, similar
material systems are under investigation for use at the even longer wavelengths required
for mid-infrared and far-infrared transmission (2 to 12 μm). Interest has also been main-
tained in other semiconductor detector types, namely the heterojunction phototransistor
and the photoconductive detector, both of which can be usefully fabricated from III–V
alloy material systems. In particular, the latter device type has more recently found favor
as a potential detector over the 1.1 to 1.6 μm wavelength range. Nevertheless, at present
the primary operating wavelength regions remain 0.8 to 0.9 μm, 1.3 μm and 1.55 μm, with
the major device types being the p–i–n and avalanche photodiodes. We shall therefore
consider these devices in greater detail before discussing mid-infrared photodiodes, photo-
transistors and photoconductive detectors.

8.3 Optical detection principles

The basic detection process in an intrinsic absorber is illustrated in Figure 8.1 which
shows a p–n photodiode. This device is reverse biased and the electric field developed
across the p–n junction sweeps mobile carriers (holes and electrons) to their respective
majority sides (p- and n-type material). A depletion region or layer is therefore created on
either side of the junction. This barrier has the effect of stopping the majority carriers
crossing the junction in the opposite direction to the field. However, the field accelerates
minority carriers from both sides to the opposite side of the junction, forming the reverse
leakage current of the diode. Thus intrinsic conditions are created in the depletion region.
A photon incident in or near the depletion region of this device which has an energy
greater than or equal to the bandgap energy Eg of the fabricating material (i.e. hf ≥ Eg) will
excite an electron from the valence band into the conduction band. This process leaves an
empty hole in the valence band and is known as the photogeneration of an electron–hole
(carrier) pair, as shown in Figure 8.1(a). Carrier pairs so generated near the junction are
separated and swept (drift) under the influence of the electric field to produce a displace-
ment by current in the external circuit in excess of any reverse leakage current (Figure
8.1(b)). Photogeneration and the separation of a carrier pair in the depletion region of this
reverse-biased p–n junction is illustrated in Figure 8.1 (c).
The depletion region must be sufficiently thick to allow a large fraction of the incident
light to be absorbed in order to achieve maximum carrier pair generation. However, since
long carrier drift times in the depletion region restrict the speed of operation of the photo-
diode it is necessary to limit its width. Thus there is a trade-off between the number of
photons absorbed (sensitivity) and the speed of response.
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448 Optical detectors Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Operation of the p–n photodiode: (a) photogeneration of an electron–hole

pair in an intrinsic semiconductor; (b) the structure of the reverse-biased p–n junction
illustrating carrier drift in the depletion region; (c) the energy band diagram of the
reverse-biased p–n junction showing photogeneration and the subsequent separation of
an electron–hole pair

8.4 Absorption

8.4.1 Absorption coefficient

The absorption of photons in a photodiode to produce carrier pairs and thus a photocurrent
is dependent on the absorption coefficient α0 of the light in the semiconductor used to fab-
ricate the device. At a specific wavelength and assuming only bandgap transitions (i.e.
intrinsic absorber) the photocurrent Ip produced by incident light of optical power Po is
given by [Ref. 4]:

Poe(1 − r)
Ip = [1 − exp(−α0d)] (8.1)
hf

where e is the charge on an electron, r is the Fresnel reflection coefficient at the semicon-
ductor–air interface and d is the width of the absorption region.
The absorption coefficients of semiconductor materials are strongly dependent on
wavelength. This is illustrated for some common semiconductors [Ref. 4] in Figure 8.2.
It may be observed that there is a variation between the absorption curves for the materials
shown and that they are each suitable for different wavelength applications. This results
from their differing bandgaps energies, as shown in Table 8.1. However, it must be noted
that the curves depicted in Figure 8.2 also vary with temperature.
OPTF_C08.qxd 11/6/08 10:57 Page 456

456 Optical detectors Chapter 8

It is important to note that the above criterion is only applicable to intrinsic photo-
detectors. Extrinsic photodetectors violate the expression given in Eq. (8.12), but are not
currently used in optical fiber communications.

Example 8.3
GaAs has a bandgap energy of 1.43 eV at 300 K. Determine the wavelength above
which an intrinsic photodetector fabricated from this material will cease to operate.
Solution: From Eq. (8.14), the long wavelength cutoff:

hc 6.626 × 10−34 × 2.998 × 108

λc = =
Eg 1.43 × 1.602 × 10−19
= 0.867 μm

The GaAs photodetector will cease to operate above 0.87 μm.

8.8 Semiconductor photodiodes without internal gain

Semiconductor photodiodes without internal gain generate a single electron–hole pair per
absorbed photon. This mechanism was outlined in Section 8.3, and in order to understand
the development of this type of photodiode it is now necessary to elaborate upon it.

8.8.1 The p–n photodiode

Figure 8.4 shows a reverse-biased p–n photodiode with both the depletion and diffusion
regions. The depletion region is formed by immobile positively charged donor atoms
in the n-type semiconductor material and immobile negatively charged acceptor atoms in
the p-type material, when the mobile carriers are swept to their majority sides under the
influence of the electric field. The width of the depletion region is therefore dependent
upon the doping concentrations for a given applied reverse bias (i.e. the lower the doping,
the wider the depletion region). For the interested reader, expressions for the depletion
layer width are given in Ref. 6.
Photons may be absorbed in both the depletion and diffusion regions, as indicated by
the absorption region in Figure 8.4. The absorption region’s position and width depend
upon the energy of the incident photons and on the material from which the photodiode is
fabricated. Thus in the case of the weak absorption of photons, the absorption region may
extend completely throughout the device. Electron–hole pairs are therefore generated in
both the depletion and diffusion regions. In the depletion region the carrier pairs separate
and drift under the influence of the electric field, whereas outside this region the hole diffuses
towards the depletion region in order to be collected. The diffusion process is very slow
compared with drift and thus limits the response of the photodiode (see Section 8.8.3).
OPTF_C08.qxd 11/6/08 10:57 Page 457

Semiconductor photodiodes without internal gain 457

Figure 8.4 The p–n photodiode showing depletion and diffusion regions

Figure 8.5 Typical p–n photodiode output characteristics

It is therefore important that the photons are absorbed in the depletion region. Thus it is
made as long as possible by decreasing the doping in the n-type material. The depletion
region width in a p–n photodiode is normally 1 to 3 μm and is optimized for the efficient
detection of light at a given wavelength. For silicon devices this is in the visible spectrum
(0.4 to 0.7 μm) and for germanium in the near infrared (0.7 to 0.9 μm).
Typical output characteristics for the reverse-biased p–n photodiode are illustrated in
Figure 8.5. The different operating conditions may be noted moving from no light input to
a high light level.

8.8.2 The p–i–n photodiode

In order to allow operation at longer wavelengths where the light penetrates more deeply
into the semiconductor material, a wider depletion region is necessary. To achieve this the
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458 Optical detectors Chapter 8

Figure 8.6 The p–i–n photodiode showing the combined absorption and depletion
region

n-type material is doped so lightly that it can be considered intrinsic, and to make a low-
resistance contact a highly doped n-type (n+) layer is added. This creates a p–i–n (or PIN)
structure, as may be seen in Figure 8.6 where all the absorption takes place in the depletion
region.
Figure 8.7 shows the structures of two types of silicon p–i–n photodiode for operation
in the shorter wavelength band below 1.09 μm. The front-illuminated photodiode, when

Figure 8.7 (a) Structure of a front-illuminated silicon p–i–n photodiode. (b) Structure
of a side-illuminated (parallel to junction) p–i–n photodiode
 624 CHAPTER 14 Optical Devices

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

TYU 14.1 (a) A photon flux with an intensity of I0  0.10 W/cm2 is incident on the sur-
face of silicon. The wavelength of the incident photon signal is   1 m. Ne-
glecting any reflection from the surface, determine the photon flux intensity at a
depth of (i) x  5 m and (ii) x  20 m from the surface. (b) Repeat part (a)
for a wavelength of   0.60 m.
(ii) 3.35 105 W/cm2]
[Ans. (a) (i) 0.0951 W/cm2, (ii) 0.0819 W/cm2; (b) (i) 0.0135 W/cm2,

14.2 | SOLAR CELLS

A solar cell is a pn junction device with no voltage directly applied across the junc-
tion. The solar cell converts photon power into electrical power and delivers this
power to a load. These devices have long been used for the power supply of satellites
and space vehicles, and also as the power supply to some calculators. We will first
consider the simple pn junction solar cell with uniform generation of excess carriers.
We will also discuss briefly the heterojunction and amorphous silicon solar cells.

14.2.1 The pn Junction Solar Cell

Consider the pn junction shown in Figure 14.6 with a resistive load. Even with zero
bias applied to the junction, an electric field exists in the space charge region as
shown in the figure. Incident photon illumination can create electron–hole pairs in
the space charge region that will be swept out producing the photocurrent IL in the
reverse-biased direction as shown.
The photocurrent IL produces a voltage drop across the resistive load which forward
biases the pn junction. The forward-bias voltage produces a forward-bias current IF as
indicated in the figure. The net pn junction current, in the reverse-biased direction, is

I  IL  IF  IL  IS exp _
kT   
eV  1 (14.7)

h

E-field
p n
IL

IF

I
 V

Figure 14.6 | A pn junction solar cell with resistive load.

nea29583_ch14_618-669.indd 624 12/11/10 12:51 PM

 14.2 Solar Cells 625

Isc

0 Voc
V

Figure 14.7 | I–V characteristics of a

pn junction solar cell.

where the ideal diode equation has been used. As the diode becomes forward biased,
the magnitude of the electric field in the space charge region decreases, but does
not go to zero or change direction. The photocurrent is always in the reverse-biased
direction and the net solar cell current is also always in the reverse-biased direction.
There are two limiting cases of interest. The short-circuit condition occurs when
R  0 so that V  0. The current in this case is referred to as the short-circuit cur-
rent, or
I  Isc  IL (14.8)
The second limiting case is the open-circuit condition and occurs when R → . The
net current is zero and the voltage produced is the open-circuit voltage. The photo-
current is just balanced by the forward-biased junction current, so we have

   
eVoc
I  0  ILIS exp _
kT
1 (14.9)

We can find the open circuit voltage Voc as

 I
Voc  Vt ln 1  _L
IS  (14.10)
A plot of the diode current I as a function of the diode voltage V from Equa-
tion (14.7) is shown in Figure 14.7. We may note the short-circuit current and open-
circuit voltage points on the figure.

Objective: Calculate the open-circuit voltage of a silicon pn junction solar cell. EXAMPLE 14.3
Consider a silicon pn junction at T  300 K with the following parameters:
Na  5 1018 cm3 Nd  1016 cm3
Dn  25 cm2/s Dp  10 cm2/s
n0  5 107 s p0  107 s
Let the photocurrent density be JL  ILA  15 mA/cm2.

nea29583_ch14_618-669.indd 625 12/11/10 12:51 PM

 14.2 Solar Cells 627

Isc

Im

0 Vm Voc
V

Figure 14.8 | Maximum power rectangle

of the solar cell I–V characteristics.

14.2.2 Conversion Efficiency and Solar Concentration

The conversion efficiency of a solar cell is defined as the ratio of output electrical
power to incident optical power. For the maximum power output, we can write
Pm ImVm
_ 100%  _ 100% (14.14)
Pin Pin
The maximum possible current and the maximum possible voltage in the solar cell
are Isc and Voc, respectively. The ratio ImVmIscVoc is called the fill factor and is a mea-
sure of the realizable power from a solar cell. Typically, the fill factor is between 0.7
and 0.8.
The conventional pn junction solar cell has a single semiconductor bandgap
energy. When the cell is exposed to the solar spectrum, a photon with energy less
than Eg will have no effect on the electrical output power of the solar cell. A photon
with energy greater than Eg will contribute to the solar cell output power, but the
fraction of photon energy that is greater than Eg will eventually only be dissipated
as heat. Figure 14.9 shows the solar spectral irradiance (power per unit area per unit
wavelength) where air mass zero represents the solar spectrum outside the earth’s
atmosphere and air mass one is the solar spectrum at the earth’s surface at noon.
The maximum efficiency of a silicon pn junction solar cell is approximately 28 per-
cent. Nonideal factors, such as series resistance and reflection from the semicon-
ductor surface, will lower the conversion efficiency typically to the range of 10 to
15 percent.
A large optical lens can be used to concentrate sunlight onto a solar cell so that
the light intensity can be increased up to several hundred times. The short-circuit
current increases linearly with light concentration while the open-circuit voltage in-
creases only slightly with concentration. Figure 14.10 shows the ideal solar cell effi-
ciency at 300 K for two values of solar concentration. We can see that the conversion
efficiency increases only slightly with optical concentration. The primary advantage
of using concentration techniques is to reduce the overall system cost since an optical
lens is less expensive than an equivalent area of solar cells.

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