The Relationship Among Religiosity, Paranormal Beliefs, and Superstition in Young Adults of Indian Urban Areas

The International Journal of Indian Psychology
ISSN 2348-5396 (Online) | ISSN: 2349-3429 (Print)

Volume 11, Issue 3, July- September, 2023
DIP: 18.01.414.20231103, DOI: 10.25215/1103.414
https://www.ijip.in
Research Paper
The Relationship Among Religiosity, Paranormal Beliefs, and

Superstition in Young Adults of Indian Urban Areas
Pranjal Mani Tripathi1*
ABSTRACT
This research explores the relationship between religiosity, paranormal beliefs, and
superstition among young adults in urban areas. The study sample consists of 178 urban
young adults aged 18 to 30. Participants were from different states in India, representing
diverse regional backgrounds. The research employed a cross-sectional design. Three scales
were utilized to measure the levels of religiosity, superstition, and paranormal beliefs. The
findings suggest that among urban young adults, religiosity and superstition levels are
moderate, while paranormal belief levels are high. The study shows significant relationship
between the variables. These results contribute to a better understanding of the complex
interplay between religiosity, paranormal beliefs, and superstition among young adults in
urban settings.
Keywords: Religiosity, Paranormal Beliefs, Superstition, Urban Young Adults, India,

Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CRS), A Scale to Measure Superstition (ASMS), Revised
Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS), correlation, cross-sectional research
R eligiosity
According to Anita Ravi (2020), the concept of gods protecting people and their
crops and cities dates back to early writing in the Mesopotamian city of Sumer,
around 1200 BCE. The emergence of shared beliefs and values helped establish social
cohesion and identity, eventually leading to the development of religious systems that
shaped the culture and society of these civilizations she also says that almost, all religions
offer the assurance of eternal salvation in some form. For example, Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam share a belief in one omnipotent and wise deity. In contrast, Hinduism permits the
adoration of several influential gods and goddesses, whereas Buddhism and Daoism
recognize the existence of many divine beings in various shapes and incarnations.
Additionally, all these religions promote the regulation of human relationships through
kindness, selflessness, and ethical integrity. While some classify Confucianism as an ethical
system rather than a religion, it emphasizes ethical behavior in public, good governance, and
social responsibility. Emile Durkheim defined religion as "A unified system of beliefs and
practices relative to sacred things, that is to say things set apart and forbidden - beliefs and
practices which unite into one single moral community called a church, all those who adhere
to them".
1
Msc. Psychology
*Corresponding Author
Received: August 3, 2023; Revision Received: September 27, 2023; Accepted: September 30, 2023
© 2023, Tripathi, P.M.; licensee IJIP. This is an Open Access Research distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License (www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any Medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
The Relationship Among Religiosity, Paranormal Beliefs, and Superstition in Young Adults of Indian
Urban Areas
The prevalence of religion during the 1200 BCE period can be attributed to several factors,
as explained by the McNeills in The Human Web: A Bird's-Eye View of World History:
"urban dwellers, and particularly poor, marginal persons, found that authoritative religious
guidance, shared faith, and mutual support among congregations of believers could
substitute for the tight-knit custom of village existence (within which the rural majority
continued to live) and give meaning and value to ordinary lives, despite daily contact with
uncaring strangers" (McNeills, 2003, p. 61). Such religious congregations helped to stabilize
urban society by making its inherent inequality and insecurity more tolerable.
It is fascinating to observe how religion has evolved over time, from the early beliefs in
multiple gods to the more modern monotheistic faiths. Despite the differences between the
various religions, they all share a belief in moral principles and human values. Religion, in
this sense, can be seen as a way for people to connect with something larger than themselves
and to seek guidance for living a good life. It is an essential aspect of human society that
continues to shape the beliefs and values of individuals and communities around the world.
Superstition
When ever black cat crosses the road, sinister thoughts start occupying our Brain, this is
nothing but superstition. Researcher (Stephen Mays,2017) have mentioned 13 superstition
forms around the world which include knocking on wood for good luck, the use of the
"nazar boncuğu" amulet to ward off the evil eye, black cats, crows, and magpies as
harbingers of bad luck, trimming nails at night as a potential cause of premature death, fear
of Tuesday the 13th, whistling indoors and at the sun, sitting at the corner of a table as a sign
of bad luck, placing a purse or wallet on the ground as bad financial luck, toasting with
water as a way of wishing death upon someone, the Hagia Sophia's thumb turning, breaking
mirrors leading to seven years of bad luck, and bird flying into homes as a bad omen .
The term "superstition" has a long and evolving history. It was first used in ancient Greece
in the 4th century BCE to describe practices such as magic, prophecy, and divination. Over
time, the meaning of superstition changed and was often used in contrast to the religious
practices preferred by the elites. Superstition has always been a transactional concept,
lacking a fixed meaning of its own and serving to differentiate itself from other worldviews
that were more widely accepted during a particular era.
(Stuart Vyse, 2020). These beliefs often involve the idea that certain actions or events can
bring either good or bad luck. Despite advancements in science and technology, many
people still hold onto these superstitious beliefs in various forms, such as carrying a lucky
charm or avoiding certain activities on certain days. While these beliefs may not have any
scientific basis, they continue to play a significant role in many people's lives, providing
comfort, meaning, and a sense of control over the unpredictable forces of the world.
Paranormal Belief
Paranormal beliefs refer to ideas or experiences that are outside the scope of what is
considered scientifically explainable or rational, and that involve supposed supernatural or
unexplained phenomena. The origins of paranormal beliefs can be traced back to ancient
cultures, where beliefs in ghosts, spirits, and other supernatural forces were commonly held.
Today, paranormal beliefs continue to be held by many people, although they are often
viewed with skepticism by the scientific community (Irwin Et al, 2007)
© The International Journal of Indian Psychology, ISSN 2348-5396 (e)| ISSN: 2349-3429 (p) | 4448
Urban Areas
There are many types of paranormal beliefs (Shermer, 2011), including:

• Ghosts and Hauntings - Belief in the existence of the spirits of dead people who can
haunt places or people.
• Psychic Abilities - Belief in the ability of certain individuals to perceive information
through means other than the five senses, such as telepathy, clairvoyance, or
precognition.
• UFOs and Extraterrestrial Life - Belief in the existence of unidentified flying objects
(UFOs) and the possibility of extraterrestrial life.
• Cryptozoology - Belief in the existence of unknown or undiscovered animals, such
as Bigfoot or the Loch Ness Monster.
• Spiritualism - Belief in the ability of mediums to communicate with the spirits of the
dead.
There are many factors that contribute to the development and maintenance of paranormal
beliefs, including cultural and social influences, personal experiences, and cognitive biases.
While some people may find comfort or meaning in paranormal beliefs, others may
experience negative consequences such as anxiety, paranoia, or even delusional thinking
(Peltzer, K., & Hlongwana, 2020).
THEORIES
Religiosity Functionalism
Emile Durkheim, a prominent sociologist, focused on studying religion in small societies.
He believed that religion influenced people's thoughts and behavior within a societal
context. Durkheim observed that sacred religious symbols and rituals were separated from
everyday profane objects. While advanced cultures may not believe in the divine power of
sacred objects, they still treat them with respect. Durkheim emphasized that religion is not
just about belief but also about regular rituals that bring people together and offer an escape
from mundane life. He predicted that as society modernizes, traditional religion would be
replaced by civic religion, incorporating civic celebrations (Durkheim, 1912).
Weber’s Theory of Religion

Durkheim's theory of religion was based on limited examples, while Weber studied various
religions worldwide. Weber focused on millions of believers in Christianity, Taoism,
Buddhism, and Hinduism. He aimed to understand religion's impact on social change and
observed that Protestantism influenced Western culture and the rise of capitalism. In
contrast, Eastern religions like Hinduism emphasized spiritual attainment and escaping
worldly matters. Weber saw Christianity as an active religion that sought to save people
through specific beliefs and moral codes, while Eastern religions took a more passive
approach. He believed salvation religions had a more proactive role in shaping society.
Marx’s Theory of Religion

Karl Marx, although not religious himself, drew upon ideas from thinkers like Ludwig
Feuerbach to develop his views on religion. According to Feuerbach, people project their
cultural values onto gods and spirits. Marx called religion the 'opium of the people,'
suggesting it acts as a distraction from societal injustices and discourages social change. It
teaches acceptance of one's current situation and postpones happiness to the afterlife. Marx
recognized that religion provides solace from daily
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hardships but believed it would eventually fade away. He argued that religion justifies
inequality and diverts attention from addressing societal problems.
Superstition
Reinforcement and Operant Conditioning Theory
In 1948, psychologist B.F. Skinner noticed pigeons displaying strange behaviors in hopes of
getting food. Even though the food was already scheduled to be given at regular intervals,
the pigeons believed their actions influenced the feeding. Some psychologists disagreed with
Skinner's explanation, suggesting a different reason for the pigeons' behavior. However,
Skinner's idea of reinforcement schedules has been used to explain superstitious behavior in
humans. When people perform an action expecting a reward and don't get it, they may keep
trying because sometimes rewards come unexpectedly. This is called the partial
reinforcement effect and can make people persist in their actions.
Evolutionary Theory
Nature favors the development of quick and simple ways of thinking that often lead to
mistaken connections or beliefs. Even though these beliefs may be incorrect, they can
sometimes offer survival benefits that outweigh the drawbacks. There's a link suggested
between obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and superstition, indicating a possible
connection. According to a recent theory by Jane Risen, superstitions are intuitive judgments
that people know are incorrect but still go along with, rather than correcting, because they
emerge from our automatic thinking process and are not corrected by our more deliberate
thinking process. (Barrett, 2000).
Paranormal belief
The Cognitive Theory of Paranormal Belief
The cognitive theory posits that paranormal beliefs stem from the way our minds process
information and interpret experiences. According to this theory, individuals who are prone to
paranormal beliefs have a tendency to find patterns and connections in random events,
leading them to attribute supernatural causes. This cognitive bias is known as patternicity.
Additionally, individuals may rely on heuristics, mental shortcuts that help them make quick
judgments, to explain and understand the unexplainable. These cognitive processes
contribute to the development and maintenance of paranormal beliefs (Shermer, 2011).
The Socio-Cultural Theory of Paranormal Belief

The socio-cultural theory suggests that paranormal beliefs are influenced by social and
cultural factors. People are social beings, and their beliefs are shaped by the society they live
in. In some cultures, supernatural phenomena are deeply ingrained and accepted as part of
everyday life. Additionally, the media plays a significant role in promoting and
disseminating paranormal beliefs. Movies, television shows, and books often portray
paranormal events and phenomena, which can influence individuals' perceptions and
reinforce their beliefs in the supernatural (Houran & Lange, 2001).
The Psychological Theory of Paranormal Belief

The psychological theory proposes that paranormal beliefs fulfill various psychological
needs. For example, individuals may find comfort and a sense of control in believing in
supernatural powers or an afterlife. Paranormal beliefs can also serve as a coping
mechanism, helping individuals make sense of traumatic experiences or providing hope in
challenging times. Furthermore, these beliefs can enhance individuals' sense of uniqueness
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or provide them with a sense of belonging to a specific group that shares similar beliefs.
Thus, psychological factors contribute to the formation and maintenance of paranormal
beliefs (Goulding, 2004).
Statement of the problem

The relationship between religiosity, paranormal beliefs, and superstitions among young
adults in urban areas remains largely unexplored. As urbanization continues to shape
societies, traditional religious practices and beliefs are often challenged by modern lifestyles
and a growing interest in paranormal phenomena. Consequently, there is a need to
understand how young adults in urban areas navigate their religiosity, paranormal beliefs,
and superstitions, and how these factors interact and influence their worldview and decision-
making processes.
Purpose of the study

The purpose of this exploratory study is to examine the relationship between religiosity,
paranormal beliefs, and superstitions among young adults residing in urban areas. The study
aims to investigate the prevalence of religiosity, explore the extent of paranormal beliefs,
and assess the presence of superstitious behaviors among this demographic. By shedding
light on these aspects, the study aims to contribute to a broader understanding of the
complex dynamics between religiosity, paranormal beliefs, and superstitions among young
adults in urban areas and provide insights into the potential impact on their lives and
decision-making processes.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Residents of rural areas tend to be more religious and paranormal believer because in majority,
locus of control is influenced by external factors (Dr. Adnan Adil Et al. 2019). In comparison
to rural male, rural female showed low level of superstitious belief, similar conclusion found
in urban context, however, (Subhankar Samanta 2021) found no significant difference
between urban population and rural population in terms of superstitious belief.
We all live in a male dominated society. (Dr. Pragati Chaturvedi and Roopali Shreevastava
2020) found that, In India, women are more superstitious than men, underlying reason could
be lack of education because women are less educated than men in India, even, Latvian
women showed higher level of paranormal belief than men (J. J. TOBACYK Et al 2015),
however, (Aisha Maqsood Et al. 2018) stated that, women are more superstitious than men
not because they are less educated, they tend to be involved more in experiential thinking. It
is found that high level of experiential thinking predicted high superstitious beliefs and high
level of rational thinking predicted low superstitious belief.
Humans who lack confidence and don’t believe in their handwork, they indulge in
superstitious activity to get their work done in order to avoid harm, injury and adversity. It is
mostly common in uneducated and ignorant individuals (Bodising Narah and Ranjit Taku
2020). Intelligent and reflective thinkers scored low in paranormal belief in comparison to
non reflective thinkers (Onurcan Yilmaz 2020). Reflective thinkers can easily nullify their
uncanny experience in comparison to non reflective thinker (Romain Bouvet, Jean-François
Bonnefon 2015). Researchers like (Torgler and Benno, 2003) concluded that, higher
education is inversely proportional to superstitious belief, but in contrast to this (Hazim
Hakkush Al-Dilaimya and Marwah Firas Abdullah Al-Raweb 2020) postulated that
Educated, smart individuals can also be superstitious at different level. Smart, emotionally
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stable and educated individuals know the difference between what is rational and what is
irrational but still they believe in superstition (Jane L. Risen 2016), Education itself cannot
eradicate people's belief in superstition or other powerful intuition (Jane L. Risen 2016), it
should be combined with rational thinking because those who indulge in intuitive-
experiential thinking they easily fall prey to powerful intuition and other superstitious
belief(Paul Rogers Et al 2018).
According to (Yung-Jong Shiah Et al 2010) Christian and atheists scored lower on

paranormal belief compared to traditional Chinese religious believer. Among believers,
nominal believers and nonbelievers. Nominal believers and nonbelievers share similar belief
and they show higher level of paranormal belief as compared to believer (Elizabeth L.
Hillstrom and Melissa Strachan 2000). Another report stated that non religious individuals
show high level of belief in both superstition and paranormal phenomena were as religious
individuals show high level of belief in paranormal phenomena only (Richard Beck a &
Jonathan P. Miller b 2010). In contrast to this (Jeffrey Rudski 2003)’s reports says that even
believers are superstitious and believe in paranormal phenomena. Culture has more
influence on superstitious belief of an area in comparison to religion. For instance, Northern
Italy is more secular in comparison to southern Italy but the natives of both the areas avoid
Tuesday and 17th of every month for marriage, they consider it as an unlucky day because
it’s a part of their culture (Marco Et al 2016). A research was conducted Among Buddhist,
Christian, Taoists and atheist. Buddhists and Taoists showed more Subjective Well Being
(SWB) in comparison to christian and atheist. Underlying reason could be culture.
Buddhism and Taoism were developed in China and they believe in collectivism (Yung-
Jong Shiah Et al 2015). Two individuals who share same political ideology, age, sexuality,
education, religious engagement can acquire poles apart set of belief about the world if their
analytical thinking differ from each other (Gordon Pennycook Et al 2012). An experiment
was conducted to understand why people don’t want to pet black cats. Researchers found no
evidence of religiosity or racial prejudice behind this deed, underlying reason was
participants could not understand black cats emotion and facial expression which make them
unworthy to pet (Haylie D. Jones and Christian L. Hart 2019)
In Kyoto university hospital, Japan, patients extend their stay in hospital beyond doctors
suggestion in order to be released from hospital on a lucky day. Research also shows that in
the name of superstition patients consult traditional healer and these traditional practitioners
use insanitary instrument which can be hazardous for health (Donat Uwayezu Et al 2022). In
Taiwan, the seventh lunar month is considered as ghost month. It is believed that during this
month, gates of the afterlife are opened and ghosts freely roam in the living world. Presence
of these otherworldly beings impact life of earthlings. Believers avoid number of activities
such as swimming, driving, traveling, avoid outing after sunset, shopping, social events,
surgeries, going to clinic etc. An individual who believes in these myth wont be consulting
medical practitioner when he or she will be under critical situation. This can be hazardous
for him or her (Martin Halla Chia-Lun Liu Jin-Tan Liu 2019).
Superstition can also have positive outcome.Yield of positive outcome could be result of
placebo effect. (Sieun An Et al 2020) experimented and found that under the placebo
condition, more superstitious individual could memorize more words in comparison to less
superstitious individuals, however, in the control condition less superstitious individual
could memorize more words. Placebo effect also influence athlete's performance this is the
reason why elite athletes are more believer in superstition than non-athletes (Zsuzsanna
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Dömötör Et al 2016). Superstitious thought or behavior improves superstition believer’s

performance. In this experiment ball was considered as a lucky charm, narrative was
established that in past who ever had this ball they got success. Result shows that
superstitious individual showed better performance in the presence of lucky charm (Lysann
Damisch Et al 2010). A study suggests that some people who experienced physical abuse
during childhood may find solace in paranormal beliefs, as these beliefs may offer a sense of
control and emotional resilience. (Stefanie L. Perkins and Rhiannon Allen 2006).
Research Questions
What is the relationship between religiosity, paranormal beliefs, and Superstition among
young adults in urban areas?
Research Gap
While there has been some research on the relationship between religiosity and paranormal
beliefs, as well as between religiosity and superstitions, there is a lack of research that
examines all three factors together among young adults in urban areas.
Additionally, previous studies have mostly focused on the general population, rather than
specifically on young adults living in urban areas, who may have different experiences and
beliefs due to their unique social and cultural context. Therefore, there is a need for an
exploratory study that investigates the interplay between religiosity, paranormal beliefs, and
superstitions among this demographic group in urban areas.
METHODOLOGY
Aim:
The aim of this exploratory study is to investigate the relationship between religion,
paranormal beliefs, and superstitions among young adults in urban areas.
Objective:
• To examine the level of religiosity among the young adults living in urban area.
• To examine the level of superstition among the young adults living in urban area.
• To examine the level of paranormal belief among the young adults living in urban
area.
• To explore the relationship between religiosity, paranormal beliefs and superstition
among young adults living in urban areas.
Hypothesis
• H0: There is no significant relationship between religiosity and superstition among
urban young adults.
• H1: There is a significant relationship between religiosity and paranormal belief
among urban young adults.
Operational Definition
• Religiosity can be defined as the degree to which an individual or a community
adheres to and practices the beliefs, rituals, and values associated with a particular
religion or religious system. It reflects the level of religious commitment and
involvement in religious activities. Religiosity encompasses various aspects,
including religious beliefs, participation in religious ceremonies, engagement in
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religious practices such as prayer and worship, and adherence to religious moral
codes. It is a measure of one's religious devotion and the extent to which religion
influences their thoughts, behaviors, and overall worldview (Pargament, 1999).
• Superstition refers to the belief in supernatural causality, where certain actions or
objects are believed to have an influence on future events or outcomes, despite a lack
of rational or scientific evidence. Superstitions often involve notions of luck, omens,
charms, and rituals that are thought to bring about either good or bad fortune. People
may engage in superstitious behaviors to seek protection, control uncertainty, or
attempt to influence the outcomes of events in their favor. While superstitions can
vary across cultures and individuals, they typically involve irrational beliefs and
actions that are not based on empirical evidence (Vyse, 1997).
• Paranormal beliefs refer to the acceptance or endorsement of concepts and
phenomena that are beyond the scope of scientific understanding and explanation.
These beliefs encompass a wide range of phenomena such as ghosts, psychic
abilities, astrology, and extraterrestrial life. Paranormal beliefs often arise from
experiences, cultural influences, and personal interpretations of unexplained events.
People with paranormal beliefs may attribute events or experiences to supernatural
forces or phenomena that cannot be easily explained or verified by scientific
methods. However, paranormal beliefs lack empirical evidence and are often
considered pseudoscientific or outside the realm of scientific inquiry (Irwin, 2009).
Sample Distribution and technique

The sample consist of 178 urban young adults between the age of 18 to 30, selected using
stratified random sampling technique. The participants were from different states (Andhra
Pradesh -5.6%, Assam - 2.8%, Bihar - 1.1%, Chhattisgarh - 3.9%, Goa - 1.7%, Gujarat -
0.6%, Haryana - 1.1%, Himachal Pradesh - 0.6%, Jharkhand - 2.8%, Karnataka - 15.6%,
Kerala - 8.9%, Madhya Pradesh - 2.2%, Maharashtra - 5.6%, Manipur - 8.3%, Mizoram -
0.6%, Odisha - 1.7%, Punjab - 3.3%, Rajasthan - 1.7%, Sikkim - 0.6%, Tamil Nadu - 5%,
Telangana - 6.1%, Tripura - 3.3%, Uttar Pradesh - 3.3%, Uttarakhand - 1.1%, West Bengal -
6.1%, Andaman and Nicobar Islands - 2.2%, Delhi - 1.1%, Jammu and Kashmir - 2.8%,
Ladakh - 0.6%) of India. This study utilized a cross-sectional research design to collect data
at a single point in time. Questionnaires were distributed to the participants through Google
forms. The sample comprises, 66.1% Hindus, 7.2% Christians, 8.3% Muslims, 4.4% Sikhs,
1.7% Buddhists, 2.8% Jains, 1.1% Agnostic, 3.3% Atheist, 5% Sanamahism (folk religion)
Inclusion Criteria:
• Age between 18 and 30 years
• Urban residents
• Willingness to participate in the study
Exclusion Criteria:
• Age below 18 or above 30 years
• Non-urban residents
• Unwillingness to participate in the study
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Description of tools
Three scales were used in this research: The Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CRS), A Scale
to Measure Superstition (ASMS), and A Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS).
• A Scale to Measure Superstition (ASMS)
Md. Mahfuzul Huque and Ataharul Huq Chowdhury developed a scale to measure levels of
superstition. The scale consists of 20 items and uses a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from
"High" to "Not at all". The Cronbach's alpha coefficient for ‘A Scale to Measure
Superstition’ is 0.97
• The Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CRS)

The Centrality of Religiosity Scale, created by Stefan Huber and Odilo W. Huber, is a
reliable and valid 15-item scale that measures religiosity. Cronbach's alpha coefficient for
‘The Centrality of Religiosity Scale’ ranges between 0.92 to 0.96. The scale uses a 5-point
Likert scale to assess the frequency and importance of personal constructs related to
religiosity, including the presence of hermeneutics (personal interpretation of religious texts)
in personality. The answer options range from "never" to "very often" and are divided into
five categories based on the level of presence or absence of these constructs.
In addition to the self-reported measures of religiosity, the scale also includes objective
measures of prayer, meditation, and participation in religious services. The objective
frequencies of these activities are recoded into five levels, ranging from "several times a
day" to "never" for prayer and meditation, and from "more than once a week" to "never" for
participation in religious services.
Overall, the Centrality of Religiosity Scale provides a comprehensive assessment of

religiosity that takes into account both self-reported and objective measures
• A Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS).

Jerome J. Tobacyk developed a 26-item scale, known as the Revised Paranormal Belief
Scale, which is used to assess individuals' beliefs in paranormal phenomena. The Cronbach's
alpha coefficient for ‘A Revised Paranormal Belief Scale’ is 0.96. Participants rate each item
on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from "Strongly Disagree" to "Strongly Agree."
Procedure for Data Collection

For the research study, a Google form was used to collect data from 178 young adults
residing in urban areas. The participants were asked to fill out three different scales,
including A Scale to Measure Superstition, The Centrality of Religiosity Scale, and A
Revised Paranormal Belief Scale. The participants were informed about the purpose of the
study and provided their consent to participate. The Google form was made available online,
and the participants were given a specified time to fill out the form. The data collection
process was conducted within a specific timeframe to ensure that the responses were
received on time.
Procedure for Data Analysis

For the data analysis, SPSS software was used. Descriptive statistics were used to describe
the demographic characteristics of the participants. The Normality test was performed to
determine the normal distribution of the data. Data was not normally distributed. The
Spearman’s rho correlation test was used to determine the strength and direction of the
relationships among the variables under investigation. The results of the data analysis were
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used to draw conclusions and make inferences about the relationships between religion,
paranormal beliefs, and superstitions among young adults in urban areas.
Ethical Considerations
The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles of research involving
human subjects. The participants were informed of the purpose and nature of the study, and
their informed consent was obtained before the survey was administered. The participants'
personal information was kept confidential, and the data was used for research purposes
only. The study did not involve any risks or harm to the participants.
RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and normality test for the variables
Mean Std. N Kolmogorov- Shapiro-
Deviation Smirnova Wilk
(P value) (P value)
Religiosity 53.53 14.216 178 .000 .000
level
Superstition 36.39 14.372 178 .000 .000
level
Paranormal 102.78 28.574 178 .012 .053
Note. If the p-value is less than the chosen significance level (0.01), we can conclude that
the data is not normally distributed.
Table 1, shows mean, standard deviation, Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test and Shapiro-
Wilk normality test of Religiosity level, Superstition level and Paranormal belief level. The
mean religiosity level among the young adults in urban areas was 53.53 (SD = 14.216),
indicating a moderate level of religiosity. The mean superstition level was 36.39 (SD =
14.372), suggesting a relatively moderate level of superstition. The mean paranormal belief
level was 102.78 (SD = 28.574), indicating a relatively high level of paranormal beliefs
among the participants.
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests were used to assess the normality of the
data. This research study involved the participation of 178 individuals, which is a smaller
sample size compared to the commonly used benchmark of 2000 participants. Due to the
smaller sample size, the Shapiro-Wilk test is chosen instead of Kolmogorov-Smirnov for
assessing the normality of the data distribution. The Shapiro-Wilk test is a statistical test
specifically designed for small sample sizes and is appropriate for determining whether the
data follows a normal distribution.
The results indicate that the Religiosity level (.000) and the Superstition level (.000)
variables deviated significantly from a normal distribution (p<0.01) where as the Paranormal
belief level (.053) is normally distributed (p>0.01), thus non parametric test is opted because
non-parametric tests require fewer assumptions about the underlying distribution and are
resilient to deviations from normality.
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Table 2. Spearman's rho correlation between variables

Religiosity level Superstitious Paranormal
belief level belief level
Religiosity level r 1.000 .342** .241**
p . .000 .001
**
Superstition level r .342 1.000 .441**
p .000 . .000
**
Paranormal belief level r .241 .441** 1.000
p .001 .000 .
Note. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed)
Table 2, shows the Spearman's rho correlation coefficients among three variables:
Religiosity level, Superstition level, and Paranormal belief level. The religiosity level,
superstition level, and paranormal belief level were measured in a sample of 178 individuals.
The correlations between these variables were found to be significant at the 0.01 level (two-
tailed). The findings indicate that there is a positive relationship between religiosity level
and superstition level (r = .342, p < .01), as well as between religiosity level and paranormal
belief level (r = .241, p < .01). Similarly, a positive correlation was observed between
superstition level and religiosity level (r = .342, p < .01), and between superstition level and
paranormal belief level (r = .441, p < .01). Additionally, there is a positive correlation
between paranormal belief level and religiosity level (r = .241, p < .01), as well as between
paranormal belief level and superstition level (r = .441, p < .01).
The strength of the correlations suggests that there is a moderate positive relationship
between these variables. Therefore, individuals who report high levels of religiosity tend to
have higher levels of superstition and paranormal beliefs. Similarly, individuals who report
high levels of superstition tend to have higher levels of paranormal beliefs.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Discussion
The findings from this research indicate that level of religiosity and level of superstition is
‘moderate’ whereas level of paranormal belief is ‘high’ among urban young adults.
The study also provide evidence to reject the null hypothesis (H0) that there is no significant
relationship between religiosity, superstition and paranormal belief among urban young
adults. The positive correlations between religiosity level and superstition level, as well as
between superstition level and paranormal belief level, suggest that there is indeed a
significant relationship between these variables. Therefore, H1, which proposes a significant
relationship between religiosity, superstition and paranormal belief among urban young
adults, is supported by the data, thus H0 is rejected and H1 is accepted.
The results indicate that individuals who report higher levels of religiosity are more likely to
hold superstition and paranormal beliefs. This finding aligns with previous research that has
suggested a connection between religiosity and supernatural beliefs. It is possible that
individuals with a strong religious orientation may be more open to the idea of supernatural
forces and events, leading to an increased likelihood of endorsing superstitious and
paranormal beliefs.
Urban Areas
Major finding
The study found a significant positive correlation between religiosity level, superstition
level, and paranormal belief level among young adults in urban areas. The strength of the
correlations indicates that individuals with high levels of religiosity tend to have higher
levels of superstition and paranormal beliefs, and those with high levels of superstition tend
to have higher levels of paranormal beliefs.
Research also indicate that level of religiosity and level of superstition is moderate whereas
level of paranormal belief is high among urban young adults.
Limitations of the study

The study has a few limitations that need to be considered while interpreting the results.
Firstly, the study was conducted on a relatively small sample size of 178 young adults from
urban areas, which may not be representative of the entire population. Secondly, the study
used self-reported measures, which are subject to social desirability bias and may not
accurately reflect the true beliefs and attitudes of the participants. Thirdly, the study did not
examine the possible causal relationship between religiosity, superstition, and paranormal
beliefs. Fourth, the tools used in this research where lengthy, many participants didn’t
complete the form because it was time consuming.
Scope for further research

Future studies could use a larger and more diverse sample size to examine the relationship
between religiosity, superstition, and paranormal beliefs. Additionally, future research could
use mixed research methodology to investigate the causal relationship between these
variables. Longitudinal studies could also examine how these beliefs change over time and
the factors that contribute to their change.
Implications of the study

The study has important implications for understanding the relationship between religiosity,
superstition, and paranormal beliefs among young adults in urban areas. The findings
suggest that individuals with high levels of religiosity may also hold superstition and
paranormal beliefs. This has implications for mental health practitioners who may encounter
clients with these beliefs and need to be sensitive to their cultural and religious beliefs.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the study found a significant positive correlation between religiosity,
superstition, and paranormal beliefs among young adults in urban areas. The findings also
indicate that level of religiosity and level of superstition is ‘moderate’ whereas level of
paranormal belief is ‘high’ among urban young adults. The study highlights the need for
further research to understand the causal relationship between these variables and their
implications for mental health practitioners.
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Acknowledgment
The author(s) appreciates all those who participated in the study and helped to facilitate the
research process.
Conflict of Interest
The author(s) declared no conflict of interest.
How to cite this article: Tripathi, P.M. (2023). The Relationship Among Religiosity,
Paranormal Beliefs, and Superstition in Young Adults of Indian Urban Areas. International
Journal of Indian Psychology, 11(3), 4447-4461. DIP:18.01.414.20231103, DOI:10.25215/
1103.414

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The International Journal of Indian Psychology

ISSN 2348-5396 (Online) | ISSN: 2349-3429 (Print)

The Relationship Among Religiosity, Paranormal Beliefs, and

Keywords: Religiosity, Paranormal Beliefs, Superstition, Urban Young Adults, India,

There are many types of paranormal beliefs (Shermer, 2011), including:

Weber’s Theory of Religion

Marx’s Theory of Religion

The Socio-Cultural Theory of Paranormal Belief

The Psychological Theory of Paranormal Belief

Statement of the problem

Purpose of the study

According to (Yung-Jong Shiah Et al 2010) Christian and atheists scored lower on

Dömötör Et al 2016). Superstitious thought or behavior improves superstition believer’s

Sample Distribution and technique

• The Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CRS)

Overall, the Centrality of Religiosity Scale provides a comprehensive assessment of

• A Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS).

Procedure for Data Collection

Procedure for Data Analysis

RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

Table 2. Spearman's rho correlation between variables

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Limitations of the study

Scope for further research

Implications of the study

Barrett, J. L. (2000). Exploring the natural foundations of religion. Trends in Cognitive

Mohand Hazim Hakkoshc International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change.

Vyse, S. A. (2020). Superstition. In J. Fieser & B. Dowden (Eds.), Internet Encyclopedia of

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