FST 505 FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PROCESSING

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General Introduction

Fruit and vegetables have many similarities with respect to their compositions, methods of
cultivation and harvesting, storage properties and processing. In fact, many vegetables may be
considered fruit in the true botanical sense. Botanically, fruits are those portions of the plant which
house seeds. Therefore such items as tomatoes, cucumbers, eggplant, peppers, and others would be
classified as fruits on this basis.
However, the important distinction between fruit and vegetables has come to be made on an usage
basis. Those plant items that are generally eaten with the main course of a meal are considered to
be vegetables. Those that are commonly eaten as dessert are considered fruits.

In developing countries agriculture is the mainstay of the economy. Of the various types of
activities that can be termed as agriculturally based, fruit and vegetable processing are among the
most important.
Both established and planned fruit and vegetable processing projects aim at solving a very clearly
identified development problem. This is that due to insufficient demand, weak infrastructure, poor
transportation and perishable nature of the crops, the grower sustains substantial losses.
During the postharvest glut, the loss is considerable and often some of the produce has to be fed to
animals or allowed to rot.
Even established fruit and vegetable canning factories or small/medium scale processing centres
suffer huge loss due to erratic supplies. The grower may like to sell his produce in the open market
directly to the consumer, or the produce may not be of high enough quality to process even though
it might be good enough for the table. This means that processing capacities will be seriously
underexploited.

The main objectives of fruit and vegetable processing is to supply wholesome, safe, nutritious
and acceptable food to consumers throughout the year.
Fruit and vegetable processing projects also aim to replace imported products like squash, yams,
tomato sauces, pickles, etc., besides earning foreign exchange by exporting finished or semi-
processed products.
The fruit and vegetable processing activities have been set up, or have to be established in
developing countries for one or other of the following reasons:
● diversification of the economy, in order to reduce present dependence on one export commodity;
● government industrialisation policy;

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 ● reduction of imports and meeting export demands;
● stimulate agricultural production by obtaining marketable products;
● generate both rural and urban employment;
● reduce fruit and vegetable losses;
● improve farmers' nutrition by allowing them to consume their own processed fruit and vegetables
during the off-season;
● generate new sources of income for farmers/artisans;
● develop new value-added products.

1 Importance and Strategies of postharvest handling of crops

Crops/agricultural produce must be harvested and handled with extreme care if they are to be
kept for extended period in good and wholesome form. There are a number of different practices
which, will assist in delaying deterioration after harvesting. The various types of crops may determine
the handling practice but the goal of handling practices is to ensure that crops are properly handled to
prevent reduction and deterioration of crops. Proper handling of crops after harvesting will guarantee
safe storage. This will ensure food security and prevent inherent food shortage responsible for
malnutrition in most cases.
Post-harvest losses
Post-harvest losses refer to all forms of reduction from the point of harvest to the point of
consumption of agricultural produce. These produce are living that is they possess some
characteristics of living cells this make them susceptible to deterioration shortly after reaching
maturity and harvest. The deterioration may generally be in quantity or quality of harvested produce.
The post-harvest losses is responsible for major shortage of food in most developing countries like
Nigeria. Due to lack of proper post-harvest handling of some of these fresh and high moisture crops
deterioration set in within few hours/days of harvesting. The deterioration responsible for the losses
may be as a result of handling during harvesting process; which may result from bruises and injuries
from harvesting implements. It may be as result of microbial infection or chemical deterioration of the
crops.
One major activity that takes place in plants and harvested crop/produce is Respiration. Respiration is
defined as the process whereby oxygen is taken in and carbon (IV) oxide (CO2) is given out. Can you
remember the equation to represent this? Here we are: C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O+ Heat energy

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Respiration leads to break down of harvested produce. Harvested produce continually use
carbohydrate and lose water without any replacement. This eventually leads to ageing, death and
decay.

Factors responsible for Food losses after harvesting

These include losses from technological origin such as deterioration by biological or

microbiological agents, and mechanical damage.

Losses due to technological origin include: unfavourable climate, cultural practices, poor storage
conditions, and inadequate handling during transportation, all of which can lead to accelerated
product decay (e.g., tubers re-sprouting from bulbs and weight loss from product dehydration).

Physiological deterioration of fruits and vegetables refers to the aging of products during storage
due to natural reactions.

Deterioration caused by biochemical or chemical agents refers to reactions, of which

intermediate and final products are undesirable. These can result in significant loss of nutritional
value (i.e., rancidity and agrochemical contamination) and in many cases the whole fruit or
vegetable is lost.

Deterioration by biological or microbiological agents refers to losses caused by insects, bacteria,

moulds, yeasts, viruses, rodents, and other animals. When fruits and vegetables are gathered into
boxes, crates, baskets, or trucks after harvesting, they may be subject to cross-contamination by
spoilage microorganisms from other fruits and vegetables and from containers.

Most of the microorganisms present in fresh vegetables are saprophytes, such as coryniforms,
lactic acid bacteria, spore-formers, coliforms, micrococci, and pseudomonas, derived from the
soil, air, and water. Pseudomonas and the group of Klebsiella-Enterobacter-Serratia from the
enterobacteriaceae are the most frequent

Food losses due to social and economic reasons

Policies: This involves political conditions under which a technological solution is inappropriate
or difficult to put in to practice, for example, lack of a clear policy capable of facilitating and

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 encouraging utilization and administration of human, economic, technical, and scientific
resources to prevent the deterioration of commodities. In most cases policies formulated are not
followed to logical conclusion.

Resources: This is related to human, economic, and technical resources for developing programs
aimed at prevention and reduction of post-harvest food losses.

Education: This includes unknown knowledge of technical and scientific technologies associated
with preservation, processing, packaging, transporting, and distribution of food products.

Services: This refers to inefficient commercialization systems, and absent or inefficient

government agencies in the production and marketing of commodities, as well as a lack of credit
policies that address the needs of the country and participants.

Transportation: This is a serious problem faced by fruit growers in developing countries, where
vehicles used in transporting bulk raw fruits to markets are not equipped with good refrigeration
systems. Raw fruits exposed to high temperatures during transportation soften in tissue and bruise
easily, causing rapid microbial deterioration.
Most mechanical damage occurs as a result of careless handling at harvest and during
transport to and within a store since, generally in the tropics, food handling procedures are poorly
developed and fresh produce is all too frequently treated as an inert object.
Various strategies/technologies of postharvest handling of crops

Careful harvesting and proper handling of roots and tubers is, therefore, an important step towards
successful storage. Crops are most likely to be injured at harvest by the digging tools, which may be
wooden sticks, machetes/cutlasses, hoes or forks. Therefore, immediately after harvest, the crop must
undergo the operation of curing. The curing process involves the application of high temperatures and
high relative humidity to the roots and tubers for long periods, in order to heal the skins wounded
during harvesting. With this process a new protected layer of cells is formed. Curing can be
accomplished in the field or in curing structures conditioned for that purpose. Commodities such as
yams can be cured in the field by piling them in a partially shaded area. Cut grass or straw can serve
as insulating material while covering the pile with canvas, burlap, or woven grass matting. This
covering will provide sufficient heat to reach high temperatures and high relative humidity. The stack
can be left in this state for up to four days.

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Onions and garlic can be cured in the field in windrows or after being packed into large fibre or net
sacks. Modern curing systems have been implemented in housing conditioned with fans and heaters
to produce the heat necessary for high temperatures and high relative humidity.

Definition of Fruit
Fruit make up a large portion of our diets. The botanical definition of fruit is a seed-bearing part
of a flowering plant or tree that can be eaten as food. By those standards, foods such as avocados,
cucumbers, squash, and yes, even tomatoes are all fruits. From a culinary viewpoint, a fruit is
usually thought of as any sweet-tasting plant product with seeds, whereas a vegetable is any
savory or less sweet-tasting plant.
Types of Fruit
Fruits can be eaten raw, frozen, stewed, cooked, or dried. "fruit" normally means the fleshy seed-
associated structures (or produce) of plants that typically are sweet or sour and edible in the raw
state, such as apples, bananas, grapes, lemons, oranges, and strawberries.
A fruit is defined as the developed ovary of a seed plant with its contents and accessory parts,
as the pea pod, nut, tomato, or pineapple. It is the edible part of a plant developed from a
flower, with any accessory tissues, as the peach, mulberry, or banana. A fruit is the often sweet
and fleshy part of a plant that surrounds the seeds, although some fruits like berries bear the
seed on the outside of the fruit.
Fruits can be fleshy like tomatoes or peaches, or they can be dry like coconuts or peanuts. They
can have many seeds in them like cantaloupe and watermelon, or they can have one single seed
in them like avocados, almonds, and cherries. Fruits may be very large, like pumpkins, or very
small, like blueberries. Here are some examples of each type of fruit. This is a list of fruits that
are often thought to be vegetables: Tomatoes, cucumbers, squashes and zucchini, avocados,
green, red, and yellow peppers, peapods, pumpkins, olives, sweet potatoes and yams.
Mushrooms are neither fruit nor vegetable; they are a type of fungus.
What is a vegetable?
All other edible plant parts are considered vegetables. the edible root, tuber, leaf, stem, seed or
flower of a plant”. Vegetables are any edible part of a plant that isn’t the fruit. A vegetable is
an herbaceous plant cultivated for an edible part, such as the root of the beet, the leaf of
spinach, or the flower buds of broccoli or cauliflower. Examples of vegetables include broccoli,
potato, onions]], lettuce, spinach, turnips, cauliflower.

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Difference Between a Fruit and a Vegetable (in Science)
The main difference between a fruit and a vegetable is what part of the plant it comes from. The
difference between a fruit and a vegetable is technically that a fruit is a type of vegetable. In
scientific usage, the difference is that a fruit is specifically the mature ovary of a flowering plant
while a vegetable is any other edible part of the plant.
Similarities Between Fruits and Vegetables
Fruits and vegetables do have some things in common. They are both foods people eat that come
from plants. Fruits or vegetables can have a sweet taste or a savory taste.
Fruit vs. Vegetable List
Fruit Vegetable
apple arrowroot
apricot artichoke
avocado asparagus
banana beet
blackberry broccoli
cherry cabbage
corn carrot
cucumber celery
grape grape leaf
eggplant kale
kiwi leek
lemon lettuce
olive onion
peach potato
pea pod radicchio
pepper spinach
pumpkin sweet potato
strawberry turnip
winter squash watercress
zucchini yam root
Comparison chart

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 Fruit Vegetable

Introduction The word fruit has different The term vegetable generally means the edible
meanings in different contexts. parts of plants.
In botany, fruits are the ripened
ovaries of flowering plants.

Seed Must contain seed, either inside Vegetables do not contain seeds.
or on the outside (e.g.
strawberry).

Taste Mostly sweet, sometimes tart, Not sweet or very subtly sweet. While each
with bitter seeds. vegetable is distinct in taste, hardly any vegetable
can be classified as sweet, sour, salty or bitter.

Nutrition Low in fat and calories, high in Low in fat and claories, high in fiber. Starchy
fiber, often high in natural sugar. vegetables like beet and potato are very high in
sugar.

Types of Vegetables
 Root vegetables: underground plant parts consumed by people as food. Root
vegetables are generally storage organs, enlarged to store energy in the form of
carbohydrates.
o Bulb vegetables like garlic, onion, shallot
o Tuberous roots like sweet potatoes and yams
o Taproots like radishes and carrots
o Root-like stems such as Florida arrowroot
o Modified plant stems like turmeric, lotus root, taro, water lily, ginger and
potato
 Edible Flowers: flowers that are consumed either raw or after cooking. e.g. broccoli,
chives, cornflower, cauliflower, basil, bean, okra
 Stems like asparagus, leek, sugar cane
 Leafy vegetables like spinach, lettuce, kale, mustard and cabbage

Differences in popular usage

Traditionally, most people categorize "vegetables" as foods that are eaten as part of a meal's
main course and "fruits" as foods that are eaten for dessert or as a snack. Most fruits are sweet
with bitter seeds, because they contain a simple sugar called fructose, while most vegetables
are less sweet because they have much less fructose.

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Nutrition
Both fruits and vegetables are very high in nutrition as they contain many vitamins and are low
in fat and calories. Although vegetables and fruits are extensively used in preparations that
involve cooking or baking, they provide most nutrition when they are eaten raw.
Health Benefits of Fruits and Vegetables
Several studies have found that eating more fruits and vegetables is associated with a decreased
risk of heart disease. One study found that eating more than three servings per day slashed the
risk of heart disease by 70%. Because fruits and vegetables are low in calories but high in fiber,
they could even help keep your weight under control. Increasing your fiber intake through fruits
and vegetables may even reduce your risk of cancer. Multiple studies have found that higher fruit
and vegetable consumption is linked to a lower risk of colorectal cancer.
Fruit and vegetable intake may benefit your blood sugar. The fiber from these foods slows the
absorption of sugar, which can keep blood sugar levels steady. An increase in fruit and vegetable
intake can actually lead to a reduction in the development of diabetes. Note that these results
applied to fruits and vegetables, but not fruit juice. Fruit juice provides a concentrated dose of the
vitamins, minerals and sugars found in fruit, but without the fiber and the health benefits that
come with it.
Other benefits of eating fruits & vegetables include:
1. Color & Texture. Fruits and veggies add color, texture … and appeal … to your plate.
2. Convenience. Fruits and veggies are nutritious in any form – fresh, frozen, canned, dried and
100% juice, so they’re ready when you are!
3. Fiber. Fruits and veggies provide fiber that helps fill you up and keeps your digestive system
happy.
4. Low in Calories. Fruits and veggies are naturally low in calories.
5. Vitamins & Minerals. Fruits and veggies are rich in vitamins and minerals that help you feel
healthy and energized.
6. Variety. Fruits and veggies are available in an almost infinite variety…there’s always
something new to try!
7. Quick, Natural Snack. Fruits and veggies are nature’s treat and easy to grab for a snack.
8. Fun to Eat! Some crunch, some squirt, some you peel … some you don’t, and some grow
right in your own backyard

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HARVESTING METHODS AND EQUIPMENT FOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE
Definition of Harvesting
Harvest is the single deliberate action to separate the foodstuff (with or without) associated
nonedible material) from it growth medium – reaping cereals, picking fruit, uprooting
roots/tubers. All succeeding action are defined as postharvest actions.
The time for harvesting varies with climate, the particular season, the variety, and the crop
involved. For instance, tomatoes can be left on the vine until fully ripened or taken off when
partially ripened. Other crops such as winter squash and watermelon are not ready until after they
are fully developed. Export citrus is often harvested fully matured, but green. These are then
later put through a ripening process. Crops may be harvested at different stages of crops maturity
depending on the produce.
Harvesting Methods
The crop type and expected harvest volume will determine the harvesting method that is to be
used. Certain crops are harvested by hand, while others are harvested either manually or
mechanically. Hand harvesting usually provides a better quality product than mechanical
harvesting. Harvesting by hand is however time consuming and expensive than mechanical
harvesting and is not always practical or economical feasible. The harvesting method to be used
is also affected by the area (size of the field) to be harvested. A farmer might easily be able to
harvest half a hectare of maize by hand, but it is not possible hundreds or even thousands of
hectares are to be harvested. In addition the market may often dictate the harvesting method. If
for example tomatoes are to be sold on the fresh produce market, harvesting will be by hand in
order to ensure that the crop is not damaged. If, however, the fruits are destined to be processed a
certain degree of damage can be tolerated at harvest.
Crops that are exported as fresh produce, including most of the tree fruit and vegetables, are
traditionally harvested by hand.
The quality of crops play an important role in their marketing and thus the amount of damage
should be minimised. Physical damage also leads to shortened produce shelf life.
Harvesting methods of crops depend on the type of the crops and the purpose for which it is
intended. Also the volume of crops to be harvested. At times there could be combined method of
harvesting. There are cases where a combination of hand and machine picking is practised. An

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example is where onions or potatoes are lifted out of the soil using machines. The bulbs or tubers
are then picked up and sorted by hand.
In addition, some of the advanced countries now have facilities that do more than harvesting but
it include some facilities for threshing, and other preparatory processing of the crops.

Figure 1: Mechanical harvesters

Harvesting
The goals of harvesting are to gather a commodity from the field at the proper level of maturity
with a minimum of damage and loss, as rapidly as possible and at a minimum cost. This is
achieved through hand-harvesting in most fruit, vegetable and flower crops.
Manual harvesting:
Hand harvesting has a number of advantages over machine harvest. People can accurately
determine product quality, allowing accurate selection of mature product. This is particularly
important for crops that have a wide range of maturity and need to be harvested several times
during the season. Properly trained workers can pick and handle the product with a minimum of
damage. Many fresh-market products have a short shelf life if they are bruised or damaged during
harvest and handling. The rate of harvest can easily be increased by hiring more workers. Hand-
harvesting also requires a minimum of capital investment. The main problem with hand
harvesting is labor management. Labor supply is a problem for growers who cannot offer a long
employment season. Labor strikes during the harvest period can be costly. In spite of these
problems, quality is so important to marketing fresh- market commodities successfully that hand
harvesting remains the dominant method of harvest of most fruits and vegetables and for all cut
flowers. Effective use of hand labor requires careful management. New employees must be
trained to harvest the product at the required quality and at an acceptable rate of productivity.

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Employees must know what level of performance and must be encouraged and trained to reach
that level.
Mechanical harvesting:
Mechanical harvesting results in a significant reduction in management and labour costs and can
result in savings as high as 30-45 per cent. Mechanical harvesters are primarily designed for a
shake-catch action, which helps to detach the fruits by shaking or vibrating trees or bushes. Given
that they have no means of detecting quality, even carefully adjusted harvesters will harvest
significant quantities of unacceptable fruits. Immature, overripe, diseased and damaged fruit,
which would ordinarily be discarded by a human picker, are often harvested by mechanical
harvesters. Elimination of unacceptable fruit and foreign matter is difficult and costly.
Mechanical harvesting is, therefore, recommended for large-scale operations where labour is not
available
Harvesting containers:
Harvesting containers must be easy to handle for workers picking fruits and vegetables in the
field. Many crops are harvested into bags. Harvesting bags with shoulder or waist slings can be
used for fruits with firm skins, like citrus fruits and avocados. These containers are made from a
variety of materials such as paper, polyethylene film, sisal, hessian or woven polyethylene and
are relatively cheap but give little protection to the crop against handling and transport damage.
Sacks are commonly used for crops such as potatoes, onions, cassava, and pumpkins. Other types
of field harvest containers include baskets, buckets, carts, and plastic crates (Figure 2.3). For high
risk products, woven baskets and sacks are not recommended because of the risk of
contamination.

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Harvesting tools: basket, bag, bucket for hand picking.
Source: Friend Manufacturing Corporation, New York

Harvesting poles with collection bags for fruits, factory made (a) and home made (b). Source:
adapted from MALF, Trinidad and Tobago, 1986

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Figure 3.3: Agricultural apple baskets, pear and corncob carriers.
Tools for harvesting
Depending on the type of fruit or vegetable, several devices are employed to harvest produce.
Commonly used tools for fruit and vegetable harvesting are secateurs or knives, and hand held or
pole mounted picking shears. When fruits or vegetables are difficult to catch, such as mangoes or
avocados, a cushioning material is placed around the tree to prevent damage to the fruit when
dropping from high trees. Harvesting bags with shoulder or waist slings can be used for fruits
with firm skins, like citrus and avocados. They are easy to carry and leave both hands free. The
contents of the bag are emptied through the bottom into a field container without tipping the bag.
Plastic buckets are suitable containers for harvesting fruits that are easily crushed, such as
tomatoes. These containers should be smooth without any sharp edges that could damage the
produce. Commercial growers use bulk bins with a capacity of 250-500 kg, in which crops such as
apples and cabbages are placed, and sent to large-scale packinghouses for selection, grading, and
packing.

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Figure 5. Harvesting tools: plastic field box (a), knife (b), spade (c), rake (d), bucket (e), fork (f),
glove (g), ladder (h), sizer (i), scissor (j), bag (k), fork sticks (l) and pole with collection bag (m).
Source: FAO, 1989

Packing in the field and transport to packinghouse

Berries picked for the fresh market (except blueberries and cranberries) are often mechanically
harvested and usually packed into shipping containers. Careful harvesting, handling, and
transporting of fruits and vegetables to packinghouses are necessary to preserve product quality.
Polyethylene bags:
Clear polyethylene bags are used to pack banana bunches in the field, which are then transported
to the packinghouse by means of mechanical cableways running through the banana plantation.
This technique of packaging and transporting bananas reduces damage to the fruit caused by
improper handling.

Plastic field boxes:

These types of boxes are usually made of polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene, or polyethylene.
They are durable and can last many years. Many are designed in such a way that they can nest

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inside each other when empty to facilitate transport, and can stack one on top of the other without
crushing the fruit when full.

Figure 3.4: Plastic field boxes with nest/stack design.

Wooden field boxes:

These boxes are made of thin pieces of wood bound together with wire. They come in two sizes:
the bushel box with a volume of 2200 in3 (36052 cm3) and the half-bushel box. They are
advantageous because they can be packed flat and are inexpensive, and thus could be non-
returnable. They have the disadvantage of providing little protection from mechanical damage to
the produce during transport. Rigid wooden boxes of different capacities are commonly used to
transport produce to the packinghouse or to market.

Figure 3.5: Typical wooden crate holding fresh tomatoes.

Bulk bins:
Bulk bins of 200-500 kg capacity are used for harvesting fresh fruits and vegetables. These bins
are much more economical than the field boxes, both in terms of fruit carried per unit volume and

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durability, as well as in providing better protection to the product during transport to the
packinghouse. They are made of wood and plastic materials. Dimensions for these bins in the
United States are 48 × 40 in, and 120 × 100 cm in metric system countries. Approximate depth of
bulk bins depends on the type of fruit or vegetable being transported.
Good practices during harvesting: Containers used for field collection:
 must be smooth, with no sharp edges or projections to damage the produce;
 must be clean; and
 must not be overfilled.
Harvested produce:
 must not come into contact with the soil or contaminated surfaces, e.g. surfaces that are
visibly contaminated with dirt, oil or chemicals;
 must not be dropped; and must be gently transferred to collection bins and protected from
sun or rain until such time it can be transported to the pack house.
 Cuts and bruises must be avoided during harvesting operations
Time of harvest: The time of day and prevailing weather conditions can influence produce
quality and shelf life:
• Produce must be harvested during the coolest time of the day, i.e. early morning or late
evening when the physiological activity of the fruit is low
• Produce must not be harvested when wet (from rain or dew), because wet produce
generates heat and decays quickly
• Harvested produce must be maintained in a cool and shady location with adequate
ventilation

Temperature management at harvest: At harvest, the temperature of the fruit is close to that of
the ambient air, which varies according to the location and time of year. In order to ensure the
lowest possible temperature at harvest, it is generally recommended that fruits and vegetables be
harvested during the coolest part of the day, which is usually early morning. Citrus fruit are one
exception to this recommendation, given that they are damaged if handled in the morning when
they are turgid.
Harvested produce must be retained under shade or in a cool temporary storage area, and must be
pre-cooled within the shortest period of time in order to remove the field heat.

Good practice for the maintenance of harvesting equipment:

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  All field equipment used in harvesting produce must be cleaned and repaired on a regular
basis.
 It is important that farmers ensure that all equipment (i.e. knives, pliers and so on) issued
to harvesters is accounted for at the end of the picking day. Farmers must also check
whether all equipment is still sound and unbroken. If a knife blade is broken, the
harvester’s batch numbers must be traced and the produce put on hold to prevent physical
contamination. If produce has been delivered to a pack house, the manager should be
informed and the batch put on hold. If a pack house is HACCP (Hazard Analysis and
Critical Control Point)-certified, it is essential that pack house management be notified.
Under such circumstances, pack houses might implement online metal detectors for the
identification of contaminated batches.
 Torn bags, broken boxes and other containers used in harvesting must be repaired if
produce damage is to be avoided. Wooden splinters from containers, for example, could
cause wounding of produce, ultimately resulting in infection and decay. Broken
equipment is also difficult to maintain in a hygienic condition since small cracks provide
the ideal niche for microbes, which may cause decay or present a food-safety concern.
 Regular cleaning of all harvesting equipment is essential. All harvesting tools must be
washed daily in a soap solution and in certain cases, as occurs with heavy soil or sticky
substances, a disinfectant such as bleach should be used at recommended concentrations.
The intervals for cleaning larger items of harvesting equipment, such as large collection
containers, will vary in accordance with the type of produce harvested. It is generally
recommended that harvesting bags be washed at the end of the harvesting season, while
harvesting crates should be washed daily to remove dirt and debris.
 Crates used for mangoes should be washed on a daily basis to remove the latex secretions
from the stem-end of the fruit; if not removed regularly, the mango crates will become
stained and soiled, which could pose a food-safety risk.
 All harvesting equipment should be stored overnight in a closed facility, protected from
rats and birds. The most important reason for protecting the equipment at night, or over
weekends or during non-harvesting periods, is to ensure that the equipment stays intact
and is not contaminated with animal faeces unnecessarily, which could introduce a food-
safety risk further down the chain.

Post-harvest handling:

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Being living organs, fruits and vegetables continue to respire even after harvesting when they
have a limited source of food reserves. In addition to degradation of respiratory substrates, a
number of changes in taste, colour, flavour, texture and appearance take place in the harvested
commodities which make them unacceptable for consumption by the consumers if these are not
handled properly. Post harvest technology starts immediately after the harvest of fruits and
vegetables. The whole process of processing the commodities is categorized as Handling of fresh
produce. Post harvest Technology of fresh fruits and vegetables combines the biological and
environmental factors in the process of value addition of a commodity.
Air precooling
Precooling of fruits with cold air is the most common practice. It can be done in refrigerator cars,
storage rooms, tunnels, or forced air-coolers (air is forced to pass through the container via
baffles and pressure differences).
Icing
Ice is commonly added to boxes of produce by placing a layer of crushed ice directly on the top
of the crop. An ice slurry can be applied in the following proportion: 60% finely crushed ice, 40%
water, and 0.1% sodium chloride to lower the melting point. The water to ice ratio may vary from
1:1 to 1:4.
Room cooling
This method involves placing the crop in cold storage. The type of room used may vary, but
generally consists of a refrigeration unit in which cold air is passed through a fan. The circulation
may be such that air is blown across the top of the room and falls through the crop by convection.
The main advantage is cost because no specific facility is required.
Forced air-cooling
The principle behind this type of precooling is to place the crop into a room where cold air is
directed through the crop after flowing over various refrigerated metal coils or pipes. Forced air-
cooling systems blow air at a high velocity leading to desiccation of the crop. To minimize this
effect, various methods of humidifying the cooling air have been designed such as blowing the
air through cold water sprays.

Hydrocooling
The transmission of heat from a solid to a liquid is faster than the transmission of heat from a
solid to a gas. Therefore, cooling of crops with cooled water can occur quickly and results in zero

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loss of weight. To achieve high performance, the crop is submerged in cold water, which is
constantly circulated through a heat exchanger. When crops are transported around the packhouse
in water, the transport can incorporate a hydrocooler. This system has the advantage wherein the
speed of the conveyor can be adjusted to the time required to cool the produce. Hydrocooling has
a further advantage over other precooling methods in that it can help clean the produce.
Chlorinated water can be used to avoid spoilage of the crop. Hydrocooling is commonly used for
vegetables, such as asparagus, celery, sweet corn, radishes, and carrots, but it is seldom used for
fruits.

Vacuum cooling
Cooling in this case is achieved with the latent heat of vaporization rather than conduction. At
normal air pressure (760 mmHg) water will boil at 100°C. As air pressure is reduced so is the
boiling point of water, and at 4.6 mmHg water boils at 0°C. For every 5 or 6°C reduction in
temperature, under these conditions, the crop loses about 1% of its weight (Barger, 1961). This
weight loss may be minimized by spraying the produce with water either before enclosing it in
the vacuum chamber or towards the end of the vacuum cooling operation (hydrovacuum cooling).
The speed and effectiveness of cooling is related to the ratio between the mass of the crop and its
surface area. This method is particularly suitable for leaf crops such as lettuce. Crops like
tomatoes having a relatively thick wax cuticle are not suitable for vacuum cooling.

High temperatures
Exposure of fruits and vegetables to high temperatures during post-harvest reduces their storage
or marketable life. This is because as living material, their metabolic rate is normally higher with
higher temperatures. High temperature treatments are beneficial in curing root crops, drying bulb
crops, and controlling diseases and pests in some fruits. Many fruits are exposed to high
temperatures in combination with ethylene (or another suitable gas) to initiate or improve
ripening or skin colour.
Curing of roots, tubers, and bulb crops
When roots and tubers are to be stored for long periods, curing is necessary to extend the shelf
life. The curing process involves the application of high temperatures and high relative humidity
to the roots and tubers for long periods, in order to heal the skins wounded during harvesting.
With this process a new protected layer of cells is formed. Initially the curing process is
expensive, but in the long run, it is worthwhile.

20
Operations prior to packaging
Fruits and vegetables are subjected to preliminary treatments designed to improve appearance
and maintain quality. These preparatory treatments include cleaning, disinfection, waxing, and
adding of colour (some includes brand name stamping on individual fruits).
Cleaning:
Most produce receives various chemical treatments such as spraying of insecticides and
pesticides in the field. Most of these chemicals are poisonous to humans, even in small
concentrations. Therefore, all traces of chemicals must be removed from produce before packing.
As illustrated below, the fruit or vegetable passes over rotary brushes where it is rotated and
transported to the washing machine and exposed to the cleaning process from all sides. From the
washing machine, the fruit passes onto a set of rotary sponge rollers (similar to the rotary
brushes). The rotary sponges remove most of the water on the fruit as it is rotated and transported
through the sponger.
Disinfection:
After washing fruits and vegetables, disinfectant agents are added to the soaking tank to avoid
propagation of diseases among consecutive batches of produce. In a soaking tank, a typical
solution for citrus fruit includes a mixture of various chemicals at specific concentration, pH, and
temperature, as well as detergents and water softeners. Sodiumortho- phenyl-phenate (SOPP) is
an effective citrus disinfectant, but requires precise control of conditions in the tank.
Concentrations must be kept between 0.05 and 0.15%, with pH at 11.8 and temperature in the
range of 43-48°C. Recommended soaking time is 3-5 minutes. Deviation from these
recommendations may have disastrous effects on the produce, since the solution will be
ineffective if the temperature or concentration is too low. Low concentrations of chlorine solution
are also used as disinfectant for many vegetables. The advantage of this solution is that it does
not leave a chemical residue on the product.
Artificial waxing:
Waxes are esters of higher fatty acid with monohydric alcohols and hydrocarbons and some free
fatty acids. But coating applied to the surface of fruit is commonly called waxes whether or not
any component is actually a wax. Waxing generally reduces the respiration and transpiration rates,
but other chemicals such as fungicides, growth regulators, preservative can also be incorporated
specially for reducing microbial spoilage, sprout inhibition etc. However, it should be
remembered that waxing does not improve the quality of any inferior horticulture product but it
can be a beneficial adjunct to good handling.
The advantages of wax application are:

21
- Improved appearances of fruit.
- Reduced moisture losses and retards wilting and shrivelling during storage of fruits.
- Less spoilage specially due to chilling injury and browning.
- Creates diffusion barrier as a result of which it reduces the availability of 02 to the tissues
thereby reducing respiration rate.
- Protects fruits from micro-biological infection
- Considered a cost effective substitute in the reduction of spoilage when refrigerated storage is
unaffordable.
- Wax coating are used as carriers for sprout inhibitors, growth regulators and preservatives.
The principal disadvantage of wax coating is the development of off- flavour if not applied
properly. Adverse flavour changes have been attributed to inhibition of O2 and CO2 exchange thus,

resulting in anaerobic respiration and elevated ethanol and acetaldehyde contents. Paraffm wax,
Carnauba wax, Bee wax, Shellac, Wood resins and Polyethylene waxes used commercially.
Brand name application:
Some distributors use ink or stickers to stamp a brand name or logo on each individual fruit. Ink
is not permissible in some countries (e.g., Japan), but stickers are acceptable. Automatic
machines for dispensing and applying pressure sensitive paper stickers are readily available. The
advantage of stickers is that they can be easily peeled off.

Packaging
Modern packaging must comply with the following requirements:
a) The package must have sufficient mechanical strength to protect the contents during handling,
transport, and stacking.
b) The packaging material must be free of chemical substances that could transfer to the produce
and become toxic to man.
c) The package must meet handling and marketing requirements in terms of weight, size, and
shape.
d) The package should allow rapid cooling of the contents. Furthermore, the permeability of
plastic films to respiratory gases could also be important.
e) Mechanical strength of the package should be largely unaffected by moisture content (when
wet) or high humidity conditions.
f) The security of the package or ease of opening and closing might be important in some
marketing situations.

22
g) The package must either exclude light or be transparent.
h) The package should be appropriate for retail presentations.
i) The package should be designed for ease of disposal, re-use, or recycling.
j) Cost of the package in relation to value and the extent of contents protection required should be
as low as possible.
Classification of packaging:
Packages can be classified as follows:
 Flexible sacks; made of plastic jute, such as bags (small sacks) and nets (made of open mesh)
 Wooden crates
 Cartons (fibreboard boxes)
 Plastic crates
 Pallet boxes and shipping containers
 Baskets made of woven strips of leaves, bamboo, plastic, etc.
Uses for above packages:
Nets are only suitable for hard produce such as coconuts and root crops (potatoes, onions, yams).
Wooden crates are typically wire bound crates used for citrus fruits and potatoes, or wooden
field crates used for softer produce like tomatoes. Wooden crates are resistant to weather and
more efficient for large fruits, such as watermelons and other melons, and generally have good
ventilation. Disadvantages are that rough surfaces and splinters can cause damage to the produce,
they can retain undesirable odours when painted, and raw wood can easily become contaminated
with moulds.

Fibreboard boxes are used for tomato, cucumber, and ginger transport. They are easy to handle,
light weight, come in different sizes, and come in a variety of colours that can make produce
more attractive to consumers. They have some disadvantages, such as the effect of high humidity,
which can weaken the box; neither are they waterproof, so wet products would need to be dried
before packaging. These boxes are often of lower strength compared to wooden or plastic crates,
although multiple thickness trays are very widely used. They can come flat packed with
ventilation holes and grab handles, making a cheap attractive alternative that is very popular.
Care should be taken that holes on the surface (top and sides) of the box allow adequate
ventilation for the produce and prevent heat generation, which can cause rapid product
deterioration.
Plastic crates are expensive but last longer than wooden or carton crates. They are easy to clean
due to their smooth surface and are hard in strength, giving protection to products. Plastic crates

23
(Figure 2.8) can be used many times, reducing the cost of transport. They are available in
different sizes and colours and are resistant to adverse weather conditions. However, plastic
crates can damage some soft produce due to their hard surfaces, thus liners are recommended
when using such crates.
Pallet boxes are very efficient for transporting produce from the field to the packinghouse or for
handling produce in the packinghouse. Pallet boxes have a standard floor size (1200 × 1000 mm)
and depending on the commodity have standard heights. Advantages of the pallet box are that it
reduces the labour and cost of loading, filling, and unloading; reduces space for storage; and
increases speed of mechanical harvest. The major disadvantage is that the return volume of most
pallet boxes is the same as the full load. Higher investment is also required for the forklift truck,
trailer, and handling systems to empty the boxes. They are not affordable to small producers
because of high, initial capital investment.

Figure 3: Typical plastic crate holding fresh orange

24
PROCESSING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Fruits and vegetables should be prepared for preservation as soon as possible after harvesting, in
any case within 4 to 48 hours. The likelihood of spoilage increases rapidly as time passes.
Cleaning and washing
First, the fruits or vegetables have to be thoroughly cleaned to remove any dirt or insecticide
residues. The outer layers of onions also have to be removed. This cleaning process usually
involves washing the products under a faucet with running drinking-water or in a bucket with
clean water that is regularly refreshed. When cleaning leafy vegetables,
it is best to first remove the stems. Some types of fruit, such as cherries, strawberries and
mushrooms are not washed, because this would actually increase the spread of micro-organisms.
It is also not advisable to wash cucumbers, because this shortens their shelf-life.
Dried beans and nuts are soaked in water for 16-20 hours before being processed further. To
prevent the beans and nuts from turning black, a stainless steel pan or bowl, or other galvanized
material, should be used. The temperature of the soaking water should remain constant.

2. Lye dip
Some products, such as plums and grapes, are immersed for 5-15 seconds in a pan of hot, almost
boiling, lye (NaOH; 10-20g lye/litre water) to make the peel rough and to thereby speed up the
general drying process. The peel then also separates more readily from the fruit, which makes it
easier to remove. After such a treatment, the fruit has to be rinsed vigorously with cold water to
remove the lye residues. Lemon juice can also be used to neutralize any remaining lye residues.

The preparation method described above is considered to be ecologically harmful because

alkaline is transported by the waste water into the environment. Other disadvantages of using lye
are that the food can become discoloured and the metal pan could become corroded. The use of
too-high concentrations of lye is also unhealthy for the people working with it.

3 Sorting
To achieve a uniformly sized product, fruits and vegetables are sorted immediately after cleaning
according to their size, shape, weight or colour. Sorting by size is especially important if the
products are to be dried or heated, because their size will determine how much time will be
needed for these processes.

25
4 Peeling
Many types of fruits and vegetables have to be peeled in order to be preserved. This can easily be
done with a stainless steel knife. It is extremely important that the knife be made of stainless
steel because this will prevent the discolouration of the plant tissues. It is best to
first submerge citrus fruits, tomatoes and peaches, whose peels are all securely connected to the
fruit, in hot water for 1 ½ to 3 minutes. The softened peel can then be removed without too much
effort.

5 Cutting
Cutting is important because you will need approximately uniform pieces for the heating, drying
and packing stages. Fruits and vegetables are usually cut into cubes, thin slices, rings or shreds.
The cutting utensils have to be sharp and clean to prevent micro-organisms
from entering the food. From the moment they are cut, the quality of the products decreases due
to the release of enzymes and nutrients for micro-organisms. A decrease in quality is also caused
by the damage done to the plant tissues. For this reason, the interval between peeling/ cutting and
preserving has to be as short as possible.

6 Blanching
Blanching or .pre-cooking. is done by immersing fruits or vegetables in water at a temperature of
90-95°C. Exposing them to steam is also possible. The result is that fruits and vegetables become
somewhat soft and the enzymes are inactivated. Leafy vegetables shrink in this process and some
of the micro-organisms die. Blanching is done before a product is dried in order to prevent
unwanted colour and odour changes and an excessive loss of vitamins. Fruit that does not change
colour generally does not need to be blanched. Onions and leek are not at all suited for blanching.
Blanching is quite simple. The only thing you need is a large pan with a lid and a metal, or in any
case heat-resistant, colander.

26
PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
1 Introduction
One of the most common and effective ways to preserve fruits and vegetables is to prepare them
and place them in air-tight containers, which are then heated. The high temperatures ensure that
microorganisms are killed and the enzymes are inactivated. Any remaining spores will not have
the right conditions to grow into bacteria and microbial contamination from outside is prevented.
However, it is important to remember that some micro-organisms are unfortunately less sensitive
to heat: Clostridium and Staphylococcus can still multiply and spoil the food through the
poisonous substances they produce. Clostridium can cause botulism and result in tragic deaths.
This bacteria does not thrive as well in more acidic products such as fruit (pH < 4.5).
The heating method for fruit is different than for most vegetables. As noted above, fruit has a low
pH level. It can be heated in boiling water (100°C), whereas most vegetables have to be heated at
temperatures above 100°C, because they have a higher pH and are thus more susceptible to
bacterial contamination. This preservation method produces the best results, but only if fresh
products are used and the instructions for heating are followed exactly.
As with other methods, heating has advantages and disadvantages as outlined below.
Advantages
- Most micro-organisms are destroyed so there is less chance of spoilage.
- After being sterilized and stored, the food can be kept longer and more safely.
Disadvantages
Heating requires the following investments:
Heat-resistant storage containers (which can be difficult to obtain) such as cans or glass jars.
The latter are preferred because they can be reused. Cooking utensils, such as a steamer.
These investment costs will have to be represented in the final cost of the product.
-This method is labour intensive.
-It requires access to abundant clean water.
- Preserved fruits and vegetables have a lower nutritional value and generally less taste than fresh
products. However, fewer nutrients are lost using the heating method than any other preservation
method.

Drying
Drying is one of the oldest preservation methods. The moisture level of agricultural products is
decreased to 10-15% so that the microorganisms present cannot thrive and the enzymes become
inactive. Further dehydration is usually not desired, because the products then often become

27
brittle. To ensure that the products do not spoil after being dried, they have to be stored in a
moisture-free environment. Drying is generally not difficult. Since the products lose water, they
also become much lighter and thus easier to transport. Two disadvantages, however, are that the
products also lose vitamins, and they change in appearance.
The most common drying method is exposure to air. Air can absorb water; and the warmer the air
is, the more it will absorb. For optimal results, the air should be hot, dry and in motion. In a
closed environment, the air has to be refreshed regularly because it will otherwise become
saturated with the moisture it absorbs from the products. Good ventilation is therefore essential.
For drying, the relative humidity (RH) of the air should be less than 65%. If the RH is higher than
65% the fruits and vegetables will eventually dry out, but not in the right way. When the sun is
shining, the RH is usually lower than 65%, but when it is cloudy and definitely when it is raining
the humidity is usually higher. Sunshine is therefore extremely important! For this reason, it is
not possible to dry products in this way in every season of the year.
Before drying, the vegetables and fruits have to be thoroughly washed and cut into pieces if
necessary. Sometimes extra preparation is needed to retain the product.s colour and to minimize
nutrient loss.

28
PRACTICAL METHODS OF PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Drying potatoes
Choose potatoes that are firm and undamaged. Peel the potatoes, wash them under the faucet or
in a container with clean water, and cut them in slices about 3 mm thick. Immerse the slices in
boiling water, let them cook for 3-5 minutes, rinse them off with clean water, dry them with a
clean cloth and place them on a piece of black plastic or on trays to dry for 2 to 3 days in the sun.
Turn them regularly, about 2 to
3 times per day. The drying process is finished when the potatoes are hard and crumble easily
when squeezed in your hand. The dried potatoes have to be soaked in water before they can be
consumed.

Drying tomatoes
Use firm, not too ripe, undamaged tomatoes. Wash and then cut them in half or in quarters (or in
smaller pieces), and remove the seeds. Blanch the tomato pieces for one minute at 90°C and then
allow them
to cool off quickly under cold, running water. Once cooled, they have to be immersed for 10
minutes in water to which lemon juice has been added. Strain and then dry them with a clean
cloth. Place the tomatoes on a piece of black plastic and let them dry in the sun. To make sure
that they dry evenly, turn them 2 to 3 times per day. Place them under a shelter in the evenings.
After 2 to 3 days they will feel brittle, and the drying process will have been completed.

Drying mangos
Use firm, harvest-ripe mangos. The varieties Ameli and Kent are particularly good for drying.
Wash and peel the mangos and then cut them in pieces about 6-8 mm thick. You can then choose
to either blanch them in water at 56°C with two tablespoons of lemon juice added per litre of
water, or immerse them in a 40% sugar solution for 18 hours, with the same amount of lemon
juice added. In both cases, add 3 grams of sodium bisulphate (Na2S2O3) per litre of water to
prevent the fruit from discolouring and to protect it from moulds and insects. After this
preparation, the pieces of fruit should be briefly rinsed with hot water to keep them from sticking
together. Finally, place the mango pieces to dry on trays, preferably made of plastic mesh (metal
trays cause food products, especially fruit, to discolour quickly) and
coated with glycerine to prevent sticking.

29
Preserving vegetables with salt and/or vinegar

Adding salt is one of the oldest ways to preserve food, except fruit, especially in areas that have
easy access to inexpensive salt. Since salt absorbs much of the water in food, it makes it difficult
for microorganisms to survive. There are two salting methods. One uses a lot of salt, and the
other only a small amount. The disadvantage of using a lot of salt is that it has a very negative
impact on the taste of the food. To overcome this problem, the food can be rinsed or soaked in
water before it is eaten, but this also decreases the nutritional value of the food. It is therefore
advisable to use a lot of salt only when there is a surplus of fresh vegetables and no other
preservation method is possible.
The use of a small amount of salt is in itself not enough to prevent the growth of bacteria, but it
does result in the development of a certain kind of acid-producing bacteria that limits the growth
of other bacteria. One example of a product made in this way is sauerkraut, which has a high
nutritional value. Another way to preserve vegetables is by adding vinegar.
Preserving with salt
Write on the salting methods of preserving fruit and vegetables
Questions
Discuss two principal physiological processes leading to ageing.
Distinguish between climacteric and non-climacteric ripening
Discuss five instrumental methods of assessing maturity
Briefly discuss harvesting of fresh produce in relation to methods, tools and maintenance of
harvesting Equipment
Write briefly on any five high temperature storage methods for fruits and vegetables
Describe five methods of cooling applied to fresh produce to maintain freshness and extend shelf
life.
Discuss any three preliminary treatments applied to produce prior to packaging and list two
classes of packaging materials
Outline five requirements of modern packaging materials

30
FRUIT RIPENING
Ripening is the process by which fruits attain their desirable flavour, quality, colour, palatable
nature and other textural properties. Ripening is associated with change in composition i.e.
conversion of starch to sugar. On the basis of ripening behavior, fruits are classified as
climacteric and non-climacteric fruits.

Ripening Physiology
The life of a fruit can be divided into three phases: fruit set, fruit development, and fruit ripening.
Fruit ripening is the initiation of fruit senescence which is a genetically programmed highly
coordinated process of organ transformation from unripe to ripe stage to yield an attractive edible
fruit. It is an irreversible phenomenon involving a series of biochemical, physiological, and
organoleptic changes. These changes include changes in carbohydrate content, increment of
sugar content, changes in colour, texture, aroma volatiles, flavour compounds, phenolic
compounds, and organic acids.

Climacteric:
Climacteric fruits are fruits that enter ‘climacteric phase’ after harvest i.e. they continue to ripen.
During the ripening process the fruits emit ethylene along with increased rate of respiration. Ripe
fruits are soft and delicate and generally cannot withstand rigours of transport and repeated
handling. These fruits are harvested hard and green, but fully mature and are ripened near
consumption areas. Small dose of ethylene is used to induce ripening process under controlled
conditions of temperature and humidity. Climacteric fruits are: *Mango *Banana *Papaya
*Guava *Sapota *Kiwi *Fig *Apple *Passion fruit *Apricot *Plum *Pear These fruit in fully ripe
state are too delicate to withstand transportation over long distances and should preferably be
ripened near the consumption area.
Non-Climacteric:
Non-climacteric fruits once harvested do not ripen further. Nonclimacteric fruits produce very
small amount of ethylene and do not respond to ethylene treatment. There is no characteristic
increased rate of respiration or production of carbon dioxide. Non-climacteric fruits are: *Orange
*Mousambi *Kinnow *Grapefruit *Grapes *Pomegranate *Litchi *Watermelon *Cherry
*Raspberry *Blackberry *Strawberry * Carambola *Rambutan * Cashew. In order to improve
external skin colour and market acceptance, citrus like orange, lemon, mousambi and kinnow can
be treated with ethylene, as a de-greening agent. Ethylene treatment breaks down the green

31
chlorophyll pigment in the exterior part of the peel and allows the yellow or orange carotenoid
pigments to be expressed.
Table 2 A list of representative climacteric and non-climacteric fruit.

In climacteric fruits, as ripening proceeds there is a strong respiratory peak with high level of
ethylene production. While in non-climacteric fruits respiration rate is almost constant or shows a
steady decline until senescence occurs, with little or no increase in ethylene production.
Therefore, climacteric fruits are referred to as ethylene dependent fruits and they have the
capability to ripen after the harvest, often with the help of exogenous ethylene. However it is
generally claimed that non-climacteric fruits ripen only if they remain attached to the parent plant.

DEFINITION OF MATURITY
To most people mature and ripe mean the same thing when describing fruit. In postharvest
physiology we consider mature and ripe to be distinct terms for different stages of fruit
development. A given commodity may be horticulturally mature at any stage of development. A
qualitative difference in the relationship between maturity and edibility distinguishes many fruits
from vegetables. In many fruits, such as mature (but green) bananas, the eating quality at

32
maturity will be far less than optimal. The fruit becomes edible only after proper ripening has
taken place. In contrast, in most vegetables, optimal maturity coincides with optimal eating
quality

Importance of maturity indices

i) It is important to know the stage of development when a commodity is of optimum
quality in order to know when to harvest the crop.
ii) Ensure sensory and nutritional quality of harvested produce.
iii) Ensure post harvest shelf life of produce
iv) Facilitate marketing operations and scheduling
v) Facilitate of produce fresh to the consumer and good market availability.
vi) Reduce postharvest losses

Types Of Maturity
There are three types of maturity which are as follows
A. Physiological maturity
B. Horticultural/Commercial maturity
C. Harvest Maturity
Determination of maturity
Maturity can be determined either by subjective or objective observation. The methods of
determining harvest maturity are as follows
1. Physical methods: Size, shape, colour, texture, etc.
2. Chemical methods: Total Soluble Solids (TSS), acidity, etc.
3. Physiological methods: Respiration and ethylene production.
4. Apart from the above measures, abscission, accumulated heat unit, specific gravity, duration
after flowering, firmness, dry matter, juice content, Oil content, waxiness, tenderness, etc., can
also determine the optimum harvest maturity stage.

33
CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT FOR TRANSIT LONG TERM
STORAGE (CONTROLLED /MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE)
INTRODUCTION

Most fruits and vegetables are produced at a location and consumed at other
locations much further than the point of production. Interestingly, some
produce are transported several hundreds of kilometer from the place of
production. This make the issue of post-harvest handling and safe keeping
very important.

Tips for Maintaining Produce Qualities for Long Distance Transit Storage
Maintaining high quality of produce from the point of production through
the period of transportation and finally till such produce is placed in the
hand of the consumer is very important as we have discussed so far.
Realising this when the producer and consumer are miles apart however
requires first, understanding and observing some rules. Hence, we shall
briefly have some tips that should be followed to maintain the qualities of
produce transported over such long distance.
These dos and don’ts include:
1. Do not harvest immature fruits as they will shrink in transit and become
unmarketable.
2. Climacteric fruits (I am sure you know what I mean by that) meant for long
distance market must be harvested mature but unripe, so that they get ripe at
the desired destination.
3. Do not transport infected or bruised produce.
4. Proper packaging materials like crates should be used and the crates
should not be stocked beyond capacity, this is because over filled crates will
lead to compressing of and bruising and injury of produced when crates are
stacked.
5. You must not stack crates on bare floor of the vehicle, but arrange some
raised platform on the floor then put the crates on such to facilitate proper air
circulation through the transported produce.

34
6. Transportation of fruits and vegetables is best done using a refrigerated
van with the temperature and humidity set as appropriate for the transported
produce.
7. Fruits and vegetables must not be transported in the same container,
remember the reasons being that the fruits can take on the flavour of the
vegetable and the vegetable might deteriorate faster from ethylene oozing out
from the fruits.
8. While in transit avoid rain falling on the transported produce.
9. Avoid over heating of the vessels being transported by painting the
container with paint that will reflect light and keep the container cool.
10. Proper air circulation must be ensured through the produce to prevent
buildup of heat and deposition of moisture on the produce.
This is why it is advisable to transport the harvested produce in crates and
other appropriate packaging materials, unlike the polythene bags that are
often used in some parts of the developing countries.
Controlled Environment
You must always remember that fruits and vegetables are still alive after
harvest and if the rate of respiration is not reduced, deterioration will be fast
and shelf life will be reduced as we have discussed earlier. What is therefore
aimed at when horticultural crops are being transported is to create an
optimum environment that will retard deterioration. Two terms are generally
used:
Controlled Atmosphere: here the gas mixture around the transported produce
is controlled and kept at desired composition.
Modified Atmosphere: this involves addition or removal of gases in order to
create air composition different from that which is around the commodity.
Controlled atmosphere is the enclosure of food in a gas impermeable
package inside which the gaseous environment with respect to CO2, O2, N2,
water vapour and trace gases has been changed and is selectively controlled
to increase shelf life. O2 scavengers and ethylene absorbers with CO2 release
agents could be classified as CAP during the early stages of the storage life

35
of packaged product.
Modified atmosphere is the enclosure of food in a package in which the
atmosphere inside the package is modified so that its composition is other
than that of air. Modification can be achieved by removing air and replacing it
with a controlled mixture of gases. Nitrogen is frequently used in MAP to
reduce the concentration of other gases in the package.
The general idea in both is to keep the produce in the required temperature as
well as in an atmosphere with the best percentage combination of oxygen,
carbon (IV) oxide and nitrogen.
Creating either a controlled or modified environment require more training
which would be handled in more detail for those intending to specialise in this
aspect. It is however important that you know that the container used in
transporting these produce have cooling or refrigerated systems with other
equipment to regulate air, relative humidity, and of course temperature and
maintain the desired air composition.

Importance Of Controlled Atmosphere

The actual effects that varying the levels of O2 and CO2 in the atmosphere have on crops varies
with such factors as:
a. The species of crop
b. The cultivars of crop
c. The concentration of the gases in the store
d. The crop temperature
e. The state of maturity of the crop at harvest
f. The degree of ripeness of the climacteric fruit
g. The growing conditions before harvest
h. The presence of ethylene in the store

There are also interactive effects of the two gases, so that the effects of the CO2 and O2 in
extending the storage life of a crop may be increased when they are combined.
The practical advantages of storage under CA can be summarized as follows:

36
1. A considerable decrease in respiration rate, with a reduction in climacteric maximum,
accompanied by an expansion of both pre-climacteric and post-climacteric periods
2. A reduction in the effect of ethylene on metabolism due to the interaction of O2 with ethylene,
with a consequent delay of appearance of senescence symptoms
3. An extension in storage life, which can even be doubled, in as much as the over ripening is
delayed
4. The preservation of an excellent firmness of flesh, due to effect of CO2 concentration on the
enzymes acting on cellular membranes
5. A high turgidity is achieved, such that fruits are more juicy and crisp
6. A smaller loss of acidity, sugars and vitamin C, so that the nutritional and sensory quality is
higher
7. A limited degradation of chlorophyll, with a consequent higher stability of colour
8. Some physiological alterations, such as chill injuries, spot, decay, browning, water core and
scald are prevented, or greatly limited
9. Moulds can be reduced, in particular under low O2, high CO2 atmospheres
10. A longer shelf life in the post storage trading, which can even be trebled thanks to the
protraction of the effects on respiration and on the other metabolic activities.
Several advantages have been recognized for products in CA storage

a) Lowered respiration rate. b) Retarded senescence. c) Suppressed ethylene production rate. d)

Reduced fruit sensitivity to ethylene. e) Improved retention of green colour. f) Improved texture.

g) Improved retention of nutrients like ascorbic acid. h) Alleviation of physiological disorders

like russet spots on lettuce, internal breakdown. i) Suppressed activity of pathogens. j) Control of

insect activity (only possible at high CO2 concentrations, not usually tolerated by fruits and

vegetables).

ENZYMIC BROWNING: FRUIT AND VEGETABLES

37
Browning is the process of food turning brown due to the chemical reactions that take place
within. Browning falls into 2 main categories: enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning processes.
Enzymatic browning is an oxidation reaction that takes place in some foods, mostly fruit and
vegetables, causing the food to turn brown.
Enzymatic browning is a reaction which requires the action of enzymes and oxidation in order to
occur. Oxygen in the air can cause sliced fruit to brown, a process called enzymatic browning (an
oxidation reaction). Phenols and the enzyme phenolase are found in the cells of the apple, and
when these are exposed to oxygen in the air, for example through slicing, the oxygen causes a
reaction. The production of quinones undergoes more reactions which eventually form brown
pigments on the surface of the food. The phenolase changes the phenols into melanin, which has
a brown colour. To stop the oxidative reaction, the phenolase enzymes need to be
denatured. This could be done by using heat and acids. Melanin is the pigment that gives human
hair, skin and eyes their colour.
Enzymes are special proteins which can speed up chemical reactions and act as biological
catalysts. They can cause fruit to ripen and over-ripen, which gives the fruit a brown colour.
Fresh fruit and vegetables normally keep enzymes trapped in their tissues. However, when the
fruit is sliced, or squashed, or when the fruit or vegetable begins to break down with age, the
enzymes come into contact with oxygen in the air. This causes the fruit to turn brown. Enzymatic
browning causes a lot of food waste but it can also be useful: we would not have tea or chocolate
without it!
Non-Enzymatic Browning

Another type of browning- non-enzymatic browning, is a process that also produces the brown
pigmentation in foods, but without the activity of enzymes. The two main forms of non-
enzymatic browning are caramelization and the Maillard reaction. Both vary in the reaction rate
as a function of water activity.

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Caramelization is a process involving the pyrolysis of sugar. It is used extensively in cooking for
the desired nutty flavor and brown color. As the process occurs, volatile chemicals are released,
producing the characteristic caramel flavor. Example - caramelization of table sugar (sucrose)
caramelizing to a brown nutty flavor substance (furan and maltol).
The other non-enzymatic reaction is the Maillard reaction. This reaction is responsible for the
production of the flavor when foods are cooked. Examples of foods that undergo Maillard
reaction include breads, steaks, and potatoes. It is a chemical reaction that takes place between
the amine group of a free amino acid and the carbonyl group of a reducing sugar, usually with the
addition of heat. The sugar interacts with the amino acid, producing a variety of odors and flavors.
The Maillard reaction is the basis for producing artificial flavors for processed foods in the
flavoring industry, since the type of amino acid involved determines the resulting flavor.
Melanoidins are brown, high molecular weight heterogeneous polymers that are formed when
sugars and amino acids combine through the Maillard reaction at high temperatures and low
water activity. Melanoidins are commonly present in foods that have undergone some form of
non-enzymatic browning, such as barley malts, bread crust, bakery products and coffee. They are
also present in the wastewater of sugar refineries, necessitating treatment in order to avoid
contamination around the outflow of these refineries.
Browning of seafood.
The browning of shrimp is actually referred to as melanosis. Melanosis mainly occurs during
postmortem handling and refrigerated storage. Recent studies have found a plant extract that acts
as an anti melatonin polyphenol oxidase inhibitor and serves the same function as sulfites but
without the health risks.

Effect of oxidation on nutrient content

As well as causing the fruit to change colour, oxidation can also affect the nutrient content of a
fruit or vegetable. Vitamin C, found in some fruits and vegetable can be oxidised when it is
exposed to air. The longer a fruit is exposed the less vitamins it will have.
Examples of beneficial enzymatic browning:
 Developing color and flavor in coffee, cocoa beans, and tea, dried fruit such
as figs and raisins
Examples of non-beneficial enzymatic browning:
 Fresh fruit and vegetables, including apples, potatoes, bananas and avocados.

How can enzymatic browning be slowed down?

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The browning can be slowed down by preventing the enzyme from working properly. Lemon
juice contains an acid which can stop enzymes working properly as enzymes often work best at a
certain pH. Water and sugar, in jam for example, stops oxygen in the air getting to the enzymes
and prevents the browning.

a) b)
a) A desirable enzymatic browning reaction is involved in the process of grapes
becoming raisins b) A non-desirable enzymatic browning reaction is involved in
the formation of brown spots on the peel of bananas.
The control of enzymatic browning has always been a challenge for the food industry. A variety
of approaches are used to prevent or slow down enzymatic browning of foods, each method
aimed at targeting specific steps of the chemical reaction. The different types of enzymatic
browning control can be classified into two large groups: physical and chemical. Usually,
multiple methods are used. The use of sulfites (powerful anti browning chemicals) have been
reconsidered due to the potential hazards that it causes along with its activity.

Physical methods
 Heat treatment − Treating food with heat, such as blanching or roasting, denatures
enzymes and destroys the reactants responsible for browning. Blanching is used, for example,
in winemaking, tea processing, storing nuts and bacon, preparing vegetables for freezing
preservation. Meat is often partially browned under high heat before being incorporated into
a larger preparation to be cooked at a lower temperature which produces less browning.
 Cold treatment − Refrigeration and freezing are the most common ways of storing food,
preventing it from decay. The activity of browning enzymes, i.e. rate of reaction, drops in
low temperatures. Thus, refrigeration helps to keep the initial look, color and flavour of fresh
vegetables and fruits.
 Oxygen elimination − Withdrawing air or replacing it with other gases (e.g. N2 or CO2)
during preservation, such as in vacuum-packaging or modified atmosphere packaging, wine
or juice bottling, using impermeable films or edible coatings, dipping into salt or sugar
solutions, keeps the food away from direct contact with oxygen. Impermeable films made of

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 plastic or other materials prevent food being exposed to oxygen in the air and avoid moisture
loss.
 Irradiation – Food irradiation using UV-C, gamma rays, x-rays and electron beams is
another method to extend the food shelf life. Ionizing radiation inhibits the vitality of
microorganisms responsible for food spoilage, and delays the maturation and sprouting of
preserving vegetables and fruits.
Chemical methods
 Acidification − Browning enzymes, as other enzymes, are active at a specific range of pH.
For example, PPO shows optimal activity at pH 5-7 and is inhibited below pH 3. Acidifying
agents and acidity regulators are widely used as food additives to maintain a desired pH in
food products. Acidulants, such as citric acid, ascorbic acid, and glutathione, are used as anti-
browning agents. Many of these agents also show other anti-browning effects, such as
chelating and antioxidant activities.
 Antioxidants − Many antioxidants compounds react with oxygen and suppress the
initiation of the browning process. Also, they interfere with intermediate products of the
following reactions and inhibit melanin formation. Ascorbic acid, N-acetylcysteine, L-
cysteine, 4-hexylresorcinol, erythorbic acid, cysteine hydrochloride, glutathione are examples
of antioxidants that have been studied for their anti-browning properties.
 Chelating agents − Polyphenol oxidase requires copper as a cofactor for its functionality,
thus copper-chelating agents inhibit the activity of this enzyme. Many agents possessing
chelating activity have been studied and used in different fields of food industry, such
as citric acid, sorbic acid, polyphosphates, hinokitiol, kojic acid, EDTA, porphyrins,
polycarboxylic acids, different proteins.
 Other methods
 Natural agents − Different natural products and their extracts, such
as onion, pineapple, lemon, and white wine, are known to inhibit or slow the browning of
some products. Onion and its extract exhibit potent anti-browning properties by inhibiting the
PPO activity. Pineapple juice have shown to possess anti-browning effect on apples and
bananas. Lemon juice is used in making doughs to make the pastry products look brighter.
This effect is possibly explained by the anti-browning properties of citric and ascorbic
acids in the lemon juice.
 Genetic modification − Arctic apples have been genetically modified to silence
the expression of PPO, thereby delaying the browning effect, and improving apple eating
quality.

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Implications In Food Industry And Technology
Browning has many important implications on the food industry relating to nutrition, technology,
and economic cost. Enzymatic browning affects the color, flavor, and nutritional value of foods,
causing huge economic loss when not sold to consumers on time. It is estimated that more than
50% of produce is lost as a result of enzymatic browning. The increase in human population and
consequential depletion in our natural resources has prompted many biochemists and food
engineers alike to find new and improved techniques to preserve food longer, by using methods
to inhibit the browning reaction, and effectively increase the shelf life of foods. A better
understanding of the enzymatic browning mechanisms, specifically, understanding the properties
of the enzymes and substrates that are involved in the reaction, may help food technologists to
control certain stages in the mechanism and inhibit browning.
Blanching:

It is also known as scalding, parboiling or precooking. Fruits are generally not blanched leaving
the oxidizing enzyme system active. Sometimes fruit is plunged for a given time-from half to, say,
five minutes, according to variety-into water at from 180°F to 200oF, and then immediately cooled
by immersion in cold water. The object is to soften the texture and so enable a greater weight to
be pressed into the container without damage to the individual fruit. Blanching is usually done in
case of vegetables by exposing them to boiling water or steam for 2 to 5 minutes, followed by
cooling. The extent of blanching varies with the type of fruit. This brief heat treatment
accomplishes the following:

Inactivates most of the plant enzymes which cause toughness, discolouration (polyphenol
oxidase). mustiness, off-flavour (peroxidase), softening and loss of nutritive value.

ii) Reduces the area of leafy vegetables such as spinach by shrinkage or wilting, making their
packing easier.

iii) Removes tissue gases which reduce sulphides.

iv) Reduces the number of microorganisms by as much as 99%.

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v) Enhances the green colour of vegetables such as peas, broccoli and spinach.

vi) Removes saponin in peas

vii) Removes undesirable acids and astringent taste of the peel, and thus improves flavour.

viii) Removes the skin of vegetables such as beetroot and tomatoes which helps in their peeling.

Write on the salting methods of preserving fruit and vegetables

Questions
Discuss two principal physiological processes leading to ageing.
Distinguish between climacteric and non-climacteric ripening
Discuss five instrumental methods of assessing maturity
Briefly discuss harvesting of fresh produce in relation to methods, tools and maintenance of
harvesting Equipment
Write briefly on any five high temperature storage methods for fruits and vegetables
Describe five methods of cooling applied to fresh produce to maintain freshness and extend shelf
life.
Discuss any three preliminary treatments applied to produce prior to packaging and list two
classes of packaging materials
Outline five requirements of modern packaging materials

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