Kim M.

Canillo ECE 323Renewable energy 2-5F

BSECE-3

HOW DO SOLAR PANELS WORK?

We all know that solar photovoltaic (PV) panels transform sunlight into useable
electricity, but few people know the actual science behind the process. This week on the
blog we are going to get into the nitty-gritty science behind solar. It can seem
complicated, but it all boils down to the photovoltaic effect; the ability of matter to emit
electrons when bathed in light.

Basic Steps in Solar Energy Generation and Transmission

1. Sunlight hits the solar panels, and creates an electric field.

2. The electricity generated flows to the edge of the panel, and into a conductive
wire.
3. The conductive wire brings the electricity to the inverter, where it is transformed
from DC electricity to AC, which is used to power buildings.
4. Another wire transports the AC electricity from the inverter to the electric panel
on the property (also called a breaker box), which distributes the electricity
throughout the building as needed.
5. Any electricity not needed upon generation flows through the utility meter and
into the utility electrical grid. As the electricity flows through the meter, it causes
the meter to run backwards, crediting your property for excess generation.

The Science Behind Solar PV Cells

Solar PV panels are comprised of many small photovoltaic cells – photovoltaic meaning
they can convert sunlight into electricity. These cells are made of semi-conductive
materials, most often silicon, a material that can conduct electricity while maintaining
the electrical imbalance needed to create an electric field.

When sunlight hits the semiconductor in the solar PV cell (step 1 in our high level
review) the energy from the light, in the form of photons, is absorbed, knocking loose a
number of electrons, which then drift freely in the cell. The solar cell is specifically
designed with positively and negatively charged semiconductors sandwiched together
to create an electric field (see the image to the left for a visualization). This electric field
forces the drifting electrons to flow in a certain direction- towards the conductive metal
plates that line the cell. This flow is known as an energy current, and the strength of the
current determines how much electricity each cell can produce. Once the loose
electrons hit metal plates, the current is then directed into wires, allowing the electrons
to flow like they would in any other source of electric generation (step 2 in our process).

As the solar panel generates an electric current, the energy flows through a series of
wires to an inverter (see step 3 above). While solar panels generate direct current (DC)
electricity, most electricity consumers need alternating current (AC) electricity to power
their buildings. The inverter’s function is to turn the electricity from DC to AC, making it
accessible for everyday use.

After the electricity is transformed into a usable state (AC power), it is sent from the
inverter to the electrical panel (also called a breaker box) [step 4], and distributed
throughout the building as needed. The electricity is now readily available to power
lights, appliances, and other electrical devices with solar energy.

Any electricity that is not consumed via the breaker box is sent to the utility grid through
the utility meter (our last step, as outlined above). The utility meter measures the flow
of electricity from the grid to your property and vice versa. When your solar energy
system is producing more electricity than you are using on site, this meter actually runs
backwards, and you are credited for the excess electricity generated through the
process of net metering. When you are using more electricity than your solar array is
generating, you pull supplemental electricity from the grid through this meter, making it
run normally. Unless you have gone completely off-grid through a storage solution, you
will need to pull some energy from the grid, especially at night, when your solar array is
not producing. However, much of this grid energy will be offset from the excess solar
energy you generate throughout the day and in periods of lower usage.

Summary:

A solar panel is a device that converts light energy from the sun into electrical energy through a
process called photovoltaics. Here's how it works:

 Solar cells: The basic building block of a solar panel is a solar cell, also known as a
photovoltaic cell. Solar cells are made of semiconducting materials, such as silicon, that
are specially treated to create a large number of free electrons.

 Photovoltaic effect: When light energy from the sun strikes a solar cell, it creates an
electric field that causes the free electrons to flow, generating a flow of direct current
(DC) electricity. This is the photovoltaic effect.

 Solar panel: A solar panel is made up of many individual solar cells connected together
in a series and covered with a protective layer. The electrical output of each cell is
combined to produce a higher voltage. The electrical output of a solar panel is direct
current (DC) electricity, which must be converted into alternating current (AC) electricity
before it can be used in a home or business.
  Inverter: An inverter is used to convert the DC electricity generated by the solar panel
into AC electricity that can be used by appliances and other electrical devices.

In summary, the solar panel works by converting light energy from the sun into electrical
energy through the photovoltaic effect in solar cells, which are connected together to form a
panel. The electrical output of the panel is then converted into AC electricity using an inverter.

Do solar panels work at night?

There are two main ways to make solar panels work at night: through net metering and solar
energy storage technology or batteries. Both allow consumers to access energy from the solar
panels even without the sun on the rise.

Net Metering

Net metering makes solar panels a huge investment for consumers. It allows consumers to earn
from their excess energy supply during the day, and maintains a connection to the grid during
nighttime.
The process works like this: you keep the connection between you and the grid, while you
also install the solar panels. So when the weather’s not good that there’s not enough sunlight
for the solar panels to convert into electricity, your electricity supply can be taken from the
grid. On the other hand, whenever your solar panels receive more sunlight, the excess
electricity can be delivered to the grid. From there, you may earn credits that you can use
during the night.
It can also be said that the grid serves as an energy storage for solar panels.

Solar Energy Storage

Another way to make solar panels work during the night is through solar energy storage such as
batteries. These can be requested from your solar panel provider to include during installation.
Batteries are widely used compared to net metering, as the latter is not entirely available all
over the world.

How Thermoelectric Generators Work

Thermoelectric generators (TEG) are solid-state semiconductor devices that convert a

temperature difference and heat flow into a useful DC power source. Thermoelectric generator
semiconductor devices utilize the Seebeck effect to generate voltage. This generated voltage
drives electrical current and produces useful power at a load.

A thermoelectric generator is not the same as a thermoelectric cooler. (also know as TEC,
Peltier module, cooling chips, solid-state cooling)
A thermoelectric cooler works in reverse of a thermoelectric generator. When a voltage is
applied to thermoelectric cooler, an electrical current is produced. This current induces the
Peltier effect. With this effect, heat is moved from the cold side to the hot side. A
thermoelectric cooler is also a solid-state semiconductor device. The components are the same
as a thermoelectric generator but the design of the components in most cases differ.
While thermoelectric generators are used to produce power, thermoelectric coolers (Peltier
coolers) are used for removing or adding heat. Thermoelectric cooling has many applications in
cooling, heating, refrigeration, temperature control and thermal management.
The focus of the rest this post is thermoelectric generators.

How does a Thermoelectric Generator utilize the Seebeck Effect?

The basic building block of a thermoelectric generator is a thermocouple. A thermocouple is

made up of one p-type semiconductor and one n-type semiconductor. The semiconductors are
connected by a metal strip that connects them electrically in series. The semiconductors are
also known as thermoelements, dice or pellets.

The Seebeck effect is a direct energy conversion of heat into a voltage potential. The Seebeck
effect occurs due to the movement of charge carriers within the semiconductors. In doped n-
type semiconductors, charge carriers are electrons and in doped p-type semiconductors, charge
carriers are holes. Charge carriers diffuse away from the hot side of the semiconductor. This
diffusion leads to a buildup of charge carriers at one end. This buildup of charge creates a
voltage potential that is directly proportional to the temperature difference across the
semiconductor.
What are the Advantages of Thermoelectric Generators
1. Reliability - Thermoelectric generators are solid-state devices. Having no moving parts
to break or wear out makes them very reliable. Thermoelectric generators can last a
very long time. The Voyager 1 spacecraft thermoelectric generator, as of this writing
has been operational for 41 years. It has traveled over 13 billion miles without any
maintenance or repairs.
2. Quiet - Thermoelectric generators can be designed to be completely silent.
3. No Greenhouse Gases - Thermoelectric generators do not require any greenhouse
gases to operate. Some energy conversion technologies do.
4. Wide Range of Fuel Sources - Thermoelectric generators do not have restrictions on
fuels that can be used to generate the needed heat. Many other energy conversion
technologies do.
5. Scalability - Thermoelectric generators can be designed to output power levels
smaller than microwatts and larger than kilowatts.
6. Mountable in Any Orientation - Thermoelectric generators operate in any
orientation. Some energy conversion technologies are sensitive to their orientation
relative to gravity.
7. Operation Under high and Zero G-forces - Thermoelectric generators can operate
under zero-G or high-G conditions. Some other energy conversion technologies
cannot.
8. Direct Energy Conversion - Thermoelectric generators convert heat directly into
electricity. Many energy conversion technologies require intermediate steps when
converting heat to electricity. For example, heat energy from fuel is converted in a
turbine to mechanical energy, then mechanical energy is converted to electricity in a
generator. Each energy conversion step adds losses in the form or waste heat. This
makes thermoelectric generators less mechanically complex than some other energy
conversion technologies.
9. Compact Size - Thermoelectric generators can be designed to be very compact. This
leads to greater design flexibility.