Lecture Note: 1

Introduction to C

C is a programming language developed at AT & T’s Bell Laboratories of USA

in 1972. It was designed and written by a man named Dennis Ritchie. In the late
seventies C began to replace the more familiar languages of that time like PL/I,
ALGOL, etc

ANSI C standard emerged in the early 1980s, this book was split into two
titles: The original was still called Programming in C, and the title that covered
ANSI C was called Programming in ANSI C. This was done because it took
several years for the compiler vendors to release their ANSI C compilers and for
them to become ubiquitous. It was initially designed for programming UNIX
operating system. Now the software tool as well as the C compiler is written in C.
Major parts of popular operating systems like Windows, UNIX, Linux is still
written in C. This is because even today when it comes to performance (speed of
execution) nothing beats C. Moreover, if one is to extend the operating system to
work with new devices one needs to write device driver programs. These
programs are exclusively written in C. C seems so popular is because it is reliable,
simple and easy to use. often heard today is – “C has been already superceded
by languages like C++, C# and Java.

Program

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There is a close analogy between learning English language and learning C
language. The classical method of learning English is to first learn the alphabets
used in the language, then learn to combine these alphabets to form words, which
in turn are combined to form sentences and sentences are combined to form
paragraphs. Learning C is similar and easier. Instead of straight-away learning how
to write programs, we must first know what alphabets, numbers and special
symbols are used in C, then how using them constants, variables and keywords are
constructed, and finally how are these combined to form an instruction. A group
of instructions would be combined later on to form a program. So

a computer program is just a collection of the instructions necessary to solve a

specific problem. The basic operations of a computer system form what is known
as the computer’s instruction set. And the approach or method that is used to solve
the problem is known as an algorithm.

So for as programming language concern these are of two types.

1) Low level language

2) High level language

Low level language:

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 Low level languages are machine level and assembly level language. In
machine level language computer only understand digital numbers i.e. in the form
of 0 and 1. So, instruction given to the computer is in the form binary digit, which
is difficult to implement instruction in binary code. This type of program is not
portable, difficult to maintain and also error prone. The assembly language is on
other hand modified version of machine level language. Where instructions are
given in English like word as ADD, SUM, MOV etc. It is easy to write and
understand but not understand by the machine. So the translator used here is
assembler to translate into machine level. Although language is bit easier,
programmer has to know low level details related to low level language. In the
assembly level language the data are stored in the computer register, which varies
for different computer. Hence it is not portable.

High level language:

These languages are machine independent, means it is portable. The language in

this category is Pascal, Cobol, Fortran etc. High level languages are understood by
the machine. So it need to translate by the translator into machine level. A
translator is software which is used to translate high level language as well as low
level language in to machine level language.

Three types of translator are there:

Compiler

Interpreter

Assembler

Compiler and interpreter are used to convert the high level language into machine
level language. The program written in high level language is known as source
program and the corresponding machine level language program is called as object
program. Both compiler and interpreter perform the same task but there working is
different. Compiler read the program at-a-time and searches the error and lists
them. If the program is error free then it is converted into object program. When
program size is large then compiler is preferred. Whereas interpreter read only one
line of the source code and convert it to object code. If it check error, statement by
statement and hence of take more time.

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Integrated Development Environments (IDE)

The process of editing, compiling, running, and debugging programs is often

managed by a single integrated application known as an Integrated Development
Environment, or IDE for short. An IDE is a windows-based program that allows us
to easily manage large software programs, edit files in windows, and compile, link,
run, and debug programs.

On Mac OS X, CodeWarrior and Xcode are two IDEs that are used by many
programmers. Under Windows, Microsoft Visual Studio is a good example of a
popular IDE. Kylix is a popular IDE for developing applications under Linux.
Most IDEs also support program development in several different programming
languages in addition to C, such as C# and C++.

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 Lecture Note: 2

Structure of C Language program

1 ) Comment line

2) Preprocessor directive

3 ) Global variable declaration

4) main function( )

Local variables;

Statements;

User defined function

Comment line

It indicates the purpose of the program. It is represented as

/*……………………………..*/

Comment line is used for increasing the readability of the program. It is useful in
explaining the program and generally used for documentation. It is enclosed within
the decimeters. Comment line can be single or multiple line but should not be
nested. It can be anywhere in the program except inside string constant & character
constant.

Preprocessor Directive:

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#include<stdio.h> tells the compiler to include information about the standard
input/output library. It is also used in symbolic constant such as #define PI
3.14(value). The stdio.h (standard input output header file) contains definition
&declaration of system defined function such as printf( ), scanf( ), pow( ) etc.
Generally printf() function used to display and scanf() function used to read value

Global Declaration:

This is the section where variable are declared globally so that it can be access by
all the functions used in the program. And it is generally declared outside the
function :

main()

It is the user defined function and every function has one main() function from
where actually program is started and it is encloses within the pair of curly braces.

The main( ) function can be anywhere in the program but in general practice it is
placed in the first position.

Syntax :

main()

……..

……..

……..

The main( ) function return value when it declared by data type as

int main( )

return 0

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}

The main function does not return any value when void (means null/empty) as

void main(void ) or void main()

printf (“C language”);

Output: C language

The program execution start with opening braces and end with closing brace.

And in between the two braces declaration part as well as executable part is
mentioned. And at the end of each line, the semi-colon is given which indicates
statement termination.

/*First c program with return statement*/

#include <stdio.h>

int main (void)

printf ("welcome to c Programming language.\n");

return 0;

Output: welcome to c programming language.

Steps for Compiling and executing the Programs

A compiler is a software program that analyzes a program developed in a particular

computer language and then translates it into a form that is suitable for execution

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on a particular computer system. Figure below shows the steps that are involved in
entering, compiling, and executing a

computer program developed in the C programming language and the typical Unix
commands that would be entered from the command line.

Step 1: The program that is to be compiled is first typed into a file on the
computer system. There are various conventions that are used for naming files,
typically be any name provided the last two characters are “.c” or file with
extension .c. So, the file name prog1.c might be a valid filename for a C program.
A text editor is usually used to enter the C program into a file. For example, vi is a
popular text editor used on Unix systems. The program that is entered into the file
is known as the source program because it represents the original form of the
program expressed in the C language.

Step 2: After the source program has been entered into a file, then proceed to have
it compiled. The compilation process is initiated by typing a special command on
the system. When this command is entered, the name of the file that contains the
source program must also be specified. For example, under Unix, the command to
initiate program compilation is called cc. If we are using the popular GNU C
compiler, the command we use is gcc.

Typing the line

gcc prog1.c or cc prog1.c

In the first step of the compilation process, the compiler examines each program

statement contained in the source program and checks it to ensure that it conforms
to the syntax and semantics of the language. If any mistakes are discovered by the
compiler during this phase, they are reported to the user and the compilation
process ends right there. The errors then have to be corrected in the source program
(with the use of an editor), and the compilation process must be restarted. Typical
errors reported during this phase of compilation might be due to an expression that
has unbalanced parentheses (syntactic error), or due to the use of a variable that is
not “defined” (semantic error).

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Step 3: When all the syntactic and semantic errors have been removed from the
program, the compiler then proceeds to take each statement of the program and
translate it into a “lower” form that is equivalent to assembly language program
needed to perform the identical task.

Step 4: After the program has been translated the next step in the compilation
process is to translate the assembly language statements into actual machine
instructions. The assembler takes each assembly language statement and converts it
into a binary format known as object code, which is then written into another file
on the system. This file has the same name as the source file under Unix, with the
last letter an “o” (for object) instead of a “c”.

Step 5: After the program has been translated into object code, it is ready to be
linked. This process is once again performed automatically whenever the cc or gcc
command is issued under Unix. The purpose of the linking phase is to get the
program into a final form for execution on the computer.

If the program uses other programs that were previously

processed by the compiler, then during this phase the programs are linked together.
Programs that are used from the system’s program library are also searched and
linked together with the object program during this phase.

The process of compiling and linking a program is often called building.

The final linked file, which is in an executable object code format, is stored in
another file on the system, ready to be run or executed. Under Unix, this file is
called a.out by default. Under Windows, the executable file usually has the same
name as the source file, with the c extension replaced by an exe extension.

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Step 6: To subsequently execute the program, the command a.out has the effect
of loading the program called a.out into the computer’s memory and initiating its
execution.

When the program is executed, each of the statements of the program is

sequentially executed in turn. If the program requests any data from the user,
known as input, the program temporarily suspends its execution so that the input
can be entered. Or, the program might simply wait for an event, such as a mouse
being clicked, to occur. Results that are displayed by the program, known as
output, appear in a window, sometimes called the console. If the program does not
produce the desired results, it is necessary to go back and reanalyze the program’s
logic. This is known as the debugging phase, during which an attempt is made to
remove all the known problems or bugs from the program. To do this, it will most

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likely be necessary to make changes to original source program.

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/* Simple program to add two numbers…………………….*/

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#include <stdio.h>

int main (void)

int v1, v2, sum; //v1,v2,sum are variables and int is data type declared

v1 = 150;

v2 = 25;

sum = v1 + v2;

printf ("The sum of %i and %i is= %i\n", v1, v2, sum);

return 0;

Output:

The sum of 150 and 25 is=175

Lectu
re Note: 3

Character set

A character denotes any alphabet, digit or special symbol used to represent

information. Valid alphabets, numbers and special symbols allowed in C are

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The alphabets, numbers and special symbols when properly combined form
constants, variables and keywords.

Identifiers

Identifiers are user defined word used to name of entities like variables, arrays,
functions, structures etc. Rules for naming identifiers are:
1) name should only consists of alphabets (both upper and lower case), digits
and underscore (_) sign.
2) first characters should be alphabet or underscore
3) name should not be a keyword
4) since C is a case sensitive, the upper case and lower case considered
differently, for example code, Code, CODE etc. are different identifiers.
5) identifiers are generally given in some meaningful name such as value,
net_salary, age, data etc. An identifier name may be long, some implementation
recognizes only first eight characters, most recognize 31 characters. ANSI
standard compiler recognize 31 characters. Some invalid identifiers are 5cb, int,
res#, avg no etc.

Keyword

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 There are certain words reserved for doing specific task, these words
are known as reserved word or keywords. These words are predefined and always
written in lower case or small letter. These keywords cann’t be used as a variable
name as it assigned with fixed meaning. Some examples are int, short, signed,
unsigned, default, volatile, float, long, double, break, continue, typedef, static,
do, for, union, return, while, do, extern, register, enum, case, goto, struct,
char, auto, const etc.

data types

Data types refer to an extensive system used for declaring variables or functions of
different types before its use. The type of a variable determines how much space it
occupies in storage and how the bit pattern stored is interpreted. The value of a
variable can be changed any time.

C has the following 4 types of data types

basic built-in data types: int, float, double, char

Enumeration data type: enum

Derived data type: pointer, array, structure, union

Void data type: void

A variable declared to be of type int can be used to contain integral values

only—that is, values that do not contain decimal places. A variable declared to be
of type float can be used for storing floating- point numbers (values containing
decimal places). The double type is the same as type float, only with roughly twice
the precision. The char data type can be used to store a single character, such as the
letter a, the digit character 6, or a semicolon similarly A variable declared char can
only store character type value.

There are two types of type qualifier in c

Size qualifier: short, long

Sign qualifier: signed, unsigned

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 When the qualifier unsigned is used the number is always positive, and when
signed is used number may be positive or negative. If the sign qualifier is not
mentioned, then by default sign qualifier is assumed. The range of values for
signed data types is less than that of unsigned data type. Because in signed type,
the left most bit is used to represent sign, while in unsigned type this bit is also
used to represent the value. The size and range of the different data types on a 16
bit machine is given below:

Basic data type Data type with type Size Range

qualifier (byte)
char char or signed char 1 -128 to 127
Unsigned char 1 0 to 255
int int or signed int 2 -32768 to 32767
unsigned int 2 0 to 65535
short int or signed short int 1 -128 to 127
unsigned short int 1 0 to 255
long int or signed long int 4 -2147483648 to 2147483647
unsigned long int 4 0 to 4294967295
float float 4 -3.4E-38 to 3.4E+38
double double 8 1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308
Long double 10 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932

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 Lecture Note: 4

Constants

Constant is a any value that cannot be changed during program execution. In C,

any number, single character, or character string is known as a constant. A constant
is an entity that doesn’t change whereas a variable is an entity that may change.
For example, the number 50 represents a constant integer value. The character
string "Programming in C is fun.\n" is an example of a constant character string. C
constants can be divided into two major categories:
Primary Constants
Secondary Constants

These constants are further categorized as

Numeric constant
Character constant
String constant

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Numeric constant: Numeric constant consists of digits. It required minimum size
of 2 bytes and max 4 bytes. It may be positive or negative but by default sign is
always positive. No comma or space is allowed within the numeric constant and it
must have at least 1 digit. The allowable range for integer constants is -32768 to
32767. Truly speaking the range of an Integer constant depends upon the compiler.
For a 16-bit compiler like Turbo C or Turbo C++ the range is –32768 to 32767.
For a 32-bit compiler the range would be even greater. Mean by a 16-bit or a 32-
bit compiler, what range of an Integer constant has to do with the type of compiler.

It is categorized a integer constant and real constant. An integer constants are

whole number which have no decimal point. Types of integer constants are:
Decimal constant: 0-------9(base 10)
Octal constant: 0-------7(base 8)
Hexa decimal constant: 0----9, A------F(base 16)

In decimal constant first digit should not be zero unlike octal constant first digit
must be zero(as 076, 0127) and in hexadecimal constant first two digit should be
0x/ 0X (such as 0x24, 0x87A). By default type of integer constant is integer but if
the value of integer constant is exceeds range then value represented by integer
type is taken to be unsigned integer or long integer. It can also be explicitly
mention integer and unsigned integer type by suffix l/L and u/U.

Real constant is also called floating point constant. To construct real constant we
must follow the rule of ,
-real constant must have at least one digit.
-It must have a decimal point.
-It could be either positive or negative.
-Default sign is positive.
-No commas or blanks are allowed within a real constant. Ex.: +325.34
426.0
-32.76

To express small/large real constant exponent(scientific) form is used where

number is written in mantissa and exponent form separated by e/E. Exponent can
be positive or negative integer but mantissa can be real/integer type, for example
3.6*105=3.6e+5. By default type of floating point constant is double, it can also be
explicitly defined it by suffix of f/F.

Character constant

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 Character constant represented as a single character enclosed within a single
quote. These can be single digit, single special symbol or white spaces such as
‘9’,’c’,’$’, ‘ ’ etc. Every character constant has a unique integer like value in
machine’s character code as if machine using ASCII (American standard code for
information interchange). Some numeric value associated with each upper and
lower case alphabets and decimal integers are as:

A------------ Z ASCII value (65-90)

a-------------z ASCII value (97-122)

0-------------9 ASCII value (48-59)

; ASCII value (59)

String constant

Set of characters are called string and when sequence of characters are
enclosed within a double quote (it may be combination of all kind of symbols) is a
string constant. String constant has zero, one or more than one character and at the
end of the string null character(\0) is automatically placed by compiler. Some
examples are “,sarathina” , “908”, “3”,” ”, “A” etc. In C although same characters
are enclosed within single and double quotes it represents different meaning such
as “A” and ‘A’ are different because first one is string attached with null character
at the end but second one is character constant with its corresponding ASCII value
is 65.

Symbolic constant
Symbolic constant is a name that substitute for a sequence of characters and,
characters may be numeric, character or string constant. These constant are
generally defined at the beginning of the program as

#define name value , here name generally written in

upper case for example

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 #define MAX 10

#define CH ‘b’

#define NAME “sony”

Variables

Variable is a data name which is used to store some data value or symbolic names
for storing program
computations and results. The value of the variable can be change during the
execution. The rule for naming the variables is same as the naming identifier.
Before used in the program it must be declared. Declaration of variables specify its
name, data types and range of the value that variables can store depends upon its
data types.

Syntax:

int a;

char c;

float f;

Variable initialization

When we assign any initial value to variable during the declaration, is called
initialization of variables. When variable is declared but contain undefined value
then it is called garbage value. The variable is initialized with the assignment
operator such as

Data type variable name=constant;

Example: int a=20;

Or int a;

a=20;

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statements

Lecture Note: 5

Expressions

An expression is a combination of variables, constants, operators and function call.

It can be arithmetic, logical and relational for example:-

int z= x+y // arithmatic expression

a>b //relational

a==b // logical
func(a, b) // function call
Expressions consisting entirely of constant values are called constant expressions.
So, the expression
121 + 17 - 110
is a constant expression because each of the terms of the expression is a constant
value. But if i were declared to be an integer variable, the expression
180 + 2 – j
would not represent a constant expression.

Operator

This is a symbol use to perform some operation on variables, operands or with the
constant. Some operator required 2 operand to perform operation or Some
required single operation.

Several operators are there those are, arithmetic operator, assignment, increment ,
decrement, logical, conditional, comma, size of , bitwise and others.

1. Arithmatic Operator

This operator used for numeric calculation. These are of either Unary arithmetic
operator, Binary arithmetic operator. Where Unary arithmetic operator required

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only one operand such as +,-, ++, --,!, tiled. And these operators are addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division. Binary arithmetic operator on other hand
required two operand and its operators are +(addition), -(subtraction),
*(multiplication), /(division), %(modulus). But modulus cannot applied with
floating point operand as well as there are no exponent operator in c.

Unary (+) and Unary (-) is different from addition and subtraction.

When both the operand are integer then it is called integer arithmetic and the result
is always integer. When both the operand are floating point then it is called floating
arithmetic and when operand is of integer and floating point then it is called mix
type or mixed mode arithmetic . And the result is in float type.

2.Assignment Operator

A value can be stored in a variable with the use of assignment operator. The
assignment operator(=) is used in assignment statement and assignment expression.
Operand on the left hand side should be variable and the operand on the right hand
side should be variable or constant or any expression. When variable on the left
hand side is occur on the right hand side then we can avoid by writing the
compound statement. For example,

int x= y;

int Sum=x+y+z;

3.Increment and Decrement

The Unary operator ++, --, is used as increment and decrement which acts upon
single operand. Increment operator increases the value of variable by one
.Similarly decrement operator decrease the value of the variable by one. And these
operator can only used with the variable, but cann't use with expression and
constant as ++6 or ++(x+y+z).

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It again categories into prefix post fix . In the prefix the value of the variable is
incremented 1st, then the new value is used, where as in postfix the operator is
written after the operand(such as m++,m--).

EXAMPLE

let y=12;

z= ++y;

y= y+1;

z= y;

Similarly in the postfix increment and decrement operator is used in the operation .
And then increment and decrement is perform.

EXAMPLE

let x= 5;

y= x++;

y=x;

x= x+1;

4.Relational Operator

It is use to compared value of two expressions depending on their relation.

Expression that contain relational operator is called relational expression.

Here the value is assign according to true or false value.

a.(a>=b) || (b>20)

b.(b>a) && (e>b)

c. 0(b!=7)

5. Conditional Operator

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It sometimes called as ternary operator. Since it required three expressions as
operand and it is represented as (? , :).

SYNTAX

exp1 ? exp2 :exp3

Here exp1 is first evaluated. It is true then value return will be exp2 . If false then
exp3.

EXAMPLE

void main()

int a=10, b=2

int s= (a>b) ? a:b;

printf(“value is:%d”);

Output:

Value is:10

6. Comma Operator

Comma operator is use to permit different expression to be appear in a situation

where only one expression would be used. All the expression are separator by
comma and are evaluated from left to right.

EXAMPLE

int i, j, k, l;

for(i=1,j=2;i<=5;j<=10;i++;j++)

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 7. Sizeof Operator

Size of operator is a Unary operator, which gives size of operand in terms of byte
that occupied in the memory. An operand may be variable, constant or data type
qualifier.

Generally it is used make portable program(program that can be run on different

machine) . It determines the length of entities, arrays and structures when their size
are not known to the programmer. It is also use to allocate size of memory
dynamically during execution of the program.

EXAMPLE

main( )

int sum;

float f;

printf( "%d%d" ,size of(f), size of (sum) );

printf("%d%d", size of(235 L), size of(A));

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 Lecture Note: 6

8. Bitwise Operator

Bitwise operator permit programmer to access and manipulate of data at bit level.
Various bitwise operator enlisted are

one's complement (~)

bitwise AND (&)

bitwise OR (|)

bitwise XOR (^)

left shift (<<)

right shift (>>)

These operator can operate on integer and character value but not on float and
double. In bitwise operator the function showbits( ) function is used to display the
binary representation of any integer or character value.

In one's complement all 0 changes to 1 and all 1 changes to 0. In the bitwise OR its
value would obtaining by 0 to 2 bits.

As the bitwise OR operator is used to set on a particular bit in a number. Bitwise

AND the logical AND.

It operate on 2operands and operands are compared on bit by bit basic. And hence
both the operands are of same type.

Logical or Boolean Operator

Operator used with one or more operand and return either value zero (for false) or
one (for true). The operand may be constant, variables or expressions. And the
expression that combines two or more expressions is termed as logical expression.
C has three logical operators :

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 Operator Meaning

&& AND
|| OR
! NOT
Where logical NOT is a unary operator and other two are binary operator. Logical
AND gives result true if both the conditions are true, otherwise result is false. And
logial OR gives result false if both the condition false, otherwise result is true.

Precedence and associativity of operators

Operators Description Precedence level Associativity

() function call 1 left to right

[] array subscript

 arrow operator
. dot operator
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ unary plus 2 right to left
- unary minus
++ increment
-- decrement
! logical not
~ 1’s complement
* indirection
& address
(data type) type cast
sizeof size in byte
* multiplication 3 left to right
/ division
% modulus
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ addition 4 left to right
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 - subtraction
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
<< left shift 5 left to right
>> right shift
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
<= less than equal to 6 left to right
>= greater than equal to
< less than
> greater than
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
== equal to 7 left to right
!= not equal to
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
& bitwise AND 8 left to right
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
^ bitwise XOR 9 left to right
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
| bitwise OR 10 left to right
&& logical AND 11
|| logical OR 12
?: conditional operator 13
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
=, *=, /=, %= assignment operator 14 right to left
&=, ^=, <<=
>>=
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
, comma operator 15
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Lecture Note: 7

Control Statement

Generally C program statement is executed in a order in which they appear

in the program. But sometimes we use decision making condition for execution
only a part of program, that is called control statement. Control statement defined
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how the control is transferred from one part to the other part of the program. There
are several control statement like if...else, switch, while, do....while, for loop,
break, continue, goto etc.

Loops in C

Loop:-it is a block of statement that performs set of instructions. In loops

Repeating particular portion of the program either a specified number of time or

until a particular no of condition is being satisfied.

There are three types of loops in c

1.While loop

2.do while loop

3.for loop

While loop

Syntax:-

while(condition)

Statement 1;

Statement 2;

Or while(test condition)

Statement;

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The test condition may be any expression .when we want to do something a fixed
no of times but not known about the number of iteration, in a program then while
loop is used.

Here first condition is checked if, it is true body of the loop is executed else, If
condition is false control will be come out of loop.

Example:-

/* wap to print 5 times welcome to C” */

#include<stdio.h>

void main()

int p=1;

While(p<=5)

printf(“Welcome to C\n”);

P=p+1;

Output: Welcome to C

Welcome to C

Welcome to C

Welcome to C

Welcome to C

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 So as long as condition remains true statements within the body of while loop will
get executed repeatedly.

do while loop

This (do while loop) statement is also used for looping. The body of this loop may
contain single statement or block of statement. The syntax for writing this
statement is:

Syntax:-

Do

Statement;

while(condition);

Example:-

#include<stdio.h>

void main()

int X=4;

do

Printf(“%d”,X);

X=X+1;

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 }whie(X<=10);

Printf(“ ”);

Output: 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Here firstly statement inside body is executed then condition is checked. If the
condition is true again body of loop is executed and this process continue until the
condition becomes false. Unlike while loop semicolon is placed at the end of
while.

There is minor difference between while and do while loop, while loop test the
condition before executing any of the statement of loop. Whereas do while loop
test condition after having executed the statement at least one within the loop.

If initial condition is false while loop would not executed it’s statement on other
hand do while loop executed it’s statement at least once even If condition fails for
first time. It means do while loop always executes at least once. Notes:

Do while loop used rarely when we want to execute a loop at least once.

Lecture Note: 8

for loop

In a program, for loop is generally used when number of iteration are known in
advance. The body of the loop can be single statement or multiple statements. Its
syntax for writing is:

Syntax:-

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 for(exp1;exp2;exp3)

Statement;

Or

for(initialized counter; test counter; update counter)

Statement;

Here exp1 is an initialization expression, exp2 is test expression or condition and

exp3 is an update expression. Expression 1 is executed only once when loop
started and used to initialize the loop variables. Condition expression generally
uses relational and logical operators. And updation part executed only when after
body of the loop is executed.

Example:-

void main()

int i;

for(i=1;i<10;i++)

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Printf(“ %d ”, i);

Output:-1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Nesting of loop

When a loop written inside the body of another loop then, it is known as nesting of
loop. Any type of loop can be nested in any type such as while, do while, for. For
example nesting of for loop can be represented as :

void main()

int i,j;

for(i=0;i<2;i++)

for(j=0;j<5; j++)

printf(“%d %d”, i, j);

Output: i=0

j=0 1 2 3 4

i=1

j=0 1 2 3 4

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Break statement(break)

Sometimes it becomes necessary to come out of the loop even before loop
condition becomes false then break statement is used. Break statement is used
inside loop and switch statements. It cause immediate exit from that loop in which
it appears and it is generally written with condition. It is written with the keyword
as break. When break statement is encountered loop is terminated and control is
transferred to the statement, immediately after loop or situation where we want to
jump out of the loop instantly without waiting to get back to conditional state.

When break is encountered inside any loop, control automatically passes to the
first statement after the loop. This break statement is usually associated with if
statement.

Example :

void main()

int j=0;

for(;j<6;j++)

if(j==4)

break;

Output:

0123

Continue statement (key word continue)

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Continue statement is used for continuing next iteration of loop after skipping
some statement of loop. When it encountered control automatically passes
through the beginning of the loop. It is usually associated with the if statement. It is
useful when we want to continue the program without executing any part of the
program.

The difference between break and continue is, when the break encountered loop is
terminated and it transfer to the next statement and when continue is encounter
control come back to the beginning position.

In while and do while loop after continue statement control transfer to the test
condition and then loop continue where as in, for loop after continue control
transferred to the updating expression and condition is tested.

Example:-

void main()

int n;

for(n=2; n<=9; n++)

if(n==4)

continue;

printf(“%d”, n);

Printf(“out of loop”);

Output: 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 out of loop

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 Lecture Note: 9

if statement

Statement execute set of command like when condition is true and its syntax is

If (condition)

Statement;

The statement is executed only when condition is true. If the if statement body is
consists of several statement then better to use pair of curly braces. Here in case
condition is false then compiler skip the line within the if block.

void main()

int n;

printf (“ enter a number:”);

scanf(“%d”,&n);

If (n>10)

Printf(“ number is grater”);

Output:

Enter a number:12

Number is greater

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if…..else ... Statement

it is bidirectional conditional control statement that contains one condition & two
possible action. Condition may be true or false, where non-zero value regarded as
true & zero value regarded as false. If condition are satisfy true, then a single or
block of statement executed otherwise another single or block of statement is
executed.

Its syntax is:-

if (condition)

Statement1;

Statement2;

else

Statement1;

Statement2;

Else statement cannot be used without if or no multiple else statement are allowed
within one if statement. It means there must be a if statement with in an else
statement.

Example:-

/* To check a number is eve or odd */

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void main()

int n;

printf (“enter a number:”);

sacnf (“%d”, &n);

If (n%2==0)

printf (“even number”);

else

printf(“odd number”);

Output: enter a number:121

odd number

Lecture Note: 10

Nesting of if …else

When there are another if else statement in if-block or else-block, then it is called
nesting of if-else statement.

Syntax is :-

if (condition)

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 If (condition)

Statement1;

else

statement2;

Statement3;

If….else LADDER

In this type of nesting there is an if else statement in every else part except the last
part. If condition is false control pass to block where condition is again checked
with its if statement.

Syntax is :-

if (condition)

Statement1;

else if (condition)

statement2;

else if (condition)

statement3;

else

statement4;

This process continue until there is no if statement in the last block. if one of the
condition is satisfy the condition other nested “else if” would not executed.

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But it has disadvantage over if else statement that, in if else statement whenever
the condition is true, other condition are not checked. While in this case, all
condition are checked.