Green Energy and Technology

Bogdan Ovidiu Varga

Florin Mariasiu
Dan Moldovanu
Calin Iclodean

Electric and
Plug-In Hybrid
Vehicles
Advanced Simulation Methodologies
Green Energy and Technology
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8059
Bogdan Ovidiu Varga Florin Mariasiu
•

Dan Moldovanu Calin Iclodean

•

Electric and Plug-In Hybrid

Vehicles
Advanced Simulation Methodologies

123
Bogdan Ovidiu Varga Dan Moldovanu
Automotive and Transport Department Automotive and Transport Department
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca Technical University of Cluj-Napoca
Cluj-Napoca, Cluj Cluj-Napoca, Cluj
Romania Romania

Florin Mariasiu Calin Iclodean

Automotive and Transport Department Automotive and Transport Department
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca Technical University of Cluj-Napoca
Cluj-Napoca, Cluj Cluj-Napoca, Cluj
Romania Romania

ISSN 1865-3529 ISSN 1865-3537 (electronic)

Green Energy and Technology
ISBN 978-3-319-18638-2 ISBN 978-3-319-18639-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-18639-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015940989

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

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Foreword

When Bogdan Varga asked me to write the Foreword to his book on “Electric and
Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles Advanced Simulation Methodologies” I was indeed
honored: Generally, people who are asked to write Forewords are those who matter
to the author.
I met Bogdan Varga in 2007 at a conference for automotive engineers organized
by the Technical University of Cluj. I had just taken over the job of Sales Manager
for Central and Eastern Europe for Instrumentation and Test Systems. I was
impressed by the determination and ardor Bogdan showed in his scientific work as
well as his professionalism and effectiveness in preparing big research projects.
In 2010, AVL together with Technical University of Cluj built a Laboratory for
Testing, Research, and Certification of Internal Combustion Engines, AVL deliv-
ering not only testing equipment but also research tools as well as software for data
processing and simulation.
Since then the Technical University of Cluj and AVL have been in close contact,
exchanging knowledge and experience in research, focusing mainly on methods to
deal with the increasing complexity of powertrains.
The complexity and diversity of future powertrain systems elevates dramatically.
One driving factor is given by enhanced legislative requirements, such as reduction
in CO2 fleet emissions and pollutant emissions under real-world driving conditions
(RDE).
Another factor is increased customer demands as positive driving experience,
safety, agility, comfort, and confidence in driver assistance systems. On top of this,
shorter model cycles and moderate cost of ownership are demanded.
One key to managing this complexity is to use and integrate virtual development
environments into the development process of powertrain systems.
In the past, for example, the functional integration of subsystems into a complete
vehicle system was done within a system integration using only real hardware.
Today this is combined with virtual environments, too. In future this integration
will be done in purely virtual environments in early stages of development.

v
vi Foreword

With the book’s approach Bogdan provides an excellent tool for researchers
working on these challenges: he not only describes the simulation method of
complex powertrains, but also explains how to build a working virtual development
environment for classical, hybrid, and electrical powertrains.
I am convinced that Bogdan’s book will be a big help for any researcher to better
understand the process of modeling and simulation of complex powertrains and to
start out in creating a virtual laboratory.

Graz DI Stefan Kanya

April 2015 Sales Manager Central and Eastern Europe
AVL List GmbH
Acknowledgments

The writing process of this book consumed a huge amount of work, research, and
documentation, but in the end, the effort is dedicated to those who are interested in
applicative use of advanced modeling and simulation technologies for the optimi-
zation of energy efficiency in automotive electric and hybrid powertrains.
First of all, we are deeply grateful to AVL LIST GmbH, A-8020 Graz,
Hans-List-Platz 1 (www.avl.com) for their essential logistic support, availability,
and also for provision of their high-level professional expertise and technical
support in the writing process of the book. Their advice definitely increased the
scientific and applicative quality of book.
Still, all of this would not have been possible if we did not have a strong and
permanent support of leadership (Prof. Nicolae Burnete, Ph.D.) and our colleagues
from Automotive Engineering and Transport Department of Technical University
of Cluj-Napoca, Romania. Therefore, we would like to extend our sincere thanks to
all of them.
Nevertheless, we express our gratitude toward our families for their support,
understanding, and encouragement, which helped us permanently throughout the
preparation of the book.

Bogdan Ovidiu Varga

Florin Mariasiu
Dan Moldovanu
Calin Iclodean

vii
Contents

1 Principles of Modeling and Simulation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 Mathematics Behind the Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.1 Vehicle (V) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.1.4 Computation of the Module Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.1.5 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 Clutch (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.4 Computation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.5 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3 Torque Converter (T) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.4 Computation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.5 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.4 Gearbox (G). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.4.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.4.4 Computation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.4.5 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

ix
x Contents

2.5 CVT—Continuously Variable Transmission (H) . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.5.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.5.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.5.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.5.4 Computation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5.5 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.6 Single Ratio Transmission (D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.6.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.6.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.6.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.6.4 Computation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.6.5 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.7 Differential (N). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.7.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.7.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.7.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.7.4 Computation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.7.5 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.8 Planetary Gearbox (PG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.8.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.8.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.8.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.8.4 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.9.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.9.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.9.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.9.4 Computation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.9.5 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.9.6 Power Correction on Environment Conditions . . . . . . 99
2.9.7 Charger Response Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.9.8 Temperature Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2.9.9 Consumption Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
2.9.10 Fuel Shut-Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.10 Generator (L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2.10.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.10.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.10.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.10.4 Computation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.10.5 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.11 Electrical Consumer (X) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.11.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.11.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Contents xi

2.11.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

2.11.4 Computation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.11.5 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.12 Electric Motor (J) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.12.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
2.12.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
2.12.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.12.4 Computation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2.12.5 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2.13 Electric Machine (EM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.13.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2.13.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.13.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2.13.4 Computation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
2.13.5 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.14 Battery H (QH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.14.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.14.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.14.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
2.14.4 Computation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2.14.5 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
2.15 Gearbox Control (O) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
2.15.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
2.15.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
2.15.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2.15.4 Computation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2.15.5 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2.16 Gearbox Program (P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2.16.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2.16.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
2.16.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
2.16.4 Computation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.16.5 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.17 CVT Control (H) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.17.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.17.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
2.17.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
2.18 Anti-Slip Control (ASC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
2.18.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
2.18.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
2.18.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
2.19 PID Control (PID) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
2.19.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
xii Contents

2.19.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

2.19.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
2.19.4 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
2.20 Brake (B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
2.20.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
2.20.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
2.20.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
2.21 Cockpit (CO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
2.21.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
2.21.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
2.21.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
2.22 Exhaust System (EX) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
2.22.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
2.22.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
2.22.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
2.22.4 Computation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
2.22.5 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
2.23 MATLAB®/Simulink™ (ml) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
2.23.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
2.23.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
2.23.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
2.24 Function (FU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
2.24.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
2.24.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
2.24.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
2.24.4 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
2.25 Constants (CN). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
2.25.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
2.25.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
2.25.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
2.26 Monitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2.26.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2.26.2 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2.27 Wheel/Tire (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2.27.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
2.27.2 User-Defined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
2.27.3 Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
2.27.4 Computation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
2.27.5 Equation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

3 Virtual Powertrain Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Contents xiii

4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation . . . . . . 223

4.1 Classical Vehicle Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
4.1.1 Classic CVT Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
4.1.2 Automatic FWD Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
4.2 Run Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
4.2.1 Result Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
4.2.2 Standard Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation . . . . . . . 289

5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
5.1.1 Hybrid CVT Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
5.1.2 Hybrid Planetary Gearbox Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
5.2 Run Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
5.2.1 Result Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
5.2.2 Standard Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation . . . . . . . 387

6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
6.1.1 Electric FWD Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
6.1.2 Electric FWD RE Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
6.2 Run Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
6.2.1 Result Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
6.2.2 Standard Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462

7 Creating Virtual Road Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

7.1 AVL Road Importer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
7.1.1 Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
7.1.2 Data Submenu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
7.1.3 Road Submenu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
7.1.4 Plot Submenu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
7.1.5 Export Submenu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
7.1.6 Going Online . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476

8 Loop Powertrain Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

8.1 IPG CarMaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
8.1.1 Virtual Vehicle Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
8.1.2 CarMaker Main GUI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
8.1.3 CarMaker Main Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
8.1.4 Start Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
xiv Contents

8.2 CRUISE—CarMaker Co-Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

8.2.1 General Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
8.2.2 CRUISE—CarMaker Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
8.2.3 Model for Co-Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
8.3 Running the Simulation for Electric Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Abbreviations

4WD Four Wheel Drive

ABS Anti-lock Braking System
ACC Autonomous Cruise Control
ARB Anti-Roll Bar
ASC Anti-Slip Control
AST Advanced Simulation Technologies
BMEP Brake Mean Effective Pressure
CIT CarMaker Interface Toolbox
CTF Concerto Transport File
CVT Continuously Variable Transmission
DLL Dynamic Link Library
DoE Design of Experiments
DVA Direct Variable Access
EFG Energy Flow Graphics
EMS Engineering Measurement System
EPS Electric Power Steering
ESP Electronic Stability Program
EV Electric Vehicle
FCHEV Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle
FWD Front Wheel Drive
GHG GreenHouse Gas emissions
GIS Geographic Information System
GPS Global Positioning System
GUI Graphic User Interface
GXF GPS eXchange Format
HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle
HPS Hydraulic Pneumatic Supplies
HTML HyperText Markup Language
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
iFD Ratio of Final Drive
IFF Input From File

xv
xvi Abbreviations

ISG Integrated Starter Generator

iTR Ratio of Final Transmission
KML Keyhole Markup Language
NEDC New European Driving Cycle
PHEB Plug-in Hybrid Electric Bus
PID Proportional Integral Derivative
PNG Portable Network Graphics
RE Range Extender
RPN Reverse Polish Notation
SAM System Analysis Mode
SOC State Of Charge
SRT Single Ratio Transmission
VVE Virtual Vehicle Environment
XML eXtensible Markup Language
Chapter 1
Principles of Modeling and Simulation
Processes

The development of humanity, along historical evolution, was based on continued

and specific activities of environmental knowledge. The knowledge accumulated
over time was used to achieve the necessary leaps of progress in civilization (in
each historical stage of development of human society).
The knowledge process of the environment was achieved through specific
operations approach, nearby and reconstruction of reality. Instruments relied on
knowledge can be classified into two main classes:
• Tools (instruments) that provided data collection, data objects, and phenomena
that reflect the properties of the surrounding environment. Data collection was
made possible by direct observation, description, and measurement of natural
phenomena.
• Tools (instruments) for data interpretation, reflected by human thinking. The
thinking process used specific analysis, synthesis, and deductive methods. These
methods have led to the development of further assumptions, judgments, valid
laws, and/or general theorems for the process and/or studied phenomenon.
Until modern times, activities were predominantly based on observation and
measurement of a particular aspect of nature and/or the environment, with imme-
diate finality to ease human existence. With the historical evolution of human
civilization and philosophical approaches of human existence, observation and
measurement provided (made available) a huge number of data.
This process allowed studying them and also observation of well-established
particularities (their repeatability), depending on the studied phenomenon.
Logically, the next step was to lay patterns that can be allocated to other phenomena
and/or subjects, with predictable results.
Thus emerged the first attempts to modeling the environment, with the primary
definition of the concept of system. Realizing this approach was in replacing the
natural source (physical) system with an equivalent abstract one (using observation
and measurement tools) that can be analyzed further using specific tools.
The system was an entity composed from sharp features and high generality of
the studied problem, but which also provides the link between the input parameters
(observable and measurable) and the output parameters (of predictability).

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 1

B.O. Varga et al., Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles,
Green Energy and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-18639-9_1
2 1 Principles of Modeling and Simulation Processes

With the definition of system notion and the development of a mathematical

device to realize the connection between input parameters, output parameters, and
operating parameters of the system modeling process began to be increasingly used
in all areas related to human activities.
At present, generally system theory defines the concept of “system” as being a
well-ordered and structured multitude of interlinked elements well determined
within the system (but unrelated to the external environment of the system).
Connection between the external environment and the system is achieved
through use of system parameters that characterize the input/output relationship of
the entities presented (environment/system).
Expression of relations between input and output values of the systems is
achieved by using sets of values associated to input/output values or by using
mathematical functions.
The system is characterized by allocated sets of sizes that are assigned certain
attributes. Static attributes are characterized by fixed values (constants) called
“system parameters.” Dynamic attributes receive different values (for different
times) and are called “descriptive variables of the system.”
Further, the association between constant and variable sizes (considered to be
inner entities of the system) is reached to a combination of a physical system with
an abstract mathematical model.
Depending on the possibility of initiating a modeling process (the award of a
model to real phenomena), systems can generally be classified according to the sets
of variable values and depending on the structure.
Classification of the systems based on the set of values of variables is done
considering the variable types (analog or digital) and after the variation in time of
variables (continuous, discontinuous, and discrete).
Further, the concept of “model” is a representation of the essential characteristics
of a system, in order to determine its behavior and also of variation of output
parameters to the input parameters.
Modeling, as activity and as processes of developing an accurate model related
to a source system, follow the following steps (Fig. 1.1):
• Building of basic (initial) model;
• Model analysis;
• Comparing results;
• Correction of model.
The immediate and major advantages of using models to study the behavior of a
system are:
• Availability for study and analysis are larger than of systems source;
• Lower cost and time of implementation, testing, and experimentation;
• Ease of changing the structure of the model (depending on the intended
purpose);
• Provides clues about the behavior change of source system, based on the var-
iation in the variables considered in the study.
1 Principles of Modeling and Simulation Processes 3

Fig. 1.1 Basic structure of

modeling theory

Once the observations based on the source system can provide a model to
characterize its evolution, according to the variation of the variables considered, it
can proceed to the next phase, namely the simulation process.
The simulation process can be defined, in general terms, as all functional and/or
operational activities on a model that representing the image of a source system
necessary to be analyzed.
Because the model attached to a source system consists of one or more math-
ematical expressions (in the form of equations that describe the relationships
between model components), simulation processes are performed using computer
simulation.
There are a total of three main activities in the realization of a simulation
process: development, testing, and operation (Fig. 1.2).
The development work refers to the integration of mathematical models that
define the system state and variables into informatics codes (lines of code, pro-
grams) that can be processed further using computers.
In the testing phase of the model is required a check of its behavior at specified
conditions (if implementation of the model takes into account the initial
assumptions).
The results should be analyzed carefully to achieve assessing the fairness of the
model, by analogy with the data obtained direct from source system (under certain
known conditions).
If the model is valid and the simulation process is functional then the third phase
is run, the operating activities of the model.
The operation of model may possibly impose some conditions on the source
system studied, conditions that would not have been possible through direct
experiments on the physical source system.
The results should be analyzed and used both to improve the model and to
optimize source system behavior depending on the initial objectives of the research.
4 1 Principles of Modeling and Simulation Processes

Fig. 1.2 General structure of

a simulation process

Nowadays, the concept of ‘mobility’ best characterizes human society. The

mobility of goods, people, and ideas actively participate directly in the techno-
logical, economic, social, and cultural progress of humanity (as a whole).
In the transport domain there are specific requirements relating to environmental
protection, which require vehicle manufacturers to make necessary arrangements to
find technological solutions to integrate the transport domain in a general and
necessary structure of human society development on a sustainable basis [1].
The transportation sector is currently responsible for over 20 % of emission of
greenhouse pollutants, emissions that directly affect the climatic conditions of the
planet. Increased emissions in conjunction with achieving the maximum degree of
natural regeneration of the environment, lead to serious problems related to pol-
lution [2–4]. Naturally, the European Union (mainly) formulated policies and
actions to reduce emissions from activities associated with human society.
The major challenge in this regard, for the transport domain, is to reduce
immediately greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) discharged into the atmosphere.
Because pollutant emissions from vehicles are caused by combustion of a fuel
(generally fossil fuels), increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of vehicle’s
powertrain is constantly the focus of attention of researchers from the automotive
industry.
Competitiveness and competition in this field compel the use of means and
methods of research and development that is economically viable (reduced costs
and time to market deployment of new and improved technological solutions).
Modeling various natural or artificial processes and phenomena in engineering is
achieved by applying and performance of complex mathematical models (that take
1 Principles of Modeling and Simulation Processes 5

into account multiple hypotheses and wide range of determinants factors) using
ultrafast informatics programs on electronic processing in computerized
environments.
For this, numerical methods are applied to discretize equations that define the
condition and/or evolution of the considered technical system. Using high potential
and processing speed of information available from today’s computers (for analysis
of complex data sets), equations that offer multiple connects between different
factors of different sizes can be determined in real time.
Using this method, the solving procedures of complex problems in processing
are substantially reduced, to temporal sequences of discretized sizes, with imme-
diate benefit to achieve economies of time and labor. Mathematical developed code
is implemented further as one of the appropriate programming languages.
Some of these programming languages have the advantage of object-oriented
programming capacity and accessible syntax for user. Applications developed using
programming codes allow simulation of functional systems and sub-systems that
compose the functional structure of a vehicle.
Using software tools existing in this area, simulations can be developed, con-
trolled, and coordinated (at the same time) to achieve results and solutions to
optimize and improve the performance of vehicle’s technical systems and are
analyzed in terms of performance and operating efficiency.
These applications allow or build linear or nonlinear models (depending on the
complexity and processing potential of software program), computer processing
lines and matrix, characterized by the boundary conditions at various points (areas),
and by the conditions of the initial state of the considered technical system.
Modeling and detailed analysis of the powertrain system has been, is, and will be
considered permanently in research worldwide. Due to complexity of the technical
structure of a powertrain, research focus is on the study of a single component, or of
the entire powertrain system, or by studying the interactions of this with the general
constructive-functional system of a vehicle [5, 6].
Walker and Zhang [7] studied the influence of engine torque harmonics, model
degrees of freedom, and dual mass flywheels on the transient response of a vehicle
powertrain equipped with a dual clutch transmission for two powertrain models.
Their results by modeling and simulation process indicate that degrees of freedom,
engine model, and flywheel model all contribute significantly to variance in pow-
ertrain response under each configuration.
Kouroussis et al. [8] present an effective formulation to model an automatic
transmission (based on Del’s method), to evaluate the vehicle performance in the
early development stage of a powertrain design. The efficiency and accuracy of
modeling process was validated taking into consideration the application of sim-
ulation results on two realistic cases (Chrysler 45RFE and Aisin Warner 55–50 SN
powertrains).
To analyze the advantages of the hybrid powertrain based on the component
characteristics and to define an optimum powertrain configuration with respect
to the applied drive cycle, a combined simulation and analytical analysis of the
6 1 Principles of Modeling and Simulation Processes

energy conversion efficiency in parallel hybrid powertrains were performed by

Katrasnik [9].
Damiani et al. [10] show that a vehicular powertrain can be thought as an energy
conversion chain, each component being characterized by its self-efficiency.
Through a validated MATLAB®/Simulink™ model (designed to indicate the
powertrain energy breakdown), simulations were carried out to evaluate the fuel
saving associated to a series of powertrain management logics to minimize engine
losses, to recover the reverse power in deceleration and braking, and to eliminate
the uselessness of engine cycles.
Klein et al. [11] performed an original approach on powertrain modeling and
simulation. Their research validates an artificial wavelet neural network (or wavenet
model) combined with artificial bee colony optimization (as a swarm intelligence
paradigm), to model powertrain components of a truck engine. Simulation results
show that the artificial wavelet neural network approach can be a promising tech-
nique in powertrain components modeling; the proposed artificial bee colony
approach allows modeling the dynamical behavior of powertrain components of a
truck engine.
From the point of view of emerging technologies for transports, a novel hybrid
genetic algorithm for modeling and simulation of the powertrain and control
parameters in plug-in hybrid electric bus (PHEB), for simultaneous optimization
with trade-off between economy and dynamic performance was proposed by Li
et al. [12].
Moreover, the study by Wang et al. [13] shows the effects of different EV
powertrain topologies on the energy efficiency, vehicle ownership cost, and life-
cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of EVs. Energy-based vehicle simulation
model proposed include the regenerative braking function and battery degradation
prediction method to be established first. An optimization scheme was used to
combine the energy-based vehicle simulation model in order to minimize the
electric energy consumption under various scenarios and driving conditions.
Ryu et al. [14] focused on possibilities to use a novel fuzzy controller based on
an adaptive membership function for optimum power management of a fuel cell
hybrid electric vehicle (FCHEV). The fuzzy controller is optimized using a genetic
algorithm, and the optimization process is accomplished through simulation (for a
given driving cycle) in order to achieve the best performance in terms of minimum
fuel consumption and State of Charge (SOC) maintenance.
Xie et al. [15] studied the effects a novel fuel cell Li-ion battery hybrid pow-
ertrain using a direct parallel structure with an ultracapacitor bank on vehicle’s
efficiency. ADVISOR simulation tool based on the vehicle model parameters was
used to simulate the powertrain’s energy flow for a specific driving cycle (UDDS
cycle).
The random examples presented above are just a few examples of the many
research studies that use specific tools for modeling and simulation processes of a
vehicle’s component (s) and/or technical systems.
It can be noted that the modeling and simulation processes of any technical
system are important tools in research work, offering a large number of data that can
1 Principles of Modeling and Simulation Processes 7

be investigated and then used further to optimize the functional and technical
parameters of the studied system.
Modeling and simulation approach of technical and functional characteristics
that influence the powertrain is widely presented in the subsequent chapters of this
book. For modeling and simulation processes the software packages CRUISE
(AVL List GmbH) and CarMaker (IPG GmbH) were used. These software pack-
ages were developed for precision applications in analysis and dynamic perfor-
mance of a vehicle’s technical systems.
Detailed methods, methodologies, and approaches to the immediate application
of modeling and simulation processes are presented, to analyze the vehicle’s
technical systems and/or sub-systems of which it is composed, in order to provide a
powerful tool to any researcher that wants to use immediately and apply these
modeling and simulation software packages in research activities.
The structure of each chapter allows any researcher to make easy the process of
modeling and simulation of a vehicle’s technical system, according to its specific
needs and requirements. This is possible due to detailed presentation of the algo-
rithms for construction, operation, and running of the presented models.

References

1. Mariasiu F (2013) Consumers’ Attitudes Related to Biofuel Use in Transportation. Int Rev
Manage Mark 3(1):1–9
2. Mariasiu F (2012) Energy Sources Management and Future Automotive Technologies:
Environmental Impact. Int J Energy econ Policy 2(4):342–347
3. Iclodean CD, Mariasiu F (2014) Possibility to increase biofuels energy efficiency used for
compression ignition engines fueling, TEM J 3(1):36–41
4. Moldovanu D, Burnete N (2013) Computational fluid dynamics simulation of a single cylinder
research engine working with biodiesel. Therm Sci J 17(1):195–203
5. Varga BO (2012) Energy management of electric and hybrid vehicles dependent on
powertrain configuration. Central Eur J Eng 2(2):253–263
6. Varga BO, Iclodean C (2014) Numerical investigation of hybrid electric vehicle’s
performance. Proc Int Cong Sci Manage Automot Transp Eng SMAT 1:27–24
7. Walker PD, Zhang N (2013) Modelling of dual clutch transmission equipped powertrains for
shift transient simulations. Mech Mach Theory 60:47–59
8. Kouroussis G, Dehombreux P, Verlinden O (2015) Vehicle and powertrain dynamics analysis
with an automatic gearbox. Mech Mach Theory 83:109–124
9. Katrasnik T (2007) Hybridization of powertrain and downsizing of IC engine—A way
to reduce fuel consumption and pollutant emissions—Part 1. Energy Convers Manag
48:1411–1423
10. Damiani L, Repetto M, Prato AP (2014) Improvement of powertrain efficiency through energy
breakdown analysis. Appl Energy 121:252–263
11. Klein CE, Bittencourt M, dos Santos Coelho L (2015) Wavenet using artificial bee colony
applied to modeling of truck engine powertrain components. Eng Appl Artif Intell 41:41–55
12. Li L, Zhang Y, Yang C, Jiao X, Zhang L, Song J (2015) Hybrid genetic algorithm-based
optimization of powertrain and control parameters of plug-in hybrid electric bus. J Franklin
Inst 352:776–801
8 1 Principles of Modeling and Simulation Processes

13. Wang B, Xu M, Yang L (2014) Study on the economic and environmental benefits of different
EV powertrain topologies. Energy Convers Manag 86:916–926
14. Ryu J, Park Y, Sunwoo M (2010) Electric powertrain modeling of a fuel cell hybrid electric
vehicle and development of a power distribution algorithm based on driving mode recognition.
J Power Sources 195:5735–5748
15. Xie C, Xu X, Bujlo P, Shen D, Zhao H, Quan S (2015) Fuel cell and lithium iron phosphate
battery hybrid powertrain with an ultra capacitor bank using direct parallel structure. J Power
Sources 279:487–494
Chapter 2
Mathematics Behind the Models

The theory that is presented in this chapter represents the

mathematical models developed by AVL CRUISE team and
points out the characteristic of each vehicle component used in
the models created in the following chapters.

2.1 Vehicle (V)

The Vehicle is one of the main objects in a model. This component contains general
data of the vehicle, such as nominal dimensions and weights. One and only one
vehicle component is needed in the model. Road resistances and dynamic wheel
loads are calculated for road and dynamometer runs based on the dimensions and
the load state. The wheel loads are calculated, taking motion into account (e.g.,
from acceleration, aerodynamic drag, rolling resistance). The aerodynamic, rolling,
climbing, acceleration, and total resistance are calculated [1].

2.1.1 Properties

Switch Variation
With this switch the vehicle can be given free for variation. For the vehicle the drag
coefficient and the vehicle mass can be varied. The setup of the variation parameters
is done in the folder.
Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
Driving Resistance Switches
Activation of one or more of the following five driving resistance models. The
associated resistance model can be calculated in one or more AVL CRUISE

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 9

B.O. Varga et al., Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles,
Green Energy and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-18639-9_2
10 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Calculation Task when selected. Also the required data input for the activated
resistance models has to be done. In every task the selection button ‘Driving
Resistance’ determines which of the activated models will be really used in the task
calculation. Every model which is chosen in a task, has also to be activated in the
vehicle properties window, otherwise the calculation stops with an error message.
Switch Driving Resistance: Physical
The driving resistance is defined by the physical values (drag coefficient, rolling
resistance).
Switch Driving Resistance: Function with Reference Vehicle
The driving resistance is defined by three parameters. The defined values are
converted from the reference vehicle to the actual one.
Switch Driving Resistance: Characteristic with Reference Vehicle
The driving resistance is defined in a characteristic as function of the vehicle
velocity. The defined values are converted from the reference vehicle to the actual
one.
Switch Driving Resistance: Function without Reference Vehicle
The driving resistance is defined by three parameters. The defined values are used
without a reference vehicle.
Switch Driving Resistance: Characteristic without Reference Vehicle
The driving resistance is defined in a characteristic as function of the vehicle
velocity. The defined values are used without a reference vehicle.
Selection Button Driving Resistance Input Options
Standard
From Coasting Characteristic
From Deceleration Interval Characteristic
‘Normal’ input of the required values for Resistance Function or Resistance Table.
Selection Button Driving Resistance Input Options
Standard
From Coasting Characteristic
From Deceleration Interval Characteristic
When the switches ‘Driving Resistance: Function with Reference Vehicle’ or
‘Driving Resistance: Characteristic with Reference Vehicle’ are activated, the
option ‘Driving Resistance from Coasting Characteristic’ can be chosen. By
selecting a conversion button (located at the Coasting Characteristic), the
Resistance Function/Resistance Table is calculated using the values of the Coasting
Characteristic. The Coasting Characteristic is defined by vehicle velocity,
depending on the time since the coasting measurement started.
2.1 Vehicle (V) 11

Selection Button Driving Resistance Input Options

Standard
From Coasting Characteristic
From Deceleration Interval Characteristic
This option is available when the switches ‘Driving Resistance: Function with
Reference Vehicle’ or ‘Driving Resistance: Characteristic with Reference Vehicle’
are activated.
The required values are converted from the so-called ‘Deceleration Interval
Characteristic’; every input row of this characteristic defines the time for a decel-
eration (e.g., velocity interval = 10 km/h) around a specified vehicle velocity. For
example, the defined time at 120 km/h corresponds to the time needed for the
vehicle to decelerate from 125 to 115 km/h. Similar to the conversion from coasting
characteristic, there are options for ‘Truncate left’ and ‘Truncate right’ to cut off
data which might have a bad influence on the conversion results. Additionally, there
is an input field for the definition of the velocity interval.
Selection Button Aerodynamic Coefficients
Drag Coefficient Constant
Additional Aerodynamic Coefficients—Data Bus Dependent
Drag Characteristic
The constantly defined drag coefficient is used for calculation.
Selection Button Aerodynamic Coefficients
Drag Coefficient Constant
Additional Aerodynamic Coefficients—Data Bus Dependent
Drag Characteristic
Further option for modification of aerodynamic parameters (drag coefficient, lift
coefficient front axle and lift coefficient rear axle) which can be modified according
to any Data Bus set value:
that means opening and closing of aerodynamic spoiler as function of any Data Bus set
value (with hysteresis).

Remark: for stationary iterations the upper hysteresis values are used.
Selection Button Aerodynamic Coefficients
Drag Coefficient Constant
Additional Aerodynamic Coefficients—Data Bus Dependent
Drag Characteristic
In this case the drag coefficient is interpolated from the drag characteristic,
depending on the value of the Data Bus input x-axis for drag modification.
12 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Switch Lift Effect Consideration

If this switch is activated, the wheel lift forces are considered in the calculation.
Otherwise there are no lift coefficients required (lift coefficient front axle/lift
coefficient rear axle) and the lift forces are internally set to zero. This switch can
only be activated if the Selection Button Driving Resistance is set to physical or to
Function with reference vehicle or to Function without reference vehicle.
Switch Cornering
With this switch the cornering functionality is activated. In the tasks Cycle Run,
Full Load Acceleration, Cruising and Braking this function can also be activated
and then the Characteristic Values under the influence of the curvature radius for
cornering are computed.
Cornering can only be calculated for the vehicle. If there is a trailer or multi-axle
trailer in the model, this part of the calculation will not be started.
Switch Crosswind Influence
Depending on cornering it is possible to consider the influence of crosswind.
Switch Cold Start Correction 1–5
If one or more of these switches are activated, the cold start factor is multiplied with
the actual fuel consumption if all other selections are done in the right way.
Switch Cycle 1–5
With these switches, up to 5 cycles can be activated for definitions of temperature
characteristics.
Switch Temperature Curve 1–5
With these switches, up to 5 temperature characteristics can be activated for every
activated cycle.
For the tasks ‘Cycle Run’ and ‘Cruising,’ these temperatures can be connected
via Data Bus to different components like the engine. In all these components, the
selections have to be set properly so that the temperature from the Data Bus is used,
e.g., in the engine, Temperature has to be set to from Data Bus.

2.1.2 User-Defined Variables

VN Gas Tank Volume m3

The Tank Volume is the gas (fuel) tank volume of the vehicle. It is used to
calculate the distance range the vehicle can reach with the actual fuel consumption.

ΔTunder-bonnet Temperature Difference Engine/Environment K

Δpunder-bonnet Pressure Difference Engine/Environment mbar
2.1 Vehicle (V) 13

The temperature and the pressure difference serve for the correction of the intake
conditions. The differences in the conditions of the environment and the engine
compartment have to be defined. These values are used in the power correction on
environment conditions (see Chapter ‘Power Correction on Environment
Conditions’ in engine component).
Nominal Dimensions

lV,vcp Distance between Hitch and Front Axle mm

The distance between hitch and front axle is the horizontal distance between the
coupling point for the trailer and the front axle. In the case of a Semi-trailer Truck,
this value can be smaller than the wheel base.

lV,fr Wheel Base mm

Wheel Base is the horizontal distance between the front and the rear axle
(Fig. 2.1).

hV,cd Height of Support Point at Bench Test mm

If the car is driven on a chassis dynamometer the vehicle is fixed somewhere to

the wall. The height of this support point on the vehicle (vertical distance between
the ground and the support point) has to be given here. This is used for the
calculation of the wheel loads because due to this height there is a moment that
affects the wheel loads (Fig. 2.2).

h V,cog
h V,vcp

l V,cog
z
l V,fr
+M
l V,vcp
x

Fig. 2.1 Vehicle nominal dimensions [2]

14 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

+M
x

h V,cd

Fig. 2.2 Support point at bench test [4]

Every calculation can be run with three different load states (zV,load): empty, half,
and full
• Empty: means that the weight of the vehicle equals the Curb weight
• Full: means that the weight of the vehicle equals the Gross weight
• Half: means that the weight of the vehicle equals the middle of the Curb and the
Gross weight
Load-Dependent Characteristics

lV,cog (zV,load) Distance of Gravity Center of the Vehicle Dependent on the Load mm
State
hV,cog (zV,load) Height of Gravity Center of the vehicle dependent on the Load State mm
hV,vcp (zV,load) Height of Hitch dependent on the Load State mm
PV,front (zV,load) Tire Inflation Pressure Front Axle bar
PV,rear (zV,load) Tire Inflation Pressure Rear Axle bar

The load state is defined in the Calculation Task. In addition it is possible to

define an additional mass for the load state empty so that it is possible to define
every different weight of the vehicle.
Due to this different load states some dimensions of the vehicle are changing.
The distance of gravity center is the horizontal distance between the center of
gravity and the front axle.
The height of gravity center is the vertical distance between the ground and the
center of gravity.
And the height of the hitch is the vertical distance between the ground and the
coupling point for the trailer.
2.1 Vehicle (V) 15

If an additional mass is used the dimensions depending on the load state (dis-
tance and height of gravity center, height of hitch) will be interpolated between the
given values.
Nominal Weight

mV,min Curb Weight kg

The Curb weight is the weight of the empty vehicle including a full fuel tank.

mV,zul Gross Weight kg

The Gross weight is the maximum admissible weight of the vehicle.

Air Coefficient

Av Frontal Area m2

The Frontal Area is the cross-sectional area of the vehicle that is used for the
calculation of the air resistance. With the frontal area the influence of the size of the
vehicle is considered.

cV,w Drag Coefficient –

The Drag Coefficient is the factor of the air resistance that depends on the shape
of the vehicle.

cV,a,f Lift Coefficient Front Axle –

cV,a,r Lift Coefficient Rear Axle –

The lift coefficients of the front and the rear axle consider the influence of the
vehicle velocity on the wheel loads. Usually, the wheel loads are getting smaller
with higher velocity. So a positive lift coefficient means that the wheel loads are
decreasing. If the lift coefficients are negative then the wheel loads are increasing
with increasing velocity.
The air resistance acts in the track surface. Therewith the horizontal air resistance
has no influence on the wheel loads. To consider the effects of the different heights
of the real acting point the lift coefficients of the axles have to be used.
Additional Aerodynamic Coefficients—Data Bus Dependent
Further option for modification of aerodynamic parameters (drag coefficient, lift
coefficient front axle, and lift coefficient rear axle) which can be modified according
to the Data Bus input value ‘x-axis for drag modification’:
that means opening and closing of aerodynamic spoiler as function of any Data Bus set
value (with hysteresis).
16 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Threshold Values

λV,ThresholdAscending Threshold Value Ascending –

tV,ascending Time interval of Parameter Modification—Ascending s
λV,a,f Threshold Value Descending –
tV,descending Time interval of Parameter Modification—Descending s

These inputs define the modification behavior of the aerodynamic coefficients

during calculation. The ascending and descending hysteresis threshold values and
the modification time interval have to be defined. The threshold values are related to
the vehicle’s Data Bus input ‘x-axis for drag modification’. The unit of the
threshold values can be defined by the user.
Aerodynamic Coefficients after Threshold

cV,w,dataBusDep Drag Coefficient –

cV,a,f,dataBusDep Lift Coefficient Front Axle –
cV,a,r,dataBusDep Lift Coefficient Rear Axle –

In these table columns the values are defined which the aerodynamic coefficients
will have at the end of the modification time interval.
Lateral Dynamics Vehicle
Chassis Data

tfront,rear Track Width Front/Rear mm

Cα-front,rear Axle Stiffness Front/Rear N/°

Dependent on curvature radius the vehicle must generate lateral forces, which
are impacted by the lateral acceleration. For calculation of the sideslip angle and
thus the steering angle the stiffness of the front and rear axle is needed. For the
calculation of the downforces of each wheel the track width is also needed.
Crosswind Force Data

Lvehicle Total Length m

ALateral Vehicle Lateral Surface m2
l Distance Vehicle Front End—Front Axle m
cS Crosswind Force Coefficient –
cMZ Yaw Moment Coefficient –

The curvature radius is not only responsible for the lateral forces. If cornering is
chosen, the influence of sidewind can be calculated. Dependent on the angle of
approach the above subscripted values are recommended.
2.1 Vehicle (V) 17

Drag Characteristic

cV,w(x) Drag Characteristic as function of a value from the Data bus –

Cold Start Correction—Cycle Dependent

zV,cold,1 Cycle Name 1 –

cV,cold,1(t) Cold Start Factor 1 –
zV,cold,2 Cycle Name 2 –
cV,cold,2(t) Cold Start Factor 2 –
zV,cold,3 Cycle Name 3 –
cV,cold,3(t) Cold Start Factor 3 –
zV,cold,4 Cycle Name 4 –
cV,cold,4(t) Cold Start Factor 4 –
zV,cold,5 Cycle Name 5 –
cV,cold,5(t) Cold Start Factor 5 –

If the switch Drag Characteristic is activated, the drag coefficient is interpolated

from the Drag Characteristic, depending on the value of the Data Bus input
x-axis for drag coefficient. This enables the user to define a drag coefficient, e.g.
temperature dependent.
In addition to the possibility of calculating the higher fuel consumption based
upon the higher friction mean pressure, while the engine is cold there is another
possibility to consider the effects of a cold start. In the vehicle the cold start factors
can be defined for different cycles as a function of time. If the cold start correction
switch is activated the actual fuel consumption is always multiplied with this cold
start factor and gives the higher fuel consumption.
Temperature Curves Cycle 1

zV,temp,1 Cycle Name for Cycle 1 –

TV,temp,1,i(t) Temperature Curve 1,…,5 for Cycle 1 K

Here the time-dependent temperature characteristics for the 1st cycle are defined.
Temperature Curves Cycle 2

zV,temp,2 Cycle Name for cycle 2 –

TV,temp,2,i(t) Temperature Curve 1,…,5 for Cycle 2 K

Here the time-dependent temperature characteristics for the 2nd cycle are
defined.
18 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Temperature Curves Cycle 3

zV,temp,3 Cycle Name for Cycle 3 –

TV,temp,3,i(t) Temperature Curve 1,…,5 for Cycle 3 K

Here the time-dependent temperature characteristics for the 3rd cycle are
defined.
Temperature Curves Cycle 4

zV,temp,4 Cycle Name for Cycle 4 –

TV,temp,4,i(t) Temperature Curve 1,…,5 for a Cycle 4 K

Here the time-dependent temperature characteristics for the 4th cycle are defined.
Temperature Curves Cycle 5

zV,temp,5 Cycle name for Cycle 5 –

TV,temp,5,i(t) Temperature Curve 1,…,5 for Cycle 5 K

Here the time-dependent temperature characteristics for the 5th cycle are defined.
Temperature Values—Cycle Independent

TV,temp,5,i,cycleIndep Temperature cycle independent 1,…,5 K

If one of the ‘Temperature Curves Cycle 1–5’ is used, a cycle independent

temperature has to be defined for the case that further tasks (cycle independent) are
performed or the assigned cycle is not available.
Resistance Function

AV,res Factor 1 of the Resistance Function (Constant Part) N

BV,res Factor 1 of the Resistance Function (Linear Part) Nh/km
CV,res Factor 1 of the Resistance Function (Quadratic Part) Nh2/km2

In addition, the following data of the reference vehicle has to be defined:

mV,ref Weight of the Reference Vehicle kg

AV,ref Frontal Area of the Reference Vehicle m2
cV,w,ref Drag Coefficient of the Reference Vehicle –

The Resistance Function can also be converted from the Coasting Characteristic,
see “Conversion from Coasting Characteristic to Resistance Function/Resistance
Table.”
2.1 Vehicle (V) 19

Resistance Table

FV,res(vV) Driving Resistance as function of vehicle velocity N

In addition, the following data of the reference vehicle have to be defined:

mV,ref Weight kg

The Resistance Table can also be converted from the coasting characteristic, see
“Conversion from Coasting Characteristic to Resistance Function/Resistance Table.”
Conversion from Coasting Characteristic to Resistance Function/Resistance
Table

vV,coasting(t) Coasting Characteristic (vehicle velocity as function of time) m/s

truncVcoasting,left Truncate left %
truncVcoasting,right Truncate right %

When the selection switch ‘Driving Resistance’ is set to ‘Function with

Reference Vehicle’ or ‘Characteristic with Reference Vehicle,’ the option ‘Driving
Resistance from Coasting Characteristic’ can be chosen. By selecting a conversion
button (located at the coasting characteristic), the Resistance Function/Resistance
Table is calculated using the values of the coasting characteristic.
Since the original coasting characteristic is often sensitive at the beginning of the
measurement (small t) or at its end (small v) and these points have a big and
sometimes negative influence on the resulting resistance parabola, there is a pos-
sibility to exclude the ‘disturbing points’ from certain intervals at the beginning or
at the end of the characteristics (defined in the percentage of the whole domain,
usually under 5 %) from the conversion. This is done by defining values for the
fields ‘Truncate left’ and ‘Truncate right’.
It is recommended to always accomplish the conversion into the Resistance
Table first, adjust the ‘excluded’ intervals until the Resistance Table shows a sat-
isfying pattern (without ‘jumps’ at its ends) and then, if needed, make the con-
version into the parabola coefficients.
Conversion from Deceleration Interval Characteristic to Resistance Function/
Resistance Table

vV(t) Coasting Characteristic (vehicle velocity as function of time) m/s

truncVdeceleration,left Truncate left %
truncVdeceleration,right Truncate right %
ΔvVdeceleration(t) Velocity Interval km/h

This feature converts the required values from the so-called ‘Deceleration
Interval Characteristic’; every input row of this characteristic defines the time for a
20 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

deceleration (e.g., velocity interval = 10 km/h) around a specified vehicle velocity.

For example, the defined time at 120 km/h corresponds to the time needed for the
vehicle to decelerate from 125 to 115 km/h. Similar to the conversion from
Coasting Characteristic, there are options for ‘Truncate left’ and ‘Truncate right’ to
cut off data which might have a bad influence on the conversion results.
Additionally, there is an input field for the definition of the velocity interval.

2.1.3 Input and Output Variables

2.1.3.1 Mechanical Connections

sV Distance traveled from the start of the calculation m

vV Velocity m/s
aV Acceleration m/s2
FV Force at the vehicle N

2.1.3.2 Data Input

xV,drag x-Axis For Drag Modification –

2.1.3.3 Data Output

aV Acceleration m/s2
sV Distance m
vV Velocity m/s
TV,temp,cycle,i Temperature Curve 1,…,5 for Cycle i K
PV Power W
PV,loss Power Loss W

2.1.4 Computation of the Module Variables

mV,act Instantaneous vehicle mass kg

hV,cog,act Actual Height of Gravity Center mm
lV,cog,act Actual Distance of Gravity Center mm
FV,air Air drag force N
vU,V,rel Relative wind velocity in vehicle direction m/s
FV,incl Inclination resistance N
(continued)
2.1 Vehicle (V) 21

FV,res Resistance force N

FW,x,f,ax Front axis load N
FW,x,r,ax Rear axis load N
NW,f,r Number of right front wheels –
NW,f,l Number of left front wheels –
NW,r,r Number of right rear wheels –
NW,r,l Number of left rear wheels –
FA Trailer Force N
αU Actual Inclination αU = αU,up + αU,dn rad
FLateral Lateral force N
FWind Lateral force effected by crosswind N
FS,front(rear) Lateral force on the axle front and rear N
αCompass Actual angle rad
αf,r Side slip angle front, rear rad
δ Steering angle rad
β Side slip angle vehicle rad
D Distance vehicle front—pressure point m

2.1.5 Equation System

2.1.5.1 Instantaneous Vehicle Mass

For evaluating the forces, which are acting on the vehicle, the current load conditions
are important. They are specified for each calculated task in two different ways.
(a) Load conditions fixed as load stage [2
The actual vehicle mass


mV;act ¼ mV zV;load ð2:1:1Þ

is determinate by interpolation between the three load stages [2]

empty: ZV;load ¼ 0 ! mV ð0Þ ¼ mV;min

mV;min þ mV;zul
half: ZV;load ¼ 1 ! mV ð1Þ ¼
2
full: ZV;load ¼ 2 ! mV ð2Þ ¼ mV;zul ð2:1:2Þ
22 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

(b) If an additional mass describes the load

The instantaneous vehicle mass is evaluated as followed [2]

mV;act ¼ mV ð0Þ ¼ mV;zul ð2:1:3Þ

2.1.5.2 Number of Wheels

The number of wheels NW,f,r, NW,f,l, NW,r,r and NW,r,l are determined by summation
of all wheels in consideration of their wheel location LW,i.

2.1.5.3 Position of the Total Center of Gravity

The location of acting point of mass forces is necessary for the allocation of the
wheel loads.
We have to distinguish between:
(a) For driving on road [2]

hV;cog;act ¼ hV;cog ðZV;load Þ ð2:1:4Þ

lV;cog;act ¼ lV;cog ðZV;load Þ ð2:1:5Þ

The actual values for the height and the horizontal distance are determined by
interpolation between the three load stages.
(b) For the chassis dynamometer [2]:

hV;cog;act ¼ hV;cd ð2:1:6Þ

For calculations on a chassis dynamometer just the vertical distance of the

actual gravity center and the support point are important.

2.1.5.4 Hitch Force

The force at the vehicle hitch is caused by the mass and resistance force of the
trailer [2]

FA ¼ mA;virt  ½aV þ g  sinðaU Þ þ FA;virt  cosðaU Þ ð2:1:7Þ

2.1 Vehicle (V) 23

2.1.5.5 Dynamic Wheel Loads

Front Axis
The summation of all moments around the contact point between rear wheels and
road has to be zero [2]:
X
Mr;ax ¼ 0 ð2:1:8Þ

Out of this equation we can calculate the load of the front axis [2].
  
lV;cog;act hV;cog;act
Fw;x;f;ax ¼ mV;act 1   g  cos aU   ðaV þ g  sin au Þ
lV;fr lV;fr
 FV;lift;f
ð2:1:9Þ

The load on the front axis is allocated proportionate onto the single front wheels
for the right and the left side.
Right front wheel load [2]:

FW;x;f;ax
FW;x;f;r ¼ ð2:1:10Þ
2  NW;f;r

Left front wheel load [2]:

FW;x;f;ax
FW;x;f;l ¼ ð2:1:11Þ
2  NW;f;l

Rear Axis
The summation of all moments around the contact point between front wheels and
road has to be zero [2]:
X
Mf;ax ¼ 0 ð2:1:12Þ

From this equation we can calculate the load of the rear axis [2].
 
lV;cog;act  g  cos aU hC;cog;act
Fw;x;r;ax ¼ mV;act þ  ðaV þ g  sin aU Þ  FV;lift;r
lV;fr lV;fr
ð2:1:13Þ

The load on the rear axis is allocated proportionate onto the single rear wheels for
the right and the left side.
24 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Right rear wheel load [2]:

FW;x;r;ax
FW;x;r;r ¼ ð2:1:14Þ
NW;r;r

Left rear wheel load [2]:

FW;x;r;ax
FW;x;r;l ¼ ð2:1:15Þ
NW;r;l

2.1.5.6 Resistance Forces

(a) from physical units

The force of resistance is the addition of the air drag force and the longitudinal
force caused by the road inclination. The rolling resistance is calculated
separately for all wheels.
Air Drag [2]
vU;V;rel ¼ vV þ vU;air ð2:1:16Þ

FV;air ¼ 0:5  cw  Av  qU;air  v2U;V;rel ð2:1:17Þ

Inclination Resistance [2]

aU ¼ aU;up þ aU;dn ð2:1:18Þ

FV;incl ¼ mv;act  g  sin aU ð2:1:19Þ

Additional traction or pushing forces are taken into account with the relative
forces kV,add,trac and kV,add,push. They are related to the weight of the vehicle and
their size is fixed by the equation solver for special Calculation Tasks (e.g., Max
Traction Force).
Summation [2]


FV;res ¼ FV;air þ FV;incl þ kv;add;trac þ kv;add;push  mV;act  g ð2:1:20Þ

(a) from Resistance Function with reference vehicle

The parameters CA, CB, and CC are entered. Out of these values the driving
resistance function can be defined as followed [2]:
2.1 Vehicle (V) 25

mact mact cW  A
FV;res ¼  cA þ  cB  vV þ  cC  v2V ð2:1:21Þ
mref mref cW;ref  Aref

(b) from Resistance Table with reference vehicle

The driving resistance curve is defined as force versus vehicle velocity. From
this table the constant and proportional part can be evaluated.
For the reference vehicle mass can be calculated [2]:

 ð vV Þ
F ð vÞ ¼ A þ B  v V þ F ð2:1:22Þ

for vV ¼ 0 ! A ¼ F ðvV ¼ 0Þ ð2:1:23Þ

B ¼ F 0 ðvV ¼ 0Þ ð2:1:24Þ

These parts are related to the actual vehicle mass and they can be handled
separately.
The function part of higher order is calculated [2]:

 ðvV Þ ¼ F ðvV Þ  A  B  vV
F ð2:1:25Þ

Now the actual resistance force can be evaluated for each time step [2]:
mact  ð vV Þ
FV;res ¼  ðA þ B  vV Þ þ F ð2:1:26Þ
mref


FV;res;ges ¼ FV;res þ FV;incl þ km;add;trac þ km;add;push  mV;act  g ð2:1:27Þ

(c) from Resistance Function without reference vehicle

The parameters CA, CB, and CC are entered. Out of these values the driving
resistance function can be defined as followed [2]:

FV;res ¼ cA þ cB  vV þ cC  v2V ð2:1:28Þ

(d) from Resistance Table without reference vehicle

The driving resistance curve is defined as force versus vehicle velocity. From
this table the constant and proportional part can be evaluated [2].

 ð vV Þ
F ð v Þ ¼ A þ B  vV þ F ð2:1:29Þ

for vV ¼ 0 ! A ¼ F ðvV ¼ 0Þ ð2:1:30Þ

B ¼ F 0 ðvV ¼ 0Þ ð2:1:31Þ
26 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

These parts are related to the actual vehicle mass and they can be handled
separately.
The function part of higher order is calculated [2]:

 ð v V Þ ¼ F ð vV Þ  A  B  vV
F ð2:1:32Þ

Now the actual resistance force can be evaluated for each time step [2]:

 ðv V Þ
FV;res ¼ ðA þ B  vV Þ þ F ð2:1:33Þ


FV;res;ges ¼ FV;res þ FV;incl þ km;add;trac þ km;add;push  mV;act  g ð2:1:34Þ

2.1.5.7 Conversion from Coasting Characteristic to Resistance

Function/Resistance Table

After derivation and t-variable substitution, the coasting characteristic v ¼ f ðtÞ is

transferred to the characteristic a ¼ f ðvÞ.
Multiplying the characteristic with the vehicle mass, the resistance characteristic
F = f(v) is obtained.
This characteristic is approximated with a parabola F ¼ A þ B  v þ C  v2 using
the least square method.

2.1.5.8 Lateral Force

For the calculation of cornering there are some restrictions:

• Steady state cornering
• Linearization for small angle
• Linear approach for lateral forces
• No changes of the gravity center
• Wheels of the axle assembled at the axle middle
• No influence between lateral and radial forces
With the following points the parameters of cornering are calculated:
(1) The sum of the lateral forces are [2]:
2.1 Vehicle (V) 27

Flateral ¼ Fs;q þ Fs;wind þ Fs;b ð2:1:35Þ

The single parts of the lateral forces can be calculated by the following
formulas:
Front (rear) axle force by lateral acceleration [2]:

mVehicle  v2Vehicle NfrontðrearÞ

FfrontðrearÞ;lateral;q ¼  ð2:1:36Þ
q NVehicle

If required, the lateral force influence by wind can be computed by [2]:

 
v2Wind

Fs;Wind ¼ cs  q   AS  sin aCompass þ bslip ð2:1:37Þ
2

The angle αCompass is the angle of the vehicle since starting (which could
change). The start value can be chosen under Wind Velocity.
Lateral force influence by sideslip angle [2].
 2 
vVehicle

Fs;b ¼ cs  q   AS  sin bslip ð2:1:38Þ
2

The pressure point of the crosswind is important for the splitting on the axles
of crosswind force. It is measured from the front of the vehicle [2].
cMZ
dlateral ¼ l  ð2:1:39Þ
cs

Front axle lateral force by crosswind [2]:

dlateral  lfront;frontaxle

FS;front ¼  Fs;Wind þ Fs;b ð2:1:40Þ
bwheelbase

Rear axle lateral force by crosswind [2]:

bwheelbase  dlateral þ lfront;frontaxle 

FS;rear ¼  Fs,Wind þ Fs;b ð2:1:41Þ
bwheelbase

(2) The change of downforces of each under influence of the curvature.

The summation of all moments around the contact point between right (left)
wheels and road has to be zero [2]:
X
Mf;ðrÞ;ax ¼ 0 ð2:1:42Þ

Downforce wheel right (left) front [2]:

28 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

hGC
FD;f;rðlÞ ¼ FD;f;rðlÞ  ðþÞ  FS;front ð2:1:43Þ
tf

Downforce wheel right (left) rear [2]:

hGC
FD;r;rðlÞ ¼ FD;r;rðlÞ  ðþÞ  FS;rear ð2:1:44Þ
tr

(3) Sideslip angel front (rear) under the influence of the radial force [2]:
FS;fðrÞ
ca
afðrÞ ¼ Fradial;fðrÞ ð2:1:45Þ
1 þ ca

(4) Ackermann angle [2]:

bWheelbase
aackermann ¼ ð2:1:46Þ
q
(5) Steering angle [2]:
aackermann
d¼ Fradial;f þ af  ar ð2:1:47Þ
1þ ca
(6) Slip angle [2]:

bwheelbase  lGC
b¼  ar ð2:1:48Þ
d

2.2 Clutch (C)

Stationary idle, transition to motion and interruption of the power flow are all made
possible by the clutch. The clutch slips to compensate for the difference in the
rotational speeds of engine and drivetrain when the vehicle is set in motion. When a
change in operation conditions makes it necessary to change gears, the clutch
disengages the engine from the drivetrain for the duration of the procedure.
The clutch contains a model for a friction clutch as it is used in cars with manual
gearboxes. In this case the clutch is controlled by the driver via the cockpit [1].
The last possibility of using the clutch is together with a CVT gearbox. There it
is only necessary for starting. In this case the clutch is controlled by the control
module CVT control [1].
2.2 Clutch (C) 29

2.2.1 Properties

Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
Selection Button Model
simple
detailed
For the simple model of the clutch the maximum transferable torque has to be
defined.
Selection Button Model
simple
detailed
At the detailed model of the clutch the transferable torque is derived from the
geometric data of the clutch as well as from the friction characteristic.
Selection Button Control Variable
Desired Clutch Release
Desired Torque
This is the ‘usual’ selection where the clutch gets the value of the desired clutch
release. Therefore, the Data Bus input Desired Clutch Release has to be connected.
Selection Button Control Variable
Desired Clutch Release
Desired Torque
This mode considers the desired torque to be transmitted. Therefore, the Data Bus
input.
Torque Demand has to be connected.
Switch Dynamic Mode
If this switch is activated the clutch calculation always stays dynamic and never
switches to a kinematic connection.
Switch Free Definable Friction Characteristic
If this switch is activated and depending on whether ‘simple’ or ‘detailed’ model
has been chosen, the characteristic ‘Maximum Transferable Torque’ overslip, or the
characteristic ‘Friction Coefficient’ overslip can be defined.
30 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.2.2 User-Defined Variables

rC,I Inner Radius mm

rC,o Outer Radius mm

With these values the mean radius of the clutch is calculated.

Nc Number of Sets of Frictional Surfaces –

The number of sets of frictional surfaces is equal to the number of the clutch
disks. In the calculation every disk is set with two frictional surfaces.

μC,fric Friction Coefficient sticking –

κC,fric Friction Coefficient Ratio slipping/sticking –
PC,fric Form Parameter rad/s

From these values the friction characteristic of the clutch is determined. The
input of the two friction coefficients is only necessary if the switch ‘Free definable
Friction Characteristic’ is deactivated (Fig. 2.3).

θC,in Inertia Moment on the drive side kg m2

θC,out Inertia Moment on the power take-off side kg m2
MC,max Maximum Transferable Torque Nm

The maximum transferable torque is the maximum torque the clutch can transfer
between the drive and the power take-off side. Its input is only necessary if the
switch ‘Free definable Friction Characteristic’ is deactivated.
Pressure Force

Fc(sc) Pressure Force as a Function of the Clutch Release N

The pressure force is the axial force the frictional surfaces are pressed together.
This pressure force depends on the clutch release. With the pressure force it is
possible to calculate the transmitted torque by considering the dimensions.

θ C,in θ C,out
MC,in MC,out
MC

Fig. 2.3 Friction clutch model [2]

2.2 Clutch (C) 31


MC;max u_ c;rel Maximum Transferable Torque overslip –

This characteristic is only required if the selection button ‘model’ is set to

‘simple’ and the switch ‘Free definable Friction Characteristic’ is activated.


lC u_ c;rel Friction Coefficient over slip –

This characteristic is only required if the selection button ‘model’ is set to

‘detailed’ and the switch ‘Free definable Friction Characteristic’ is activated.

2.2.3 Input and Output Variables

2.2.3.1 Mechanical Connection

u_ C;in Angular velocity on the drive side rad/s

€ C;in
u Angular acceleration on the drive side rad/s2
u_ C;out Angular velocity on the power take-off side rad/s
€ C;out
u Angular acceleration on the power take-off side rad/s2
MC,in Torque on the drive side Nm
MC,out Torque on the power take-off side Nm

2.2.3.2 Data Input

SC,act Desired Clutch Release –

MC,desired Desired Torque Nm

2.2.3.3 Data Output

SC,act Actual Clutch Release –

MC Clutch Torque Nm
u_ C;in Input Speed rad/s
u_ C;out Output Speed rad/s
PC,in Input Power W
PC,out Output Power W
PC,loss Power Loss W
32 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.2.4 Computation Variables

u_ C;rel Relative speed of the clutch rad/s

μC,st Stick Friction Coefficient –
μC,sl Slip friction coefficient –
CC Friction gradient –
μc,act Actual friction coefficient –
FC,act Actual clamping force N
MC Transmitted torque Nm

2.2.5 Equation System

Friction Coefficient
Friction coefficient has to be evaluated for stick and slid friction. Which value is
taken in consideration depends on the circumstances that the clutch is locked or
unlocked.
They are fixed in the code with the following values:

lC;st ¼ 0:4 friction coefficient sticking

lC;sl ¼ lC;st  0:8 friction coefficient slipping

Mean effective radius of the clutch

The mean effective radius is the fictive radius, in which the friction force is acting [2]:

MC;max
rC;m ¼ ð2:2:1Þ
NC  lC;st  FC

Actual friction coefficient

The relative speed between clutch in and out is determined [2].

u_ C;rel ¼ u_ C;in  u_ C;out ð2:2:2Þ

The friction gradient is also fixed in the code for typical conditions:

CC ¼ 0:01

The actual friction coefficient is calculated by using the following formula [2]:


 ju_ c;rel jCC
l
c;st lc;sl
lC;act ¼ lC;sl þ lC;st  lC;sl  e ð2:2:3Þ
2.2 Clutch (C) 33

Actual Clamping force

Evaluation of the actual clamping force FC,act by interpolating out of the map FC(SC)
for the actual clutch release.
Transmitted Torque MC
The transmitted torque is the torque value which goes through the clutch from the
into the outside.
For the sliding clutch it is the possible moment limited by the friction [2]:

MC ¼ lC;act  rC;m  FC;act  NC ð2:2:4Þ

For the adhering clutch the clutch torque is determinate by the value which is
applied by the system [2]:

MC ¼ MC;in  MC;out ð2:2:5Þ

Detection of sliding and adhesion

The clutch will slide as long these conditions are fulfilled:

MC;in  MC;out  jMC j _ u_ C;rel [ 0 _ SC;art [ 0:8 ð2:2:6Þ

The clutch will adhere for the following condition

MC;in  MC;out \jMC j ^ u_ C;rel \ 0:01 ^ SC;act \ 0:8 ð2:2:7Þ

2.3 Torque Converter (T)

Torque converters employ the force represented by a moving fluid to transmit engine
torque. Because these devices compensate for differences in the rotating speeds of
engine and drivetrain, they are ideal for effecting the transition from stationary to
mobile operation. The torque converter also multiplies torque. First an impeller
(pump) converts the mechanical energy emanating from the power unit into fluid
energy (hydraulic fluid—ATF—is the preferred medium); a second transformation,
back into mechanical energy, occurs at the blades within the turbine [1].
Among the benefits offered by torque converters are the following attributes:
infinitely variable, stepless variations in torque and rpm, vibration insulation,
absorption of torque peaks, and virtually wear-free power transfer [1].
These devices offer economical operation when used together with mechanical
variable-ratio transmissions; operation with nonpositive engagement (slip) is lim-
ited in the interests of efficiency [1].
The converter contains a model for a torque converter as it is, e.g., used in
vehicles with automatic gearboxes. For computing the output variables, the various
characteristic curves of the converter are used. The characteristic curves are usually
34 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Lock-up Clutch

MT,lc
MT,in MT,out Power Take-off
Drive Side Side

MT,p MT,h

Torque Converter

Fig. 2.4 Torque Converter with lock-up clutch model [2]

stationary. Normally, the deviation from dynamic characteristic curves is minor. If

dynamic characteristic curves are known, they may be used [1].
The component torque converter also contains a lock-up clutch (Fig. 2.4). This
lock-up clutch is in parallel to the torque converter and serves for lower losses in the
torque converter because the slip is suppressed. The lock-up clutch has to be
controlled by the control module clutch control [1].

2.3.1 Properties

Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
Switch Use for Reference
At the task Climbing Performance the maximum gradients are only calculated for
the coupling part (torque multiplication equals zero). If more than one torque
converter is in the model, the reference torque converter has to be determined with
this switch. This means that from this torque converter the coupling part is deter-
mined, for which the gradients are calculated.
Selection Button Lock-up Friction Model
Linear
Simple
In this case the ‘default’ model is used: the maximum transferable torque of the
lock-up clutch is calculated linearly through the clutch release value.
Selection Button Lock-up Friction Model
Linear
Simple
In this case the friction model of the clutch component is used.
2.3 Torque Converter (T) 35

2.3.2 User-Defined Variables

Selection Button Input options
Torque Conversion
Cf-Curve
K-Curve
In this case, the pump torque has to be defined as a function of the speed ratio at
reference speed.
Selection Button Input options
Torque Conversion
Cf-Curve
K-Curve
In this case, the Cf-values have to be defined as a function of the speed ratio.
Selection Button Input options
Torque Conversion
Cf-Curve
K-Curve
In this case, the K-factors have to be defined as a function of the speed ratio.

θT,p,oil Inertia Moment of the Pump (with oil share) kg m2

θT,h,oil Inertia Moment of the Turbine (with oil share) kg m2

The mass moments of inertia of the pump and the turbine side are given with the
oil share.

u_ T;p;n Reference Speed rad/s

The reference angular velocity is the speed where the table for the torque con-
version is measured. Reference speed means that throughout the whole measuring
process the pump speed was fixed at this special reference angular velocity. For
other pump speeds the corresponding values are extrapolated.

MT,lock-up,max Maximum Torque Lock-up Clutch Nm

The maximum lock-up torque is the maximum torque that can be transferred via
the lock-up clutch.
This torque can be transferred if the clutch is completely closed. If the clutch is
closed partly (controlled operation; refer to component Clutch Program (CP) for
more information), a correspondingly lower torque can be transferred.
Torque Conversion

iT,Tor(iT,Sp) Torque Ratio as a function of the Speed Ratio at Reference Speed –

36 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Torque
Ratio

0
0 1 Speed Ratio

Fig. 2.5 Torque Ratio as function of the speed ratio [2]

The torque ratio is the division between the turbine torque and the pump torque.
It depends on the speed ratio which is the division between the turbine and the
pump speed. The torque ratio is nearly one throughout the whole speed ratio. Only
when the speed ratio is nearly zero the torque ratio is increasing (refer to Fig. 2.5).
Torque Curve

MT,Pump(iT,Sp) Pump Torque as a function of the Speed Ratio at Reference Speed Nm

These values are required when the selection button Input options is set to
torque curve. The pump torque is the transferable torque between the pump and the
turbine. It is a function of the speed ratio. At the speed ratio one, i.e., there is no
difference in speed between the pump and the turbine, the pump torque is zero. If
the speed ratio is between zero and one (the pump drives the turbine), the pump
torque is positive. If the speed ratio is above one (the turbine drives the pump), the
pump torque is negative.
In addition, there is a dependence on the ratio between the pump speed and the
reference speed. This is calculated in the following way [2]:
!2
u_ T;Pump
MT;Pump;act ¼ MT;Pump  ð2:3:1Þ
u_ T;P;n

MT;Pump;act Transferable Torque at the actual pump speed

u_ T;Pump Actual Pump Speed

Cf-Curve

iT,Tor (iT) Torque Ratio as a function of the Speed Ratio –

CfT (iT) Cf-Values as a function of the Speed Ratio kp.m.106/(1/min)2
2.3 Torque Converter (T) 37

These values are required when the selection button Input options is set to
Cf-Curve. In the calculation core, the Cf-values are converted to the pump torque
assuming the reference speed as being 2000 rpm.
The relation between the Cf-values and the pump torque at reference speed is
described by the following equation [2]:

M T;Pump;act  106
Cf T ¼ ð2:3:2Þ
u_ 2T;Pump

K-Curve

iT,Tor (iT) Torque Ratio as a function of the Speed Ratio –

KT (iT) K-Values as a function of the Speed Ratio (1/min)/Nm0.5

These values are required when the selection button Input options is set to
K-Curve. In the calculation core, the K-factors are converted to the pump torque
assuming the reference speed is 2000 rpm.
The relation between the K-factors and the pump torque at reference speed is
described by the following equation [2]:

u_ T;Pump
KT ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð2:3:3Þ
MT;Pump;act

The K-values can only be positive (due to their definition). AVL CRUISE calcu-
lates pump torque for speed ratios above 1 by mirroring the pump torque around the
point (1/0) in the speed ratio—pump torque—plane.

2.3.3 Input and Output Variables

2.3.3.1 Mechanical Connection

u_ T;in Angular velocity on the drive side rad/s

€ T;in
u Angular acceleration on the drive side rad/s2
u_ T;out Angular velocity on the power take-off side rad/s
€ T;out
u Angular acceleration on the power take-off side rad/s2
MT,in Input torque Nm
MT,out Output torque Nm
38 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.3.3.2 Data Input

ZT Desired Clutch Release –

CT Modification of Torque Multiplication –

2.3.3.3 Data Output

MT,clutch,act Clutch Torque Nm

u_ T;Pump Pump Speed rad/s
MT,pump,act Pump Torque Nm
u_ T;turb Turbine Speed rad/s
MT,turb,act Turbine Torque Nm
u_ T;Mp2000 Mp2000 (Pump torque at pump speed 2000) Nm
€ T;in
u Pump Acceleration rad/s2
€ T;out
u Turbine Acceleration rad/s2
vT,act Speed Conversion –
μT,act Torque Conversion –
PT,in Pump Power W
PT,out Turbine Power W
PT,loss Power Loss W

2.3.4 Computation Variables

u_ T;rel Difference of angular velocities between in and off side rad/s

KT,scale Scale factor –
vT,act Instantaneous speed conversion –
μT,act Instantaneous torque conversion –
MT,pump,nom Pump torque at nominal pump speed Nm
MT,pum,actp Actual pump torque Nm
MT,turbin,acte Actual turbine torque Nm
MT,clutch,act Actual clutch torque (lockup) Nm
MT,trans Transmittable torque of the converter with lock-up clutch on the pump Nm
side
2.3 Torque Converter (T) 39

2.3.5 Equation System

2.3.5.1 Converter Torque

The torque on the converter input and output depends on the speed ratio between
pump and turbine as well on the absolute angular velocity of the pump.
Speed Ratio
This is the difference between the angular velocities of the clutch input and output
side.
The actual speed ratio is evaluated:
(1) For pump speed is zero u_ T;in ¼ 0 [2]:
(a) (u_ T;out \0)

mT;act ¼ iT;Tor ð1Þ ð2:3:4Þ

(b) (u_ T;out [ 0)

mT;act ¼ iT;Tor ðmaxÞ ð2:3:5Þ

(c) (u_ T;out ¼ 0)

mT;act ¼ 1 ð2:3:6Þ


(2) With an input speed not equal zero u_ T;in 6¼ 0 [2]:

u_ T;out
mT;act ¼ ð2:3:7Þ
u_ T;in
Pump Torque
Now the transferable torque can be evaluated with a liner interpolation for the pump
torque map [2]:


MT;pump;nom ¼ MT;pump vT;act ð2:3:8Þ

The scale factor KT,scale is for transformation from the nominal pump to the actual
pump speed [2]:

u_ T;in
KT;scale ¼ ð2:3:9Þ
u_ T;p;n

The transformation is done in the following way [2]:

40 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

MT;pump;act ¼ MT;pump;nom  KT;scale

2
ð2:3:10Þ

Turbine Torque
With a linear interpolation in the torque ratio map we evaluate the actual torque
ratio between pump and turbine [2]:


 
lT;act ¼ CT  iT;Tor vT;act  1 þ 1 ð2:3:11Þ

The actual turbine torque is determinate by the formula [2]:

MT;turb;act ¼ MT;pump;act  lT;act ð2:3:12Þ

Clutch Torque
The clutch torque is the transmitted torque of the lock-up clutch. If the lock-up
clutch is acting the whole transmitted torque is split into the pump-turbine part and
the clutch part. The size of the transmittable clutch torque depends linear on the
clutch release [2].

MT;clutch;act ¼ MT;clutch;max  ZT ð2:3:13Þ

Transmittable Torque
The transmittable torque of the converter is the summation of the actual pump and
the clutch torque [2].

MT;trans ¼ MT;pump;act þ MT;clutch;act ð2:3:14Þ

Detection of locked or unlocked clutch

The lock-up clutch will slide as long these conditions are fulfilled [2]:

MT;in  MT;out  jMT j r u_ T;rel [ 0 _ ST;act [ 0:8 ð2:3:15Þ

The clutch will adhere for the following condition [2]:

MT;in  MT;out \jMT j D u_ T;rel \0:01 ^ ST;act \0:8 ð2:3:16Þ

2.4 Gearbox (G)

Gear transmissions featuring several fixed ratios can maintain a correspondence

between the respective performance curves for engine and vehicle. The corre-
spondence with the hyperbola for maximum engine output will be acceptable or
indeed quite good, depending upon a multiplicity of factors including the number of
2.4 GearBox (G) 41

available gears, the spacing of the individual ratios within the required conversion
range and the engine’s full load torque curve [1].
The component Gearbox contains a model for a gearbox with different gear steps.
You can define as many gears as you want. For every gear it is possible to define the
transmission ratio, the mass moments of inertia, and the moment of loss [1].
In the component for manual gearboxes, the engine torque will be turned into a
power take-off torque by considering the transmission, the mass moments of inertia,
and the moment of loss [1].
The gearbox can be used for a manual or automatic gearbox. When used as an
automatic gearbox, the gear shifting process will be controlled by the control
module gearbox control or gearbox program. The driver will do this task when used
as a manual gearbox [1].

2.4.1 Properties

Switch Variation
The gearbox can be given free for variation with this switch. For the gearbox, the
transmission ratio can be changed by multiplication with an additional factor. The
setup of the variation parameters is done in the folder.
Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
Switch Gear Shift Time
If this switch is activated, the map for the gear shift times is used during calculation.
Selection Button Losses
Deactivated
Efficiency
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map with Torque Division
Torque Loss Map with Torque and Speed Division
Torque Loss Map temperature dependent
In this case no losses are calculated in the gearbox.
Selection Button Losses
Deactivated
Efficiency
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map with Torque Division
Torque Loss Map with Torque and Speed Division
Torque Loss Map temperature dependent
42 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

In this case, the losses are calculated by a constant efficiency which only depends
on the gear position.
Selection Button Losses
Deactivated
Efficiency
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map with Torque Division
Torque Loss Map with Torque and Speed Division
Torque Loss Map temperature dependent
In this case, the losses are calculated by the efficiency which only depends on the
gear position and by a torque loss map which depends on the gear position and the
drive speed.
Selection Button Losses
Deactivated
Efficiency
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map with Torque Division
Torque Loss Map with Torque and Speed Division
Torque Loss Map temperature dependent
In this case the losses are interpolated out of a torque loss map, which depends on
the gear position, the drive speed, and the drive torque. At the torque and speed
division a special approximation of the maps is made by cutting through the map at
the defined torque and speed values.
Selection Button Losses
Deactivated
Efficiency
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map with Torque Division
Torque Loss Map with Torque and Speed Division
Torque Loss Map temperature dependent
In this case, the losses are calculated with the usage of up to 5 torque loss maps
Gear Losses Temperature Dependent where each map is associated with a
user-defined constant temperature value. An interpolation between these maps is
done so that for every time step a torque loss can be generated.
The temperature used in the calculation comes through the Data Bus input
Temperature of the component Gearbox. For example, it could be connected with
one of the up to 5 cycle-dependent temperature characteristics in the component
Vehicle.
2.4 GearBox (G) 43

Selection Button Gear Shifting Losses

Deactivated
Efficiency
In this case, no gear shifting losses are calculated.
Selection Button Gear Shifting Losses
Deactivated
Efficiency
When this option is activated, the efficiencies for upshifting and for downshifting
have to be defined for every gear. With this information the losses during the
shifting processes are calculated. This is only done for Automatic Transmission
Models.
Switch Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Here a temperature-dependent torque loss map can be activated.
Switch Efficiency Map (for Torque Loss Maps)
When this switch is activated, the efficiency can be entered in a separate table
instead of the torque loss. After pushing the button Conversion Efficiency in Torque
Loss, the torque loss map is created automatically.
Switches Torque Loss Map 1, …, 5
With these switches, for up to 5 temperature levels the associated loss maps can be
activated. This selection is only available if the selection button Losses is set to
Torque Loss Map temperature dependent.
Selection Button Torque Loss Partition
Deactivated
Torque Partition
Torque and Speed Partition
In this case no partition of torque or speed is done. This selection is only available if
the selection button Losses is set to Torque Loss Map temperature dependent.
Selection Button Torque Loss Partition
Deactivated
Torque Partition
Torque and Speed Partition
In this case a torque partition is done. A special approximation of the maps is made
by cutting through the map at the defined torque values. This selection is only
available if the selection button Losses is set to Torque Loss Map temperature
dependent.
Selection Button Torque Loss Partition
Deactivated
Torque Partition
Torque and Speed Partition
In this case a torque and speed partition is done. A special approximation of the
maps is made by cutting through the map at the defined torque and speed values.
44 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

This selection is only available if the selection button Losses is set to Torque Loss
Map temperature dependent.
Table Numerical Values of the Torque Loss Partition
For the torque and the speed range the borders for activation and deactivation can
be defined here. The values are defined in percentage of the maximum torque and
speed values.

2.4.2 User-Defined Variables

Gear Ratio Table

NG Gear Position –

The input stands for the gear number (1 for 1st gear, 2 for 2nd gear,…). Zero
means the neutral gear. It has always the transmission one. This neutral gear is
needed to consider the mass moments of inertia when the vehicle is only rolling.
The program determines the number of gear steps automatically.

iG[NG] Transmission Ratios in the single gear steps –

The transmissions can be defined for the different gear positions. However the
transmission for the neutral gear (gear position 0) has to be 1. If the number of teeth
is defined, the transmission ratio of each gear step is automatically determined.

HG;in ½NG  Inertia Moment on the drive side of the gearbox kg m2

HG;out ½NG  Inertia Moment on the power take-off side of the gearbox kg m2

The mass moments of inertia on the drive and the power take-off sides can be
defined different for each single gear step. But it is also possible to define the same
mass moments of inertia for every single gear step.

gG;i ½NG  Number of Teeth Input –

gG;o ½NG  Number of Teeth Output –

The number of teeth can be defined here. If the user puts in the transmission
ratio, AVL CRUISE detects automatically the best fitting number of teeth to get the
defined transmission ratio. If it is not possible to get the transmission ratio exactly a
suggestion is made for number of teeth which gives the closest possible trans-
mission ratio.
2.4 GearBox (G) 45

Gear Shift Time

tG;up ½NG  Time Upshifting s

tG;down ½NG  Time Downshifting s

If the switch Gear Shift Time is activated, the map of the times for upshifting
and downshifting dependent on the actual gear number is used. For gears where
times are not defined, a default value of 0.1 s is assumed.
Gear Shifting Efficiency for AT Models

gG;upshifting ðNG Þ Efficiency Upshifting (depending on gear) –

gG;downshifting ðNG Þ Efficiency Downshifting (depending on gear) –

When the selection button Gear Shifting Losses is set to Efficiency, the losses
during the shifting processes are calculated.
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction

gG;V;3 ðN G Þ Efficiency in the single gear steps –

The efficiency can be defined separately for the single gear steps. This infor-
mation is used if the selection button Losses is set to Efficiency or Efficiency and
Torque Loss.


M G;V;3 u_ G;in ; N G Torque Loss in the single gear steps Nm

The additional torque loss is defined dependent on the gear step and the drive
speed of the gearbox. These values are used if the selection button Losses is set to
Efficiency and Torque Loss.
Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent


M G;V;4 u_ G;in ; N G;TG Torque Loss temperature dependent Nm

This table is used if the switch Temperature dependent Torque Loss is

activated.
If the selection button Losses is set to Efficiency and Torque Loss this map
replaces the general torque loss definition. If the selection button Losses is set to
Torque Loss Map a correction of the torque loss is made.
46 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Torque Loss Map


MG;V;2 u_ G;in ; MG;in ; NG Torque Loss in the single gear steps Nm

The torque losses are defined for every single gear step also considering the
drive speed and the drive torque of the gearbox.
This map is used if the selection button Losses is set to Torque Loss Map,
Torque Loss Map with Torque Division, or Torque Loss Map with Torque and
Speed Division.
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent

TG,i Temperature i = 1, …, 5 °C

For each activated, temperature dependent torque loss map, the temperature level
has to be specified.


M G;V;5;i u_ G;in;i ; M G;in ; N G; i Torque loss map temperature dependent i = 1,…,5 Nm

Here for each activated temperature-dependent torque loss map and for the
specified temperature level, the losses are defined depending on speed, input torque
and gear. This is only required if the selection button Losses is set to Torque Loss
Map temperature dependent.
When the switch Efficiency Map (for Torque Loss Maps) is activated, the
efficiency for gear losses and temperature-dependent gear losses can be entered in a
separate table instead of the torque loss. After pushing the button Conversion
Efficiency in Torque Loss, the torque loss map is created automatically.

2.4.3 Input and Output Variables

2.4.3.1 Mechanical Connections

u_ G;in Angular velocity on the drive side rad/s

€ G;in
u Angular acceleration on the drive side rad/s2
MG,in Torque on the drive side Nm
€ G;out
u Angular velocity on the power take-off side rad/s
uG;out Angular acceleration on the power take-off side rad/s2
MG,out Torque on the power take-off side Nm
2.4 GearBox (G) 47

2.4.3.2 Data Input

NG,shift Desired Gear –

TG Temperature °C
tG,delay Time Delay Gear Dependent s

2.4.3.3 Data Output

NG,act Current Gear –

u_ G;out Output Speed rad/s
MG,out Output Torque Nm
u_ G;in Input Speed rad/s
MG,in Input Torque Nm
iG,act Current Transmission Ratio –
PG,in Input Power W
PG,out Output Power W
PG,loss Power Loss W

2.4.4 Computation Variables

iG,act Actual gear ratio –

MG,loss,nom Nominal loss moment Nm
MG,loss Actual loss moment Nm
MG,loss,n Rotational speed contribution to the loss moment Nm
ƞG Actual efficiency of the gearbox –

2.4.5 Equation System

Actual Gear Ratio

Acquisition of the instantaneous transmission [2]:

iG;act ¼ iG NG;act ð2:4:1Þ

48 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Angular Velocity and Acceleration

Computation of the instantaneous angular velocity and the angular acceleration on
the power take-off side of the gearbox [2]:

u_ in
u_ out ¼ ð2:4:2Þ
iG;act

€ in
u
€ out ¼
u ð2:4:3Þ
iG;act

Inertia Moments
The mass moments of inertia are also selected out of the table [2].

HG;in;act ¼ HG;in NG;act ð2:4:4Þ

HG;out;act ¼ HG;out NG;act ð2:4:5Þ

Torque Loss
There are four kinds to take the torque loss of the gearbox in consideration.
(1) Calculation without losses (ZG,i = 1) [2]

MG;loss ¼ 0 ð2:4:6Þ

gG ¼ 1 ð2:4:7Þ

(2) Calculation with use of the torque loss map (ZG,i = 2)

The nominal loss moment is linear interpolated in the loss map [2]:


MG;loss;nom ¼ MG;V;2 u_ G;in ; MG;in ; NG;act ð2:4:8Þ

Is the simulation done with temperature-dependent losses then an additional

part is added [2]:



MG;loss;nom ¼ MG;V;2 u_ G;in ; MG;in ; NG;act þ MG;V;4 u_ G;in ; NG ; TG ð2:4:9Þ

The efficiency is now calculated as follows [2]:

MG;loss;nom
gG ¼ 1  ð2:4:10Þ
MG;in
2.4 GearBox (G) 49

(3) Calculation with use of the efficiency value and the torque loss (ZG,i = 3)
The rotational speed contribution to the torque loss is linear interpolated in
the loss curve [2]:


MG;loss;n ¼ MG;V;3 u_ G;in ; NG;act ð2:4:11Þ

Is the simulation done with temperature-dependent losses then the torque loss
is interpolated out of the map MG,V,4 (u_ G;in ; NG ; TG ) [2]:


MG;loss;n ¼ MG;V;4 u_ G;in ; NG;act ; TG ð2:4:12Þ

Also the efficiency value is selected for the actual gear [2]:

gG ¼ gG;V;3 ðNG;act Þ ð2:4:13Þ

The actual torque loss is evaluated as followed [2]:

MG;loss ¼ MG;in  ð1  gG Þ þ MG;loss;n ð2:4:14Þ

(4) Calculation with use of the efficiency value (ZG,i = 4)

The efficiency value is selected for the actual gear [2]:

gG ¼ gG;V;3 ðNG;act Þ ð2:4:15Þ

The actual torque loss is evaluated as followed [2]:

MG;loss ¼ MG;in  ð1  gG Þ ð2:4:16Þ

2.5 CVT—Continuously Variable Transmission (H)

By means of this component, an infinitely variable CVT gearbox can be simulated.

The Continuously Variable Transmission can convert every point on the engine’s
operating curve to an operating curve of its own, and every engine operating curve
into an operating range within the field of potential driving conditions. Its advan-
tage over conventional fixed-ratio transmissions lies in the potential for enhancing
performance and fuel economy while reducing exhaust emissions. However, full
exploitation of this theoretical capability would entail overdrive factors that are not
realizable up to now [1].
With the model of the CVT gearbox included in AVL CRUISE it is possible to
change the transmission between two user-defined threshold values. The adjusting
speed between different transmissions is internal fixed at a constant value.
The change in transmission is done in form of a kinematic coupling. The
advantage of this is that there is no additional degree of freedom. Thereby the
50 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

calculation time is decreasing. The disadvantage is that the transitions might be not
real harmonic and that there is the need to change the equation system for every
change in transmission [1].
Because there is no possibility to define an unlimited transmission there is a
clutch needed for starting. This clutch will be controlled by the control module
CVT control which is also controlling the CVT gearbox [1].

2.5.1 Properties

Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
Selection Button Power Transmission
without slip
with slip
The calculation of the CVT does not include chain slip. A purely kinematic cou-
pling is performed.
Selection Button Power Transmission
without slip
with slip
The calculation of the CVT includes also chain slip. A dynamic coupling between
input and output is made.
Selection Button Losses at “Without Slip”
Deactivated
Efficiency
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent
At this selection no losses are considered in the CVT when calculating without slip.
Selection Button Losses at “Without Slip”
Deactivated
Efficiency
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent
At this selection only the efficiency map is considered when calculating without
slip.
2.5 CVT—Continuously Variable Transmission (H) 51

Selection Button Losses at “Without Slip”

Deactivated
Efficiency
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent
At this selection the efficiency map and the torque loss map is considered when
calculating without slip.
Selection Button Losses at “Without Slip”
Deactivated
Efficiency
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent
At this selection the efficiency map and the temperature dependent torque loss map
is considered when calculating without slip.
Selection Button Losses at “Without Slip”
Deactivated
Efficiency
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent
At this selection only the torque loss map is considered when calculating without
slip.
Selection Button Losses at “Without Slip”
Deactivated
Efficiency
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent
At this selection data from the torque loss map is used, corrected by input data from
the temperature-dependent torque loss map.
52 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Selection Button Losses at “Without Slip”

Deactivated
Efficiency
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent
In this case, the losses are calculated with up to 5 ‘Torque Loss Maps Temperature
Dependent’ where each map is associated with a user-defined constant temperature
value. An interpolation between these maps is done so that for every time step a
torque loss can be generated. The temperature used in the calculation comes
through the Data Bus input Temperature. For example, it could be connected with
one of the 5 cycle-dependent temperature characteristics in the component Vehicle.
Selection Button Losses at “With Slip”
Deactivated
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent
At this selection no losses are considered when calculating with slip.
Selection Button Losses at “With Slip”
Deactivated
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent
At this selection the torque loss map is considered when calculating with slip.
Selection Button Losses at “With Slip”
Deactivated
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent
At this selection the torque loss map and the temperature-dependent torque loss is
considered when calculating with slip. Both losses are added.
Selection Button Losses at “With Slip”
Deactivated
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map and Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent
In this case, the losses are calculated with up to 5 ‘Torque Loss Maps Temperature
Dependent’ where each map is associated with a user-defined constant temperature
value. An interpolation between these maps is done so that for every time step a
torque loss can be generated. The temperature used in the calculation comes
2.5 CVT—Continuously Variable Transmission (H) 53

through the Data Bus input Temperature. For example, it could be connected with
one of the 5 cycle-dependent temperature characteristics in the component Vehicle.
Switch Efficiency Map (for Torque Loss Maps)
When this switch is activated, the efficiency can be entered in a separate table
instead of the torque loss.
After pushing the button Conversion Efficiency in Torque Loss, the torque loss
map is created automatically.
Switches Torque Loss Map 1, …, 5
With these switches, the associated loss maps can be activated for up to 5 tem-
perature levels. This selection is only available if the selection button Losses is set
to Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent.
Selection Button Adjustment Time
Fixed Value
Speed Dependent
Speed Dependent from Data Bus
The adjustment time is the time the CVT needs to adjust from minimum to max-
imum transmission or vice versa. At this selection the adjustment time is a fixed
value.
Selection Button Adjustment Time
Fixed Value
Speed Dependent
Speed Dependent from Data Bus
The adjustment time depends on the input speed of the CVT.
Selection Button Adjustment Time
Fixed Value
Speed Dependent
Speed Dependent from Data Bus
The adjustment time depends on the speed connectivity from the Data Bus.

2.5.2 User-Defined Variables

TH Adjustment Time s

The adjustment time is the time the CVT needs to adjust from minimum to
maximum transmission or vice versa.

iH,lim Switching Threshold –

54 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

The switching threshold is the minimum difference in transmission ratio which is

needed to change the transmission ratio. This input is only needed when the CVT is
calculated without slip.

iH,min Minimum Ratio –

iH,max Maximum Ratio –

Here the minimum and the maximum transmission have to be defined. Between
these two threshold values the transmission can change infinitely, i.e., the trans-
mission can reach every possible value between the two thresholds.

θH,in Inertia Moment on the drive side kg m2

θH,out Inertia Moment on the power take-off side kg m2

The mass moments of inertia have to be defined separately for the drive and the
power take-off side (Fig. 2.6).
Slip Description
Is active when the CVT is calculated with slip.

MH,nom Nominal Torque Nm

sH,nom Nominal Slip %
iH,nom Nominal Transmission Ratio –
sH,diff Slip Change %
κH(MH/MH,nom) Relative Slip Characteristic (=sH/sH,nom) –

The Slip Characteristic describes the slip behavior of the CVT as relative map
which depends on its nominal values.

MH,pd.in

A iH,act
MH,in
B
Slip s
MH,out
θ H,in

.
iH,act θ H,out
MH,pd.out

Fig. 2.6 Principle representation of a CVT gearbox [2]

2.5 CVT—Continuously Variable Transmission (H) 55

Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction

ƞH,V,2(iH) Efficiency –

The efficiency can be defined as function of the transmission ratio.

MH;V;2 ðu_ H;in ; iH Þ Torque loss Nm

The additional torque loss is defined as function of the transmission ratio and the
drive speed.
These data can only be used for a calculation of a CVT without slip.
Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent


MH;V;3 u_ H;in ; iH ; TH Torque loss temperature dependent Nm

Here an additional temperature-dependent torque loss can be defined.

Torque Loss Map


M H;V;1 u_ H;in ; M H;in ; iH Torque Loss related to the drive side Nm

The torque lost in the transmission is defined in a table depending on the drive
speed, the drive torque and the actual transmission ratio. These data can only be
used for a calculation of a CVT with slip.
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent

TH,i Temperature i = 1, …, 5 °C

For each activated temperature-dependent torque loss map, the temperature level
has to be specified.


M H;V;5;1 u_ H;in;i ; M H;in;i ; N H;i Torque loss map temperature dependent i = 1, …, 5 Nm

Here for each activated temperature-dependent torque loss map and for the
specified temperature level, the losses are defined depending on speed, input torque
and gear. This is only required if the selection button Losses is set to Torque Loss
Map Temperature Dependent.
When the switch Efficiency Map (for Torque Loss Maps) is activated, the
efficiency for gear losses and temperature-dependent gear losses can be entered in a
separate table instead of the torque loss. After pushing the button Conversion
Efficiency in Torque Loss, the torque loss map is created automatically.
56 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Adjustment Time Speed Dependent

TH Adjustment Time s
TH u_ Adjustment time Speed Dependent s

The adjustment time is the time the CVT needs to adjust from minimum to
maximum transmission or vice versa.

2.5.3 Input and Output Variables

2.5.3.1 Mechanical Connections

MH,in Input torque Nm

MH,out Output torque Nm
u_ H;in Input speed rad/s
€ H;in
u Angular acceleration on the drive side rad/s2
u_ H;out Output speed rad/s
€ H;out
u Angular acceleration on the power take-off side rad/s2

2.5.3.2 Data Input

iH,rated Desired Transmission Ratio –

TH Temperature °C
u_ H;ext Speed External rad/s

2.5.3.3 Data Output

iH,act Current Transmission Ratio –

NH,act Current Gear –
u_ H;in Input Speed rad/s
MH,in Input Torque Nm
u_ H;out Output Speed rad/s
MH,out Output Torque Nm
PH,in Input Power W
PH,out Output Power W
PH,loss Power Loss W
2.5 CVT—Continuously Variable Transmission (H) 57

2.5.4 Computation Variables

ΔiH,act Transmission gap in gear ratio –

MH,loss Instantaneous total moment of loss in the gearbox Nm

2.5.5 Equation System

Deviation in Gear Ratio

For the gear selection the difference between target and actual transmission is taken
[2]:
DiH;act ¼ iH;requ  iH;act ð2:5:1Þ

If this gear shifting step is great enough and the gear ratio limits are not reached
the gear shifting process will be done.
(a) Calculation without slip
The calculation without slip is done with kinematic equations only. The input
and output speed relation is fixed. Also the input and output torque are defined
by the transmission ratio.
(b) Calculation with slip
In this case also the force equations are used (dynamic simulation):
For the actual ratio the reference slip is calculated with the following formula
out of the Slip Characteristic [2]:
sH;diff
sH;act ¼ ð2:5:2Þ
sH;ref


 
sH;ref ¼ sH;nom  sH;diff  iH;act  iH;nom þ 1 ð2:5:3Þ

Using the relation between actual and nominal CVT-torque the slip relation
can be evaluated.
Now the actual slip is determined for the reference slip and the slip relation [2].
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

2ffi
u_ ref ¼ u_ 2break þ ju_ Belt j þ Du_

with u_ break ¼ 0:1

Du_ ¼ u_ H;in  u_ Belt

u_ Belt ¼ u_ H;out  iH;act ð2:5:4Þ
D
sH ¼ u_u_
ref
58 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Torque Loss
There are three kinds to take the torque loss of the gearbox in consideration.
(1) Calculation without losses (ZH,i = 1) [2]

MH;loss ¼ 0 ð2:5:5Þ

gH ¼ 1 ð2:5:6Þ

(2) Calculation with use of the torque loss map (ZH,i = 2)

The nominal loss moment (Fig. 2.7) is linear interpolated in the loss map [2].


MH;loss;nom ¼ MH;V;2 u_ H;in ; MH;in ; iH;act ð2:5:7Þ

If the simulation is done with temperature-dependent losses then an additional

part is added [2]:



MH;loss;nom ¼ MH;V;2 u_ H;in ; MH;in ; iH;act þ MH;V;4 u_ H;in ; iH ; TH ð2:5:8Þ

MH;loss;nom
gH ¼ 1  ð2:5:9Þ
MH;in

The actual torque loss is determined by the following formula [2].

MH;loss ¼ MH;in  ð1  gH Þ  MH;loss;nom ð2:5:10Þ

(3) Calculation with use of the efficiency value and the torque loss (ZG,i = 3)
The nominal loss is linear interpolated in the loss curve [2]:


MH;loss;nom ¼ MH;V;3 u_ H;in ; iH;act ð2:5:11Þ

MH /MH,nom

0
0 1 SH /sH,nom

Fig. 2.7 Nominal loss moment variation [2]

2.5 CVT—Continuously Variable Transmission (H) 59

Is the simulation done with temperature-dependent

losses then the torque loss
is interpolated out of the map MH;V;4 u_ H;in ; NH ; TH [2]:


MH;loss;nom ¼ MH;V;4 u_ H;in ; iH;act ; TH ð2:5:12Þ

Also the efficiency value is selected for the actual gear [2]:


gH ¼ gH;V;3 iH;act ð2:5:13Þ

The actual torque loss is evaluated as followed [2]:

MH;loss ¼ MH;in  ð1  gH Þ  MH;loss;nom ð2:5:14Þ

4) Calculation with use of the Torque Loss Map Temperature dependent

(ZG,i = 4)
The nominal loss is linear interpolated in the loss curve [2]:


MH;loss;nom ¼ MH;V;5 TH ; iH;act ; u_ H;in ; NH ð2:5:15Þ

2.6 Single Ratio Transmission (D)

The Single Ratio Transmission is a gear step with fixed ratio. It can be used, e.g., as
transmission step of the differential (final drive unit).
A drive torque will be transferred to a power take-off torque of the transmission
step by considering the transmission, the mass moments of inertia and the moment
of loss [1].

2.6.1 Properties

Switch Variation
With this switch the single ratio transmission can be given free for variation. For the
single ratio transmission the transmission ratio can be changed by multiplication
with an additional factor. The setup of the variation parameters is done in the folder.
Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
60 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Selection Button Definition

Transmission Ratio
Number of Teeth
The transmission ratio can be defined in this case.
Selection Button Definition
Transmission Ratio
Number of Teeth
In this case the transmission ratio is defined by the number of teeth of input and
output.
Selection Button Losses
Deactivated
Efficiency
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map with Torque Division
Torque Loss Map with Torque and Speed Division
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent
In this case no losses are calculated in the single ratio transmission.
Selection Button Losses
Deactivated
Efficiency
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map with Torque Division
Torque Loss Map with Torque and Speed Division
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent
In this case, the losses are calculated by a constant efficiency value.
Selection Button Losses
Deactivated
Efficiency
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map with Torque Division
Torque Loss Map with Torque and Speed Division
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent
In this case, the losses are calculated by a constant efficiency value and by a curve
which depends on the drive speed.
Selection Button Losses
Deactivated
Efficiency
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction
Torque Loss Map
2.6 Single Ratio Transmission (D) 61

Torque Loss Map with Torque Division

Torque Loss Map with Torque and Speed Division
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent
In this case the losses are interpolated out of a torque loss map, which depends on
the gear position, the drive speed and the drive torque. At the torque and speed
division a special approximation of the maps is made by cutting through the map at
the defined torque and speed values.
Selection Button Losses
Deactivated
Efficiency
Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction
Torque Loss Map
Torque Loss Map with Torque Division
Torque Loss Map with Torque and Speed Division
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent
In this case, the losses are calculated with the usage of up to 5 torque loss maps
Torque Loss temperature dependent where each map is associated with a
user-defined constant temperature value. An interpolation between these maps is
done so that for every time step a torque loss can be generated. The temperature
used in the calculation comes through the Data Bus input Temperature. For
example, it could be connected with one of the 5 cycle-dependent temperature
characteristics in the component Vehicle.
Switch Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent
Here a temperature-dependent torque loss map Torque Loss Correction tempera-
ture dependent can be activated.
Switch Efficiency Map (for Torque Loss Maps)
When this switch is activated, the efficiency can be entered in a separate table
instead of the torque loss.
Switches Torque Loss Map 1–5
With these switches, for up to 5 temperature levels the associated loss maps can be
activated. This selection is only available if the selection button Losses is set to
Torque Loss Map temperature dependent.
Selection Button Torque Loss Partition
Deactivated
Torque Partition
Torque and Speed Partition
In this case no partition of torque or speed is done. This selection is only available if
the selection button Losses is set to Torque Loss Map temperature dependent.
Selection Button Torque Loss Partition
Deactivated
Torque Partition
Torque and Speed Partition
62 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

In this case a torque partition is done. A special approximation of the maps is made by
cutting through the map at the defined torque values. This selection is only available if
the selection button Losses is set to Torque Loss Map temperature dependent.
Selection Button Torque Loss Partition
Deactivated
Torque Partition
Torque and Speed Partition
In this case a torque and speed partition is done. A special approximation of the
maps is made by cutting through the map at the defined torque and speed values.
This selection is only available if the selection button Losses is set to Torque Loss
Map temperature dependent.
Table Division Values for the Torque Loss
For the torque and the speed range the borders for activation and deactivation can
be defined here. The values are defined in percentage of the maximum speed and
torque values.

2.6.2 User-Defined Variables

iD Transmission Ratio –

The overall ratio can be defined if this case of input is chosen in the properties.

ZD,1 Number of Teeth Input –

ZD,2 Number of Teeth Output –

The user can put in the transmission ratio or the number of teeth depending on
the selection in the properties (Fig. 2.8).

θD,in Inertia Moment, drive side kg m2

θD,out Inertia Moment, power take-off side kg m2

Fig. 2.8 Principle

representation of a Single
Ratio Transmission [2] MD,in θ D,in

MD,z
θ D,out
MH,out
2.6 Single Ratio Transmission (D) 63

Efficiency and Torque Loss Correction

ƞD,V,3 Efficiency –

The efficiency in the single ratio transmission is a fixed value.


MD;V;3 u_ D;in Torque Loss on the drive side Nm

The additional torque loss is defined dependent on the drive speed.

Torque Loss Correction Temperature Dependent


MD;V;4 u_ D;in ; TD Torque Loss temperature dependent Nm

Here an additional temperature-dependent torque loss can be defined. This table

is used if the switch Torque Loss Correction temperature dependent is
activated.
If the selection button Losses is set to Efficiency & Torque Loss this map
replaces the general torque loss definition.
If the selection button Losses is set to Torque Loss Map a correction of the
torque loss is made.
Torque Loss Map


MD;V;2 u_ D;in ; MD;in Torque Loss on the drive side Nm

Torque Loss on the drive side. The torque loss is defined considering the drive
speed and the drive torque of the single ratio transmission.
Torque Loss Map Temperature Dependent

TD,i Temperature i = 1, …, 5 °C

For each activated, temperature-dependent torque loss map, the temperature

level has to be specified.


MD;V;5;i u_ D;in;i ; M D;in;i Torque loss map temperature dependent i = 1, …, 5 Nm

Here for each activated, temperature dependent torque loss map and for the
specified temperature level, the losses are defined depending on speed and input
torque. This is only required if the selection button Losses is set to Torque Loss
Map temperature dependent.
When the switch Efficiency Map (for Torque Loss Maps) is activated, the
efficiency can be entered in a separate table instead of the torque loss.
64 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.6.3 Input and Output Variables

2.6.3.1 Mechanical Connections

u_ D;in Angular velocity on the drive side rad/s

€ D;in
u Angular acceleration on the drive side rad/s2
MD,in Torque on the drive side Nm
u_ D;out Angular velocity on the power take-off side rad/s
€ D;out
u Angular acceleration on the power take-off side rad/s2
MD,out Torque on the power take-off side Nm

2.6.3.2 Data Input

TD Temperature °C

2.6.3.3 Data Output

u_ D;out Output Speed rad/s

MD,out Output Torque Nm
u_ D;in Input Speed rad/s
MD,in Input Torque Nm
PD,in Input Power W
PD,out Output Power W
PD,loss Power Loss W

2.6.4 Computation Variables

MD,loss Loss moment Nm

MD,loss,nom Nominal loss moment Nm
MD,loss,n Rotational speed contribution to the loss moment Nm
ND,act Actual gear position –
ƞD Actual efficiency of the transmission box –
2.6 Single Ratio Transmission (D) 65

2.6.5 Equation System

2.6.5.1 Transmission ratio

If the numbers of teeth are defined for the single transmission step, then the gear
Z
ratio can be calculated: iD ¼ ZD;2
D;1
.

Angular Velocity and Acceleration [2]

u_ D;in
u_ D;out ¼ ð2:6:1Þ
iD

€ D;in
u
€ D;out ¼
u ð2:6:2Þ
iD

2.6.5.2 Torque Loss

There are four kinds to take the torque loss of the gearbox in consideration.
(1) Calculation without losses (ZD,i = 1) [2]

MD;loss ¼ 0 ð2:6:3Þ

gD ¼ 1 ð2:6:4Þ

(2) Calculation with use of the torque loss map (ZD,i = 2)

The nominal loss moment is linear interpolated in the loss map [2].


MD;loss;nom ¼ MD;V;2 u_ D;in ; MD;in ð2:6:5Þ

Is the simulation done with temperature-dependent losses then an additional

part is added [2]:



MD;loss;nom ¼ MD;V;2 u_ D;in ; MD;in þ MD;V;4 u_ D;in ; TD ð2:6:6Þ

The efficiency is calculated as follows [2]:

MD;loss;nom
gD ¼ 1  ð2:6:7Þ
MD;in
66 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

(3) Calculation with use of the efficiency value and the torque loss (ZD,i = 3)
The rotational speed contribution to the torque loss is linear interpolated in the
loss curve [2]:


MD;loss;nom ¼ MD;V;3 u_ D;in ð2:6:8Þ

Is the simulation done with temperature-dependent

 losses then the torque loss
is interpolated out of the map MD;V;4 u_ D;in ; TD [2]:


MD;loss;nom ¼ MD;V;4 u_ D;in ; TD ð2:6:9Þ

The actual torque loss is evaluated as followed [2]:


MD;loss ¼ MD;in  1  gD;V;3 þ MD;loss;nom ð2:6:10Þ

(4) Calculation with use of the efficiency value (ZD,i = 4)

The actual torque loss is evaluated as followed [2]:


MD;loss ¼ MD;in  1  gD;V;3 ð2:6:11Þ

2.7 Differential (N)

The differential unit compensates for discrepancies in the respective rotation rates of
the drive wheels: between inside and outside wheels during cornering and between
different drive axles on 4WD vehicles [1].
With rare exceptions for special applications, the differential is a bevel gear drive
unit. When the output bevel gears on the left and right sides (most common
arrangement) are of equal dimensions, the differential gears act as a balance arm to
equalize the distribution of torque to the left and right wheels [1].
When unilateral variations in road surfaces result in different coefficients of
friction at the respective wheels, this balance effect limits the effective drive torque
to a level defined as twice the traction force available at the wheel (tire) with the
lower coefficient of friction. This wheel then responds to the application of
excessive force by spinning. To avoid such effects a positive lock is available at the
component [1].
In the differential it is possible to define a torque split factor (Fig. 2.9).
This is required if it is used as a central differential for a four-wheel drive, as
sometimes you want to have either more torque transferred to the front or the rear
axle. This is used for preserving the driving quality of the corresponding two wheel
driven car which is either front wheel driven or rear wheel driven [1].
2.7 Differential (N) 67

Drive Side
MN,i

MN,o.1 MN,o.2

Power Power
Take-off Take-off
Side 1 Side 2

Fig. 2.9 Principle representation of a Differential [2]

2.7.1 Properties

Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
Selection Button Losses
Deactivated
Efficiency
In this case, the calculation of losses is deactivated.
Selection Button Losses
Deactivated
Efficiency
In this case, the losses are calculated through a user-defined input of a constant
‘Stationary Efficiency’ value.

2.7.2 User-Defined Variables

ZN,lock Control parameter for locked/unlocked/Split Factor from Data Bus –

This button allows the user to run the differential in a locked or an unlocked
mode or to get the torque split factor from Data Bus.
Unlocked mode means that the two power take-off torques are the same and the
speeds can be different. In the locked mode there is a rigid connection between the
68 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

unlocked locked

Fig. 2.10 Lock modes of Differential [2]

two power take-off sides. That means that the speeds are the same and the torques
can be different (Fig. 2.10).

iN Torque slip factor Mo,2/Mo,1 –

To have a different torque output on the power take-off side, choose the cor-
responding splitting ratio. To have the same torques on both outgoing sides, the
splitting ratio equals 1.

hN;i Inertia Moment on the drive side kg m2

hN;o;1ð2Þ Inertia Moment on the power take-off side kg m2

Stationary Efficiency

gN;stat Efficiency –

The stationary efficiency η is the efficiency of the differential with fixed input
shaft.
If the properties switch ‘Losses’ is set to ‘Efficiency’, AVL CRUISE calculates
in every time step the actual losses depending on the fixed efficiency η.
2.7 Differential (N) 69

2.7.3 Input and Output Variables

2.7.3.1 Mechanical Connections

u_ N;in Angular velocity on the drive side rad/s

uN;in Angular acceleration on the drive side rad/s2
MN,in Torque on the drive side Nm
u_ N;out;1ð2Þ Angular velocity on the power take-off side 1(2) rad/s
uN;out;1ð2Þ Angular acceleration on the power take-off side 1(2) rad/s2
MN,out,1(2) Torque on the power take-off side 1(2) Nm

2.7.3.2 Data Input

iN,ext Torque Split Factor External –

2.7.3.3 Data Output

u_ N;in Input Speed rad/s

MN,in Input Torque Nm
MN,lock Lock Torque Nm
u_ N;out;1ð2Þ Output Speed 1(2) rad/s
MN,out,1(2) Output Torque 1(2) Nm
PN,in Input Power W
PN,out,1(2) Output Power 1 (2) W
PN,loss Power Loss W

2.7.4 Computation Variables

MN,lock Lock Moment Nm

iN,sum Summation Moment ratio –
iN,inv Split ratio inversion –
70 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.7.5 Equation System

Gear Ratio
At first the split ratio for the inversion is determined [2]:

1
iN;inv ¼ ð2:7:1Þ
iN

The second ratio which is calculated is the ratio for the summation [2]:

iN;sum ¼ 1 þ iN ð2:7:2Þ

Split Equations
Unlocked differential
For the unlocked differential the following equation for the torque is used [2]:

u_ N;in  ðin þ 1Þ ¼ u_ N;out;1 þ u_ N;out;2  iN ð2:7:3Þ

and for the lock moment [2]:

MN;lock ¼ 0 ð2:7:4Þ

Locked differential
For the locked differential both takeoffs have the same speed [2]:

u_ N;out;1 ¼ u_ N;out;2 ð2:7:5Þ

The lock moment is defined as [2]:

MN;lock ¼ MN;out;1  MN;out;2 ð2:7:6Þ

2.8 Planetary Gearbox (PG)

The Planetary Gearbox belongs to the power split devices. It consists of three main
components: the sun gear, the planet carrier (with planets), and the ring gear. This
gearbox can be used in hybrid systems, where vehicles be driven using different
power suppliers. With the help of a planetary gear it is possible to add torque and
speed with different directions at the transmission input shafts [1].
In a planetary gear system, the speed ratio and the direction of rotation can be
changed according to which member is fixed. There are three types of planetary
gear mechanisms, depending upon which member is locked (locked ring gear, or
locked planet carrier, or locked sun gear) [1].
2.8 Planetary GearBox (PG) 71

2.8.1 Properties

Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
Selection Button Input Mode
Base Ratio
Number of Teeth
In this case, the gear ratio between ring gear and sun gear, the so-called base ratio of
a planetary gearbox, are required.
Selection Button Input Mode
Base Ratio
Number of Teeth
In this case, the number of sun gear’s teeth and the number of ring gear’s teeth are
required.
Selection Button Losses
Deactivated
Efficiency
In this case, the calculation of losses is deactivated.
Selection Button Losses
Deactivated
Efficiency
In this case, the losses are calculated through a user-defined input of a constant
‘Stationary Efficiency’ value.

2.8.2 User-Defined Variables

ZPG,lock Control parameter for locked or unlocked –

This button allows the user to run the planetary gearbox in a locked or an
unlocked mode.
Unlocked mode means that on the three shafts (planet carrier, sun, and ring)
torques can be different and the speeds can also be different. In the locked mode
there is a rigid connection between two of them.
That means that the speeds on all shafts are the same (because of the speed’s
equation at the planetary gear) and the torques can be different.

iPG,o Base Ratio –

72 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Base ratio is quotient of ring gear’s teeth to the sun gear’s teeth.

hPG;C Inertia Moment Planet Carrier kg m2

hPG;S Inertia Moment Sun Gear kg m2
hPG;R Inertia Moment Ring Gear kg m2
NPG,S Number of teeth Sun Gear –
ZPG,R Number of teeth Ring Gear –

The number of teeth for the ring gear is negative because of its internal toothing.
Stationary Efficiency

ƞPG,stat Efficiency –

The Stationary Efficiency ƞ is the efficiency of the so-called ‘Base Gearbox’

which is the planetary gearbox with fixed planet carrier. In this case the planetary
gearbox works like a single transmission.
If the properties switch ‘Losses’ is set to ‘Efficiency’ AVL CRUISE calculates in
every time step the actual losses depending on the fixed efficiency ƞ and the actual
power flow direction.

2.8.3 Input and Output Variables

2.8.3.1 Mechanical Connections

u_ PG;C Angular velocity of the Planet Carrier rad/s

€ PG;C
u Angular acceleration of the Planet Carrier rad/s2
MPG,C Torque on the Planet Carrier Nm
u_ PG;S Angular velocity of the Sun Gear rad/s
€ PG;S
u Angular acceleration of the Sun Gear rad/s2
MPG,S Torque on the Sun Gear Nm
u_ PG;R Angular velocity of the Ring Gear rad/s
€ PG;R
u Angular acceleration of the Ring Gear rad/s2
MPG,R Torque on the Ring Gear Nm

2.8.3.2 Data Output

u_ PG;C Angular velocity of the Planet Carrier rad/s

u_ PG;S Angular velocity of the Sun Gear rad/s
(continued)
2.8 Planetary GearBox (PG) 73

u_ PG;R Angular velocity of the Ring Gear rad/s

MPG,C Torque on the Planet Carrier Nm
MPG,S Torque on the Sun Gear Nm
MPG,R Torque on the Ring Gear Nm
PPG,C Power—Planet Carrier W
PPG,S Power—Sun Gear W
PPG,R Power—Ring Gear W
PPG,loss Power Loss W

2.8.4 Equation System

The speed equation of the planetary gearbox [2]:


u_ PG;S  1 þ iPG;o  u_ PG;C þ iPG;o  u_ PG;R ¼ 0 ð2:8:1Þ

Locked Planetary Gearbox

For the locked planetary gearbox all shafts have the same speed [2]:

u_ PG;S ¼ u_ PG;C ¼ u_ PG;R ð2:8:2Þ

Under the balance conditions, the summation of all torques acting on planetary
gear is equal to zero by the stationary state of motion [2]:

MPG;S þ MPG;C þ MPG;R ¼ 0 ð2:8:3Þ

Two of the three torques always possess the same sign. The summation of their
absolute values is equal to the third torque. The shaft, which this summation leads
to, is defined as summation shaft. The others are difference shafts.
There are two characteristic rules, which are very useful to analyze the complex
interaction on double pinion gearbox:
The summation shaft’s torque and difference shafts torques has opposite signs.
The torques of both Difference Shafts have the same sign.

2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E)

The component engine contains a model for an internal combustion engine. As the
characteristic curves for the full load, the fuel consumption and others can be freely
defined by the user. It is possible to define a gasoline engine as well as a diesel
engine [1].
74 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

In this component a temperature model is included to consider the influence of

the temperature on the fuel consumption and emissions while the engine is cold.
The engine will be modeled by a structure of characteristic curves and maps [1].

2.9.1 Properties

Switch Variation
With this switch the internal combustion engine can be given free for variation.
For the internal combustion engine the engine displacement can be varied. The
setup of the variation parameters is done in the folder.
Switch Output
A result output for this component is made if this switch is activated.
Switch Use for Reference
This switch is used to select one reference engine if more engines are used within a
model. Out from this engine the following data are calculated, which can then be
used in the Calculation Tasks:
• Minimum speed
• Maximum speed
• Maximum torque
• Speed at maximum torque
• Maximum power
• Speed at maximum power
Selection Button Intended for Calculation of
Performance
Performance and Consumption
Performance, Consumption, and Emission
Performance, Consumption, and CO2 Emission
Performance, Consumption, Emission, and CO2 Emission
By selecting this switch, different calculations are executed for which the corre-
sponding input data have to be defined. For example, if “Performance” is selected
just the general data for the engine like displacement, the Full Load Characteristic
and the Motoring Curve have to be defined.
Selection Button Temperature Model
Deactivated
Cold Start Correction
Others…
In this case no temperature calculation and no correction of the fuel consumption or
the emissions will take place.
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 75

Selection Button Temperature Model

Deactivated
Cold Start Correction
Others…
The actual fuel consumption is multiplied with the cold start factor which is defined
in the component vehicle. The factor can be defined for different cycles as a
function of time. In the task (Cycle Run and Cruising), the switch ‘Cold Start
Correction’ has to be activated.
Selection Button Temperature Model
Deactivated
Cold Start Correction
Others…
The temperature calculation, the correction of the fuel consumption or the
emissions as well as the friction calculation will be executed.
Selection Button Temperature
Pre-defined Characteristic
Calculated
from Data Bus
The temperature of the engine is taken out of a pre-defined characteristic which
depends on time.
Selection Button Temperature
Pre-defined Characteristic
Calculated
from Data Bus
The temperature of the engine is calculated.
Selection Button Temperature
Pre-defined Characteristic
Calculated
from Data Bus
When the engine temperature is calculated in an external component (Black Box,
MATLAB®, Flowmaster) or the function component or defined in the general map,
it can be transferred into the engine component through the Data Bus input channel
‘Temperature External’.
Task and cycle dependent temperature characteristics can be defined in the
vehicle and the actual temperature values can be made available on the Data Bus.
For this option, the switch ‘Pre-defined Temperature Curve’ has to be activated
in the task (Cycle Run and Cruising).
76 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Selection Button Consumption Model

Warm-up Enrichment
Enrichment by Increasing Friction Mean Pressure
Enrichment by Mean Pressure Factor
The warm-up enrichment is done by a characteristic which is defined as function of
the temperature.
Selection Button Consumption Model
Warm-up Enrichment
Enrichment by Increasing Friction Mean Pressure
Enrichment by Mean Pressure Factor
The warm-up enrichment is done by a calculation of the increasing friction mean
pressure due to a lower temperature.
Selection Button Consumption Model
Warm-up Enrichment
Enrichment by Increasing Friction Mean Pressure
Enrichment by Mean Pressure Factor
The warm-up enrichment is done by a calculation of a mean pressure factor which
depends on the mean pressure of the warm and the cold engine.
Selection Button Friction Model
standard
advanced
The standard friction model is used in calculation. This option is only available if
the switch Temperature Model is set to Others…
Selection Button Friction Model
standard
advanced
The advanced friction model is used in calculation. This option is only available if
the switch Temperature Model is set to Others…
Selection Button Consumption/Emissions at Idle
Fixed Value
From Overall Map
From Idle Map
First Line from Overall Map
The consumption and the emissions at idle are as they are defined in the fixed
values.
Selection Button Consumption/Emissions at Idle
Fixed Value
From Overall Map
From Idle Map
First Line from Overall Map
The consumption and the emissions at idle are calculated out of the overall maps for
the fuel consumption and the emissions.
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 77

Selection Button Consumption/Emissions at Idle

Fixed Value
From Overall Map
From Idle Map
First Line from Overall Map
The consumption and the emissions at idle are calculated out of detailed maps for
the fuel consumption and the emissions.
Selection Button Consumption/Emissions at Idle
Fixed Value
From Overall Map
From Idle Map
First Line from Overall Map
The data of the first line of the overall map is used for the calculation of the
consumption/emission at idle.
Selection Button Motoring Curve Performance
From Motoring Curve
Synthetic
The defined Motoring Curve is used.
Selection Button Motoring Curve Performance
From Motoring Curve
Synthetic
The Motoring Curve is determined with an empirical formula.
Selection Button Motoring Curve Consumption/Emission
From Motoring Curve
Synthetic
Determine from
Consumption Map
In this case the defined Motoring Curve is used.
Selection Button Motoring Curve Consumption/Emission
From Motoring Curve
Synthetic
Determine from
Consumption Map
The Motoring Curve is determined with an empirical formula.
Selection Button Motoring Curve Consumption/Emission
From Motoring Curve
Synthetic
Determine from
Consumption Map
In this case the Motoring Curve is determined from the Fuel Consumption Map.
78 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Switch Start Enrichment

When this switch is activated, an additional fuel injection takes place which can be
defined as function of time.
Switch Acceleration Enrichment
When this switch is activated, an additional fuel injection takes place while
acceleration can be defined as function of time.
Switch Additional FC External (Mass Flow)
If this switch is enabled an additional fuel consumption from the Data Bus input
channel ‘Additional FC (Mass Flow)’ is added to the originally determined fuel
consumption.
Switch FC Coefficient External
If this switch is enabled, the determined fuel consumption (inclusive additional
external FC) is multiplied with the FC coefficient delivered by the Data Bus input
channel ‘FC Coefficient External.’
Selection Button Idle Speed
Fixed Value
From Idle Speed Characteristic
From Data Bus
In this case the idle speed is fixed on a constant value.
Selection Button Idle Speed
Fixed Value
From Idle Speed Characteristic
From Data Bus
In this case the idle speed can be defined as function of the engine temperature.
Selection Button Idle Speed
Fixed Value
From Idle Speed Characteristic
From Data Bus
In this case the idle speed will be read from the Data Bus.
Switch Idle Speed Control
If this switch is enabled the idle speed is controlled to the defined target idle speed.
Selection Button Maximum Speed
Fixed Value
From Data Bus
In this case the constant input value for maximum speed is taken.
Selection Button Maximum Speed
Fixed Value
From Data Bus
In this case the maximum speed will be read from the Data Bus.
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 79

Full Load Reduction

off
Factor
Characteristic
In this case nor reduction of the full load is made.
Full Load Reduction
off
Factor
Characteristic
In this case the full load reduction is made by a constant reduction factor.
Full Load Reduction
off
Factor
Characteristic
In this case the reduction is made by a characteristic. This characteristic can be
defined as power, torque or BMEP versus speed.
Response Behavior Turbo Charger
deactivated
Constant Boost Pressure Build-up Time
Pressure Build-up Time from Characteristic
Constant BMEP Build-up Time
BMEP Build-up Time from Characteristic
In this case no delayed response behavior at the turbo charger is considered. Always
the full boost pressure is available.
Response Behavior Turbo Charger
deactivated
Constant Boost Pressure Build-up Time
Pressure Build-up Time from Characteristic
Constant BMEP Build-up Time
BMEP Build-up Time from Characteristic
In this case the delayed response behavior of the turbo charger is considered by a
constant boost pressure build-up time.
Response Behavior Turbo Charger
deactivated
Constant Boost Pressure Build-up Time
Pressure Build-up Time from Characteristic
Constant BMEP Build-up Time
BMEP Build-up Time from Characteristic
In this case the delayed response behavior of the turbo charger is considered by a
variable boost pressure build-up time. The pressure build-up time can be defined as
function of the engine speed.
80 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Response Behavior Turbo Charger

deactivated
Constant Boost Pressure Build-up Time
Pressure Build-up Time from Characteristic
Constant BMEP Build-up Time
BMEP Build-up Time from Characteristic
In this case the delayed response behavior of the turbo charger is considered by a
constant BMEP build-up time. This is the time which the engine takes between a
user-defined BMEP start value (e.g., 2 bar) and a user-defined end value (in per-
centages of maximum BMEP at reference speed 1000 rpm; e.g., 90 %).
Response Behavior Turbo Charger
deactivated
Constant Boost Pressure Build-up Time
Pressure Build-up Time from Characteristic
Constant BMEP Build-up Time
BMEP Build-up Time from Characteristic
In this case the delayed response behavior of the turbo charger is considered by a
variable BMEP build-up time. The BMEP build-up time can be defined as a
function of the engine speed. It is the time which the engine takes between a
user-defined BMEP start-value (e.g., 2 bar) and a user-defined end value (in per-
centages of maximum BMEP at user-defined speed; e.g., 90 %).
Turbo Charger Transfer Model
PT1-Behavior
PT2-Behavior
In this case the build-up behavior of the boost pressure is modeled by a PT1 filter.
Turbo Charger Transfer Model
PTl-Behavior
PT2-Behavior
In this case the build-up behavior of the boost pressure is modeled by a PT2 filter.
Switch Boost Pressure at Idle
When this switch is activated, the ‘Boost Pressure at Idle’ has to be defined in an
input field in the section ‘Turbo Charger/Boost Pressure.’ One condition is that the
selection button ‘Response Behavior Turbo Charger’ is set to ‘Constant Boost
Pressure Build-up Time’ or to ‘Pressure Build-up Time From Characteristic.’
Selection Button Testbed Power Correction
Deactivated
Standard
In this case no power correction is made.
Selection Button Testbed Power Correction
Deactivated
Standard
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 81

In this case a power correction on environment conditions is made. For this cor-
rection the standard 97/21/EG (April 1997) is used, which was originally developed
for the standardization of power measurements.
Switch Specific Consumption Map
When this switch is activated the specific Fuel Consumption Map is active.
Switch Full Load Gear Dependent 1–5
For defined gear positions, extra Full Load Characteristics can be defined. They are
used instead of the original ones.
Selection Button Full Load Reduction Gear Dependent
Off
Factor
From Characteristic
In this case the ‘Full Load Reduction Characteristics’ have no influence.
Selection Button Full Load Reduction Gear Dependent
Off
Factor
From Characteristic
In this case for every activated characteristic ‘Full Load Gear Dependent 1,…,5’ a
reduction factor has to be defined. The values from the gear dependent character-
istic are multiplied with this factor.
Selection Button Full Load Reduction Gear Dependent
Off
Factor
From Characteristic
In this case for every activated characteristic ‘Full Load Gear Dependent 1,…,5’ an
additional ‘Full Load Reduction Characteristic’ has to be defined. The values from
the reduction characteristic are subtracted from the gear dependent characteristic.
Switch Engine Brake Curve
This switch activates the engine brake curve. With this brake curve it is possible to
simulate a jake brake system. This works with changing of the valve opening
period, when the vehicle brakes. With the Data Bus input Jake Brake Activation the
consideration of the brake curve can be controlled during calculation (1..activated,
0..deactivated).
Switch Starter Current
When this switch is activated, up to 5 temperature-dependent starter current char-
acteristics can be used when the engine is started. Each characteristic is associated
with a user-defined constant temperature value. An interpolation between these
maps is done so that for every time step a current depending on the actual tem-
perature can be determined.
82 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Switch Load Signal Map

When this switch is activated the input throttle valve map is used. If this switch is
deactivated the throttle valve map will be interpolated linear between the Full Load
Characteristic and the Motoring Curve.
For all these settings different maps or input data are necessary. For not forcing
the user to put in all data the ones which are not needed are shaded.
Selection Button Control Variable
Load Signal
Desired Torque
In this case the engine is controlled by the load signal which is supplied via Data
Bus.
Selection Button Control Variable
Load Signal
Desired Torque
In this case the engine is controlled by the desired torque value which comes from
the Data Bus.

2.9.1.1 Selection Button Exhaust System Model

Standard Exhaust System Model
Advanced AVL Exhaust System Model
This should be selected if the engine is connected to the standard ‘Exhaust System’
component and the selection button intended for calculation of is set to selections
containing emission calculations.
Selection Button Exhaust System Model
Standard Exhaust System Model
Advanced AVL Exhaust System Model
This should be selected if the engine is connected to the ‘AVL Exhaust System’
component and the selection button intended for calculation of is set to selections
containing emission calculations.
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 83

2.9.2 User-Defined Variables

Characteristic Data

ZE,type State indicator for engine type –

This selection button has two positions:

• Gasoline
• Diesel
ZE,charger State indicator for charger type –

This selection button has three positions:

• Without: For the power correction on environment conditions it can be selected
that a naturally aspired engine is used.
• Turbo Charger: For the power correction on environment conditions it can be
selected that a charged engine is used.
• TC with Intercooler: For the power correction on environment conditions it can
be selected that a charged engine with intercooler is used.
VE,h Engine Displacement cm3

The engine displacement is the displacement of all cylinders together.

By choose a conversion on a different displacement can be done. In this case all
torques and the absolute consumption and emission values are multiplied with the
displacement ratio.

TE,W Engine Working Temperature °C

The engine working temperature is needed for a calculation with hot start. If hot
start is chosen the engine temperature at the beginning of the calculation is equal to
the engine working temperature. If cold start is chosen the engine temperature at the
beginning of the calculation is equal to the ambient temperature. This engine
working temperature means always the temperature of the equivalent mass which is
used for the calculation of the engine temperature.

NE,c Number of Cylinders –

NE,stroke Number of Strokes (two-stroke 2, four-stroke 4) –
ΘE Inertia Moment km2

The mass moment of inertia contains all parts of the engine like the crankshaft,
the flywheel, a possible fan, the camshaft, and others.

tE,add Response Time s

84 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

The response time is the time the engine needs to build up the full power.

u_ E;max Maximum Speed rpm

It is possible to define a maximum speed for the engine. If the engine speed is
above this speed the fuel injection will be stopped.
Fuel Type

zE,fuel Type of Fuel (denomination: diesel, gasoline, hydrogen, methanol, …) –

ρE,fuel Fuel Density kg/m3
HE,fuel Heating Value kJ/kg
zE,C Weight Rate Carbon –

Here the characteristic data of the fuel like the density or the heating value are
input. They are used for temperature and emission calculations of the motor.
Idle

u_ E;idle;base Idle Speed rpm

Here the fixed value for the idle speed can be defined. This value is used when
the selection button Idle Speed is set to Fixed Value.

bE,idle Idle Fuel Consumption l/h

eE,NOx,idle Idle NOx Emission kg/h
eE,CO,idle Idle CO Emission kg/h
eE,HC,idle Idle HC Emission kg/h
eE,Soot,idle Idle Soot Emission kg/h

Here the fixed values for the idle consumption and the idle emissions can be
defined.
These values are used when the selection button Consumption/Emissions at
Idle is set to fixed value.
Fuel Shut-Off
The fuel shut-off is used to switch off the fuel injection while the engine is in thrust
operation. With this the fuel consumption can be decreased.
Selection Button Fuel Shut-Off
Absolute Speed Limits
This activates the definition of absolute lower and upper speed values for fuel shut-off.
Relative Speed Differences
Selection of this option activates the input fields ‘Speed Difference above Idle
Speed for Lower Speed Limit’ and ‘Speed Difference above Idle Speed for Upper
Speed Limit.’
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 85

With these speed difference definitions, a definition of the speed limits relative to
the idle speed can be done.
This is useful if the idle speed is not fixed to a constant value during the
calculation, e.g., when a temperature-dependent idle speed characteristic is used.
Cut-Off Signal from Data Bus
The user can create his own cut-off control and connect the cut-off signal via
Data Bus to the engine component via the new Data Bus input ‘Fuel Shut-Off
Activation.’
When the Engine is in thrust mode and the Data Bus signal is not equal to zero,
the engine is set to cut-off mode and the ‘Residual Fuel Consumption’ is taken for
the consumption calculation. In all other cases, the engine is not in cut-off mode.

u_ E;SA;low Lower Speed Border for Fuel Shut-Off rpm

u_ E;SA;high Upper Speed Border for Fuel Shut-Off rpm
u_ E;SA;low;rel Speed Difference Above Idle Speed for Lower Speed Limit rpm
u_ E;SA;high;rel Speed Difference Above Idle Speed for Upper Speed Limit rpm
bE,SA Residual Fuel Consumption l/h
zE,SA,fc Consumption Increase After Deactivation (linear/sharp rise) –

Comments
Engine-specific information can be entered, stored, and viewed in a ‘comments’
table. The table consists of the columns ‘Description | Value | Unit.’ When adding a
row to the table, the window of a global, ‘pre-defined’ comments table appears.
In the first step, definitions for the pre-defined comments table have to be done in
the form ‘Attribute | Description | Data Type | Unit.’
In the second step, rows from this global table can be selected to be added as
rows in the engine-specific comments table for the actual engine.
Friction Mean Effective Pressure (FMEP)

TE,N Nominal Temperature °C

mE,eq Equivalent Mass kg
zE,EE Exhaust Proportion of Waste Energy –

Standard Friction Model

pE,fric,min FMEP at Minimum Engine Speed bar

pE,fric,max FMEP at Maximum Engine Speed bar
cE,fric,exp Exponent of FMEP Characteristic –
cE,fric,p Curvature Factor –
ηE,40 Dynamic oil Viscosity at 40 °C Pa s
86 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Advanced Friction Model

Selection Button Friction Model
PNH Model
SLM Model
With this selection button either the PNH model or the SLM model can be chosen.

CE,bore Bore mm
CE,hub Hub mm
rE,compress Compression Ratio –

Selection Button Engine Layout

User specified
Typical in-line
Typical 6 Cylinder V
Typical 8 Cylinder V
Engine Layout User Specified

dE,crsft,bearing Crankshaft Main Bearing Diameter mm

lE,crsft,bearing Crankshaft Main Bearing Length mm
nE,crsft,bearings Number of Crankshaft Main Bearings –
dE,conRod,bearing Big End Con Rod Bearing Diameter mm
lE,conRod,bearing Big End Con Rod Bearing Length mm

Selection Button Type of Valve Train

No Valve Train
SOHC Finger Follower
SOHC Rocker Arm
SOHC direct acting
DOHC direct acting
OHV Push Rods
With this selection button the type of the valve train can be specified.

nE,valves,intake Number of Intake Valves Per Cylinder –

nE,valves,exhaust Number of Exhaust Valves Per Cylinder –
CE,valve,liftMax Maximum Valve Lift mm

Selection Button Type of Cam Follower Flat Follower

Roller Follower

nE,cmsft,bearings Number of camshaft bearings –

Selection Button Used Engine Oil

SAE 10/20/30/40
SAE 0W/30/0W/40
SAE 5W/30/5W/40
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 87

SAE 10W/30/10W/40/10W/60
SAE 15W/30
Selection Button Fuel Injection Pump installed
no
yes
Pre-defined Temperature Curve

TE(t) Engine Temperature °C

Here the temperature characteristic of the engine can be defined by the user.
Cooling Characteristic

cE,v,cool(TE) Heat Capacity J/K

The cooling characteristic is used for the determination of the amount of heat
which is lost to the environment.
The heat capacity has to be given as a function of the actual temperature of the
engine.
Warm-up Enrichment

ΔbE,warm-up,enrich(TE) Consumption enrichment during warm-up l/h

The warm-up enrichment is defined as function of the engine temperature.

Start Enrichment

ΔbE,start,enrich(t) Consumption enrichment during the first time after starting l/h

The start enrichment is defined as function of time. The start enrichment can be
switched on and off with the switch for the start enrichment.
Acceleration Enrichment

DbE;acc;enrich ða_ th Þ Consumption enrichment during acceleration l/h

The acceleration enrichment can be defined as function of the throttle valve

speed.
It is used to inject additional fuel during stepping on the acceleration pedal. The
acceleration enrichment can be switched on and off with the switch for the accel-
eration enrichment.
88 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Idle Speed Characteristic

u_ E;idle ðT E Þ Idle Speed rpm

Here the idle speed can be defined as function of the engine temperature. This
characteristic is only active when the selection button Idle Speed is set to From Idle
Speed Characteristic.
Boost Pressure Build-up Time

tE,ch,build-up Constant Boost Pressure Build-up Time s

or

tE,ch,build-up (u_ E;out ) Boost Pressure Build-up Time as Function of Speed s

This is the time the charger needs to build up the full boost pressure.
Boost Pressure

pE,ch,idle Boost Pressure at Idle bar

This value is required if the option ‘‘Boost Pressure at Idle” in the Properties
window is activated.


pE;ch u_ E;out Boost Pressure as absolute pressure bar

The boost pressure has to be defined as absolute pressure dependent on the

engine speed.
BMEP Build-up Time

tE,ch,BMEP,start BMEP at Build-up Start bar

This is the engines BMEP at begin of BMEP build-up time.

tE,ch,BMEP,stop BMEP after Build-up Time, as percentages of maximum BMEP %

This is the engines BMEP at the end of BMEP build-up time. It has to be defined
as percentages of maximum BMEP at a certain speed. This speed is user-defined (in
case that build-up time as function of speed is chosen), otherwise (when constant
build-up time is chosen) a reference speed of 1000 rpm is considered.

tE,ch,build-upBMEP Constant BMEP Build-up Time s

2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 89

This value has to be defined if the selection button Response Behavior Turbo
Charger is set to Constant BMEP Build-up Time.


tE;ch:buildupBMEP u_ E;out BMEP Build-up Time as function of speed s

This value has to be defined if the selection button Response Behavior Turbo
Charger is set to BMEP Build-up Time From Characteristic.
Charger Outlet Temperature


tE;ch u_ E;out Temperature behind charger °C

The temperature behind charger has to be defined as function of the engine

speed.
Cooler Outlet Temperature


tE;IC u_ E;out Temperature behind intercooler °C

The temperature behind intercooler has to be defined as function of the engine

speed.
Basic Idle Maps
Idle Consumption Map


bE;idle u_ E;out ; peff Idle Consumption Map l/h or kg/h

The idle consumption map is defined as function of the brake mean pressure with
the engine speed as parameter. It is only used when the selection button
Consumption/Emissions at Idle is set to From Idle Map.
Idle Emission Maps


eE;idle;NOX u_ E;out ; peff Idle Emission Map NOx kg/h


eE;idle;CO u_ E;out ; peff Idle Emission Map CO kg/h


eE;idle;HC u_ E;out ; peff Idle Emission Map HC kg/h


eE;idle;Soot u_ E;out ; peff Idle Emission Map Soot kg/h

The idle emission maps are defined as function of the brake mean pressure with
the engine speed as parameter. They are only used when the selection button
Consumption/Emissions at Idle is set to From Idle Map.
90 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Extended Idle Maps

The following maps are only used when the selection button Consumption/
Emissions at Idle is set to From Idle Map and the selection button Exhaust
System Model is set to Advanced AVL Exhaust System Model.


eE;idle;O2 u_ E;out ; peff Idle Emission Map O2 kg/h


eE;idle;H2 O u_ E;out ; peff Idle Emission Map H2O kg/h


eE;idle;CO2 u_ E;out ; peff Idle Emission Map CO2 kg/h


eE;idle;H2 u_ E;out ; peff Idle Emission Map H2 kg/h

The idle emission maps are defined as a function of the brake mean pressure with
the engine speed as parameter.


eE;idle;exh u_ E;out ; peff Idle Exhaust Mass Flow Characteristic kg/h


TE;idle;exh u_ E;out ; peff Idle Exhaust Temperature Characteristic °C

In the idle exhaust temperature characteristic the temperature is listed dependent

on the mean pressure with the engine speed as parameter.
Basic Engine Maps
Fuel Consumption Maps
Absolute Consumption Map


bE;h u_ E;out ; peff Fuel Consumption Map l/h or kg/h

At the Fuel Consumption Map the actual fuel consumption for stationary
operation is listed depending on the brake mean pressure with the engine speed as
parameter. This kind of representation is used to make a unique relation between the
brake mean pressure and the fuel consumption for a given engine speed.
For the idle consumption there are different possibilities. By choose it can be
interpolated out of the Fuel Consumption Map or the defined value is used. If the
mean pressure is out of the defined range the corresponding values are extrapolated.
Specific Consumption Map


bE;spec u_ E;out ; peff Specific Fuel Consumption Map l/kWh or kg/kWh

The Fuel Consumption Map can also be defined as Specific Consumption

Map. By a switch the Specific Consumption Map can be converted into the absolute
one. The Specific Consumption Map is only used when the corresponding switch is
activated.
Both maps can also be represented in iso-lines, where all three input values can
be used as parameter of the representation.
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 91

Emission Maps


eE;NOX u_ E;out ; peff NOx Emission Map kg/h


bE;CO u_ E;out ; peff CO Emission Map kg/h


bE;HC u_ E;out ; peff HC Emission Map kg/h


bE;Soot u_ E;out ; peff Soot Emission Map kg/h

In the emission maps the emissions for the different exhaust gases are listed
dependent on the mean pressure with the engine speed as parameter.
Extended Engine Maps
The following maps are only used when the selection button Exhaust System
Model is set to Advanced AVL Exhaust System Model.


eE;O2 u_ E;out ; peff O2 Emission Map kg/h


eE;H2 O u_ E;out ; peff H2O Emission Map kg/h


eE;CO2 u_ E;out ; peff CO2 Emission Map kg/h


eE;H2 u_ E;out ; peff H2 Emission Ma kg/h

In the emission maps the emissions for the different exhaust gases are listed
dependent on the mean pressure with the engine speed as parameter.


eE;exhaust u_ E;out ; peff Exhaust Mass Flow Characteristic kg/h


TE;exhaust u_ E;out ; peff Exhaust Temperature Characteristic °C

In the exhaust temperature characteristic the temperature is listed dependent on

the mean pressure with the engine speed as parameter.
Full Load Characteristic
Test Environment

pE,env,dyno Air Pressure at the test bench run bar

TE,env,dyno Air Temperature at the test bench run °C
ρE,W,env,dyno Absolute Humidity at the test bench run kg/m3

The environment conditions at the test bench run are used for the power cor-
rection on environment conditions.
Full Load Characteristic optionally:


PE;vk u_ E;out Full Load Characteristic as power W

or


ME;vk u_ E;out Full Load Characteristic as torque Nm
92 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

or


pE;eff;vk u_ E;out Full Load Characteristic as BMEP bar

The full load characteristic can be defined either as power, as torque or as brake
mean pressure dependent on the engine speed.
Full Load Reduction
Constant Reduction Factor

zE,red Reductions Factor –

The Full Load Characteristic is multiplied with this factor over the whole speed
range.
Full Load Reduction Characteristic optional:


PE;vk;red u_ E;out Full Load Reduction Characteristic as power W

or


ME;vk;red u_ E;out Full Load Reduction Characteristic as torque Nm

or


pE;eff;vk;red u_ E;out Full Load Reduction Characteristic as BMEP bar

The full load reduction characteristic is subtracted from the original Full Load
Characteristic.
Full Load Gear Dependent 1–5

NE,vk,geardep,i, Lowest Gear Position for which the gear dependent Full Load –
low Characteristic is active
NE,vk,geardep,i, Highest Gear Position for which the gear dependent Full Load –
high Characteristic is active

Lowest and highest gear position has to be defined for every activated gear
dependent Full Load Characteristic.
Optionally:


PE;vk;red;i u_ E;out Gear dependent Full load 1–5 as power W

or


ME;vk;red;i u_ E;out Gear dependent Full Load 1–5 as torque Nm
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 93

or


pE;eff;vk;red;i u_ E;out Gear dependent Full Load 1–5 as BMEP bar

The gear dependent Full Load Characteristics can be defined separately for the
single gears either as power, as torque or as brake mean pressure dependent on the
engine speed.
If one gear is associated with more than one of the five maps, then the first
associated map is used for calculation.
Gear Dependent Full Load Reduction Characteristic 1–5
Constant gear dependent Reduction Factor 1–5:

zE;red;geardep Reduction Factor –

The associated gear dependent Full Load Characteristic is multiplied with this
factor over the whole speed range.


PE;vk;red;geardep u_ E;out Gear dependent Full Load Reduction Characteristic 1–5 W

The gear dependent full load reduction characteristics are subtracted from the
associated gear dependent Full Load Characteristics.
Motoring Curve
Optionally:


PE;sk u_ E;out Motoring Curve as power W

or


ME;sk u_ E;out Motoring Curve as torque Nm

or


pE;eff;sk u_ E;out Motoring Curve as BMEP bar

In the Motoring Curve, the friction of the engine is described considering the idle
torque the engine can deliver at the special engine speed. The Motoring Curve can
be defined similar to the Full Load Characteristic either as power, as torque or as
brake mean pressure dependent on the engine speed.
94 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Engine Brake Curve

Optional:

PE;plc xE;out Engine Brake Curve as power W

or

ME;plc xE;out Engine Brake Curve as torque Nm

or

pE;plc xE;out Engine Brake Curve as mean pressure Pa

In the engine brake curve, the back pressure of the engine is described con-
sidering the brake torque the engine can deliver in the case of a braking. The power
loss curve can be defined similar to the load characteristic either as power, as torque
or as brake mean pressure dependent on the engine speed.
With the Data Bus input Jake Brake Activation the consideration of the brake
curve can be controlled during calculation (1…activated, 0…deactivated).
Starter Current

I E;start;i ðtÞ Sequence of the Starter Current at the starting process, defined for up to 5 A
temperature levels

The starter current characteristics are used for the start-stop automatic (if this
special component is used).
For each characteristic a temperature level has to specified; the current is defined
depending on time.
Load Signal Map


aE;th u_ E;out ; peff Load Signal Map %

The throttle valve positions can be defined dependent on the engine speed and
the brake mean pressure.
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 95

2.9.3 Input and Output Variables

2.9.3.1 Mechanical Connections

u_ E;out Engine angular velocity on the power take-off side rad/s

€ E;out
u Engine angular acceleration on the power take-off side rad/s2
ME,out Engine torque on the power take-off side Nm

2.9.3.2 Input Values

αE,th Load Signal –

KE,start Start Switch –
QE,Q Battery Charge As
TE Temperature external K
KE,activ Engine Activation –
u_ E;idle Idle Speed rad/s
KE,jake brake Jake Brake Activation –
ME,desired Desired Torque Nm
u_ E;max Maximum Speed rad/s
bE,add Additional FC (Mass Flow) kg/s
bE,coeff,ext FC Coefficient External –
KE,shut-off Fuel Shut-Off Activation –

2.9.3.3 Output Values

αE,th Actual Load Signal –

bE,h,act Fuel Consumption (Volume Flow, instantaneous) m3/s
PE,emis Exhaust Gas Energy W
eE,NOx,act Emission NOx (instantaneous) kg/s
eE,CO,act Emission CO (instantaneous) kg/s
eE,HC,act Emission HC (instantaneous) kg/s
eE,soot,act Emission Soot (instantaneous) kg/s
eE;CO2 ;act Emission CO2 (instantaneous) kg/s
eE;H2 ;act Emission H2 (instantaneous) kg/s
eE;O2 ;act Emission O2 (instantaneous) kg/s
eE;H2 O;act Emission H2O (instantaneous) kg/s
TE Engine Temperature (instantaneous) K
KE,operate Operation Control –
(continued)
96 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

u_ E;out Speed rad/s

ME,pre Torque before Flywheel Nm
ME,post Torque behind Flywheel Nm
PE Engine Power W
eE,exhaust Exhaust Mass Flow kg/s
TE,exhaust Exhaust Temperature K
bE,massFlow,act Fuel Consumption (Mass Flow, instantaneous) kg/s
pE BMEP Pa
PE,loss Power Loss W

2.9.4 Computation Variables

peff,vk Brake mean pressure at full load curve for u_ E;out Pa

peff,sk Brake mean pressure at Motoring Curve for u_ E;out Pa
pE,env,dry,dyno Dry Pressure of the environment on the test bench Pa
RWet Gas Constant of the wet air J/kg K
TE,inlet,dyno Air Temperature at the inlet on the test bench K
pE,inlet,dyno Dry pressure at the inlet on the test bench Pa
ηE,ch Charger Efficiency –
ηE,IC Intercooler Efficiency –
TE,Mot Temperature in the power house at the actual driving conditions K
pE,Mot,dry Dry Pressure in the power house at the actual driving conditions Pa
TE,inlet,act Air Temperature at the inlet at the actual driving conditions K
pE,inlet,act Dry pressure at the inlet at the actual driving conditions Pa
pE,ch,over,dyno Dry Over Pressure of the charger at the test bench Pa
pE,ch,over,act Dry Over Pressure of the charger at the actual driving conditions Pa
pE,ch,act Dry Absolute Pressure behind the charger at the actual driving Pa
conditions
TE,ch,act Air Temperature behind the charger at the actual driving conditions K
FA Atmospheric Correction Factor –
fm Engine Factor –
αpow,corr Power Correction Factor –
peff,theo Actual brake mean pressure out of engine map for instantaneous Pa
throttle position
peff,theo,old Brake mean pressure for the last time step Pa
peff,max Maximum brake mean pressure Pa
PE,heat Heat produced by combustion W
PE,cool Energy flow in the cooling system W
(continued)
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 97

αA Actual heat capacity W/K

pE,fric,ref Reference friction mean pressure Pa
ηE,act Dynamic oil viscosity at actual engine temperature Pa.s
ηE,ref Dynamic oil viscosity at ref. temperature Pa.s
pE,fric,add Additional mean pressure caused by friction Pa
ME,fric Friction torque of engine Nm
peff,loss Brake mean pressure at power loss curve for u_ Pa

2.9.5 Equation System

2.9.5.1 Conversion of the Full Load Characteristic

A given Full Load Characteristic as power results in the corresponding character-

istic of moments [2]:

PE;vk
ME;vk ¼ ð2:9:1Þ
u_ E;out

or as mean effective pressure [2]:

PE;vk  NE;stroke  p
peff;vk ¼ ð2:9:2Þ
VE;h  u_ E;out

A given Full Load Characteristic as moment results in the corresponding charac-

teristic as power [2]:

PE;vk ¼ ME;vk  u_ E;out ð2:9:3Þ

or as mean effective pressure from equation.

If the Full Load Characteristic is adopted from the throttle valve map, the
corresponding maximum values for the mean effective pressure will be iteratively
assigned to the single angular velocities. In this context, it should be noted that a
subsequent consideration by means of the editor of characteristic curves seems to be
all the more useful the less the single maps are defined.
The same formula can be used for the Motoring Curve.
Inside the calculation kernel everything is calculated in mean effective pressure.
98 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.9.5.2 Reduced Full Load Characteristic

Constant reduction factor

The whole full load curve is multiplied with this factor [2].

peff;vk ¼ pE;eff;vk  zE;red ð2:9:4Þ

Reduction curve

The reduction curve is subtracted from the full load curve [2].

peff;vk ¼ pE;eff;vk  pE;eff;vk;red ð2:9:5Þ

Reduced full load curve

If there exists a special full load curve for the selected gear then this curve is used
instead of the original one [2].

NE;vk;red;i;high \ NG;act \ NE;vk;red;i;high ð2:9:6Þ

peff;vk ¼ pE;eff;vk;red;i ð2:9:7Þ

2.9.5.3 Interpolation of Full Load Characteristic and Motoring Curve

for the actual engine speed


(a) for an engine speed lower than idle speed u_ E;out \ u_ E;idle [2]:

kE;operate ¼ 1 ð2:9:8Þ

linear interpolation of pE;vk;help and pE;sk;help for u_ E;idle [2]:

Dp ¼ pE;vk;help  pE;sk;help ð2:9:9Þ

Dp
peff;sk ¼   fE;sk  u_ E;out þ pE;sk;help þ Dp  fE;sk ð2:9:10Þ
u_ E;idle

Dp
 Dp

peff;vk ¼ peff;sk þ  fE;sk  1  u_ 3E;out  2  fE;sk  2  u_ 2E;out
u_ E;idle
3 u_ E;idle
ð2:9:11Þ
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 99

fE;sk ¼ 1ðfE;sk ¼ 4 for automatic structureÞ ð2:9:12Þ


(b) for an engine speed higher than maximum speed u_ E;out [ u_ E;max [2]:

kE;operate ¼ 1 ð2:9:13Þ

linear interpolation of pE;vk;help and pE;sk;help for u_ E;max [2]:

NE;stroke  p
peff;vk ¼ pE;vk;help  u_ E;max  u_ E;out  ð2:9:14Þ
VE;h

NE;stroke  p
peff;sk ¼ pE;sk;help  u_ E;max  u_ E;out   fE;sk ð2:9:15Þ
VE;h

fE;sk ¼ 1 ðfE;sk ¼ 0 for automatic structureÞ ð2:9:16Þ


(c) for normal operating conditions u_ E;idle \u_ E;out \u_ E;max [2]:

kE;operate ¼ 0 ð2:9:17Þ

linear interpolation of peff;vk and peff;sk for u_ E;out

2.9.6 Power Correction on Environment Conditions

The power correction on environment conditions serves for the correction of the
Full Load Characteristic when the environment conditions the user puts in are
different from the conditions on the test bench. In this case a correction is made at
which the standard 97/21/EG (April 1997) is used, which was originally developed
for the standardization of power measurements.
For the power correction two selection buttons are used:
Selection Button Engine Type
Gasoline
Diesel
Selection Button Charger Type
Without
Turbo Charger
TC with Intercooler
With these selection buttons the factors for the power correction are fixed and the
needed input maps and characteristics are activated.
To make a power correction, the standard conditions must first be defined.
100 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

These are called environment conditions during test bench run in the page of the
Full Load Characteristic. If a charger or an intercooler is used the corresponding
characteristics for the charger pressure the temperature behind charger and the
temperature behind the intercooler have to be defined too. With these values the
conditions at the inlet for the test bench run and the efficiencies for the charger and
the intercooler can be calculated.
With the characteristics for the charger and the intercooler efficiency, the actual
inlet conditions can be calculated out of the actual environment conditions by
considering the temperature and pressure differences between the environment and
the power house.
With the actual inlet conditions and the ones on the test bench the correction
factors can be calculated and the Full Load Characteristic can be corrected.
(a) Inlet Conditions on the test bench
First the dry pressure of the environment at the test bench is calculated [2]:

pE;env;dry;dyno ¼ pE;env;dyno  RWet  TE;env;dyno  qE;W;env;dyno ð2:9:18Þ

with RWet = 461,521 J/kg K

These conditions are also the inlet conditions [2]:

TE;inlet;dyno ¼ TE;env;dyno ð2:9:19Þ

pE;inlet;dyno ¼ pE;env;dry;dyno ð2:9:20Þ

(b) Inlet Conditions at the Actual Driving Conditions

First, the under the hood conditions have to be calculated [2]:

TE;Mot ¼ TU;air þ TE;diff;ub ð2:9:21Þ

pE;Mot;dry ¼ pU;air þ pE;diff;ub  RWet  TE;Mot  qU;W ð2:9:22Þ

The absolute humidity at environment conditions is calculated from the rel-

ative humidity using the following formulae [2]:
0
uU;air  pW
qU;W ¼ ð2:9:23Þ
RWet  TU;air

with [2]:

58:73895  6852:493  5:262: ln TU;air
p0W ¼ 9:80665:e ð2:9:24Þ
T U;air

These underhood conditions are equal to the inlet conditions [2]:

2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 101

TE;inlet;act ¼ TE;Mot ð2:9:25Þ

pE;inlet;act ¼ pE;Mot;dry ð2:9:26Þ

(c) Correction Factors

With the actual inlet conditions and the ones on the test bench the correction
factors can be calculated.
• Atmospheric Correction Factor [2]:
 X  
pE;inlet;act TE;inlet;dyno Y
fA ¼ A   þB ð2:9:27Þ
pE;inlet;dyno TE;inlet;act

where the factors A, B, X, and Y depend on the engine and charger type.
• Engine Factor:
– For gasoline engines [2]:

fm ¼ 1 ð2:9:28Þ

– For diesel engines [2]:

Correct fuel delivery parameter [2]:

pE;Mot NE;stroke  bE;h;act

qc ¼  1000  p  ð2:9:29Þ
pE;inlet;act VE;h  u_ E;out

ðqc \40Þ ! fm ¼ 0:3

ð40  qc  65Þ ! fm ¼ 0:036  qc  1:14 ð2:9:30Þ

ðqc [ 65Þ ! fm ¼ 1:2

• Power Correction Factor [2]:

apow;corr ¼ fA fm ð2:9:31Þ

(d) Power Correction

With this power correction factor the Full Load Characteristic of the engine is
reduced [2]:

peff;vk ¼ peff;vk  apow;corr ð2:9:32Þ

102 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Evaluation of the engine torque as function of the throttle position [2]:

αE,th = 0 → Motoring Curve
αE,th = 1 → Full Load Characteristic


peff;theo ¼ peff;sk þ peff;vk  peff;sk  aE;th ð2:9:33Þ

 Time [2]
Response
Dt
If peff;theo [ peff;theo;old þ peff;max  tE;add

Dt
peff;theo ¼ peff;theo;old þ peff;max  ð2:9:34Þ
tE;add

2.9.7 Charger Response Behavior

The charger response behavior works very similar to the power correction. Also a
comparison between different inlet conditions is made. These conditions are the
condition with delayed response of the turbo charger and an infinite response. The
infinite response means that always the full boost pressure for this speed is available.
The correction is made with the same basis as the power correction, i.e., also the
correction parameters form the standard 97/21/EG (April 1997) are used.
The calculation of the charger response behavior is done after the power
correction.
For the calculation without power correction the boundary conditions are defined
by the chassis dynamometer [2]:

TE;env;dyno defined ð2:9:35Þ

pE;env;dry;dyno defined ð2:9:36Þ

TE;Mot ¼ TE;env;dyno ð2:9:37Þ

pE;Mot;dry ¼ pE;env;dry;dyno ð2:9:38Þ

For calculation with power correction the conditions from the engine trunk has
to be used [2]:

TE;Mot from power correction ð2:9:39Þ

2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 103

pE;Mot;dry from power correction ð2:9:40Þ

TE;env;dyno ¼ TE;Mot ð2:9:41Þ

pE;env;dry;dyno ¼ pE;Mot;dry ð2:9:42Þ

The boost pressure increases after a response time, which is calculated as fol-
lowed [2]:


pE;ch;over;dyno ¼ pE;inlet;dyno  pE;env;dyno  RWet  TE;inlet;dyno  qE;W;env;dyno
ð2:9:43Þ

Dt
pE;ch;over;act ¼ pE;ch;over;act þ pE;ch;over;dyno  ð2:9:44Þ
tE;ch;buildup

For the response time a constant value or the value out of the map is used.

2.9.7.1 Evaluation of the engine torque [2]

αE,th = 0 → Motoring Curve

αE,th = 1 → Full Load Characteristic


peff;theo ¼ peff;sk þ peff;vk  peff;sk  aE;th ð2:9:45Þ

If the requested engine torque comes from the Data Bus as ‘Desired Torque,’ this
value is directly converted into peff,theo and then limited by peff,vk.

2.9.7.2 Response Time [2]


Dt
If peff;theo [ peff;theo;old þ peff;max  tE;add

Dt
peff;theo ¼ peff;theo;old þ peff;max  ð2:9:46Þ
tE;add

2.9.8 Temperature Models

In AVL CRUISE, there are three options to determine the actual temperature of the
engine:
104 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

• Pre-defined temperature characteristic

• Temperature from Data Bus
• AVL temperature model

2.9.8.1 Pre-defined temperature characteristic

Here the actual engine temperature is linear interpolated out of a user-defined

characteristic.

2.9.8.2 Temperature from Data Bus

When the engine temperature is calculated in an external component (Black Box,

MATLAB®, Flowmaster) or the function component or defined in the general map,
it can be transferred into the engine component through the Data Bus input channel
‘Temperature External.’
Task and cycle-dependent temperature characteristics can be defined in the
Vehicle and the actual temperature values can be made available on the Data Bus.
For this option, the switch ‘Pre-defined Temperature Curve’ has to be activated in
the task (Cycle Run and Cruising).

2.9.8.3 AVL Temperature Model

The heat produced by the combustion can be computed by considering the fuel
consumption. This heat is distributed among the engine block and exhaust gas by a
factor. The heating of the engine can be computed by considering the temperature
loss in the radiator. Thus, the engine temperature can be computed.
This technique has two advantages: First, the actual heat flow in the engine is
represented. Second, the required data can be measured on the testbed with but little
expenditure. No transient maps to be determined in a complex way are required.
For the computation of the engine temperature, the following ideas are used:
• The heat capacity of the injected fuel (fuel consumption of the warm engine plus
additional fuel consumption caused by the increasing friction mean pressure) is
the input to the engine system (engine + cooling system). To estimate the heat
capacity of this system, an equivalent mass of water (mE,eq) with the same heat
capacity has to be given.
• One part of the fuel energy is given off as work. The rest is divided into two
parts: The first part goes to the exhaust gas system (ZE,EE), the second part is the
input to the equivalent mass.
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 105

The heat produced by the combustion will be computed from this formula [2]:

PE;heat ¼ bE;h;act  qE;fuel  HE;fuel ð2:9:47Þ

The mechanical power take-off [2]:

PE;act ¼ ME;act  u_ E;out ð2:9:48Þ

The loss power in the exhaust emissions [2]:


PE;emis ¼ ZE;EE  PE;heat  PE;act ð2:9:49Þ

The rest energy has to go into the cooling system [2]:

PE;cool ¼ PE;heat  PE;act  PE;emis ð2:9:50Þ

• For the equivalent mass a thermal balance is made.

Input is the rest of the fuel energy. Output is the energy lost to the environment
by cooling (cooling characteristic: small cooling cycle—only a small loss of heat;
large cooling cycle—high loss of heat). With the resulting stored heat in the
equivalent mass and the specific heat of the water the temperature of the equivalent
mass can be computed.

TE Actual engine temperature

cE,v,cool Heat capacity [J/K]

With a linear interpolation in the cooling characteristic, the value cE,v,cool is

evaluated.
This value is transformed [2]:
 vV;act
aA ¼ cE;v;cool  1 þ 0:4  ð2:9:51Þ
83

And the engine temperature can be calculated [2]:


PE;cool  aA  TE  TW;air  Dti
TE ¼ TE þ ð2:9:52Þ
mE;eq  cp;H2 O

where cp;H2 O ¼ 4187 kgJK

106 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.9.9 Consumption Models

In AVL CRUISE, the following models and methods can be used for the calculation
of the higher fuel consumption while the engine is cold:
• Warm-up Enrichment
• Cold Start Correction
• FC External and FC Coefficient External
• Increasing Friction Mean Pressure
• Increase by Mean Pressure Factor

2.9.9.1 Warm-up Enrichment

Here, the additional fuel consumption during warm-up is interpolated from a

user-defined characteristic depending on temperature.

2.9.9.2 Cold Start Correction (for Cycle Run and Cruising)

The actual fuel consumption is multiplied with cold start factor which is defined the
in the component vehicle. The factor can be defined for different cycles as a
function of time. In the task, the switch ‘Cold Start Correction’ has to be activated.

2.9.9.3 FC External and FC Coefficient External

FC External
An additional fuel consumption from the Data Bus input channel ‘Additional FC
(Mass Flow)’ is added to the originally determined fuel consumption.
FC Coefficient External
The determined fuel consumption (inclusive additional external FC) is multiplied
with the FC coefficient delivered by the Data Bus input channel ‘FC Coefficient
External.’

2.9.9.4 Increasing Friction Mean Pressure

The characteristic for the friction mean pressure is given by the friction mean
pressure at minimum (pE,min) and maximum speed (pE,max) and a curvature factor
(cE,fric,p) between them (cE,fric,p = 1 means a linear characteristic; refer to Fig. 2.11).
At first, a reference value for the mean friction pressure is calculated [2]:
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 107

Fig. 2.11 Friction mean pressure [2]

pE;fric;max  pE;fric;min
fB ¼
c
c ð2:9:53Þ
u_ E;max E;fric;p  u_ E;idle E;fric;p

c
fA ¼ pE;fric;min  fB  u_ E;idle E;fric;p ð2:9:54Þ
cE;fric;p
pE;fric;ref ¼ fA þ fB  u_ E;out ð2:9:55Þ

The dependence on the temperature is done via the dynamic oil viscosity. Here,
only the oil viscosity at 40 °C (ηE,40) is needed. The oil viscosity at other tem-
peratures is calculated by means of an empirical equation [2]:
gE;40
fhelp ¼ 159:56  ln ð2:9:56Þ
1:8  104

fhelp 
fhelp 
gðT Þ ¼ 1:8  104  e T273:15þ95  e 887 ð2:9:57Þ


gE;act ¼ gðTE ÞgE;ref ¼ g TE;N ð2:9:58Þ

For the conversion of the oil viscosity into the friction mean pressure, the
exponent of friction mean pressure (cE,vis,exp) is needed. The equation for is as
follows:
!
cE;fric;exp
gE;act
pE;fric;add ¼ pE;fric;ref  1 ð2:9:59Þ
gE;ref

The friction mean pressure, the Fuel Consumption Maps, and the emission maps
are given at the nominal temperature (TE,N). For the correction of the fuel con-
sumption the working point in the engine is changed. For this the change in friction,
mean pressure between the actual temperature and the nominal temperature is
108 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Fig. 2.12 Change of working point in the cold engine [2]

calculated and added in the Fuel Consumption Map. So the working point is
changed to a higher (actual temperature is lower than the nominal temperature) or to
a lower (actual temperature is higher than the nominal temperature) mean pressure.
With this other working point, the fuel consumption is also increasing or
decreasing (Refer to Fig. 2.12).

2.9.9.5 Increase by Mean Pressure Factor

Similar to the consumption increase by increased friction mean pressure the

increased friction mean pressure in the cold engine is calculated. In contrast to the
other method the mean pressure of the cold engine is divided by the mean pressure
of the warm engine. The factor is then applied on the fuel consumption as well as
on the emissions.

2.9.9.6 Advanced Friction Model

Introduction
The principal factors influencing a vehicle’s fuel consumption can be determined
on the basis of this definition of consumption per distance.
They can be categorized as:
1. Contribution factors related to motor (Engine Losses),
2. Drivetrain Losses, and
3. Exterior resistance
There is continuing interest in better understanding the friction losses in internal
combustion engines. These adversely affect the maximum work output and fuel
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 109

economy characteristics of an engine, directly account for much of the difference in

fuel consumption between cold and full-warm engine operation.
The engine losses may be grouped as follows:
1. Mechanical friction,
2. Pumping losses,
3. Exhaust losses, and
4. Heat transferred to the environment, convection in the coolant circuit and
radiation in engine compartment.
An accurate friction model must account for engine design variables such as
bore, stroke, and number of valves and must consider engine operating conditions
such as speed, load, and oil temperature. The friction model must also accurately
distribute the friction within the engine, and for this application, be based on
generable scalable engine parameters.
The friction model, which best satisfies these criteria is the one developed by
Patton et al. [3], PNH. The treatment of the power losses using PNH model is for
fully warmed-up engine running conditions. The model brake down the friction
losses into component parts associated with the main bearings, the valve train,
piston group and auxiliary components. Each friction component is used to define
and locate appropriate heat sources for the frictional heating of the lubricating oil
flow.
II. Engine Losses: PNH Model
A. Mechanical Friction
1. Crankshaft
The crankshaft means effective pressure can be expressed as follows [2]:
 3     2 2 
NDb Lb nb Db N Db nb
fmep ¼ ccb þ Ccs 2 þ ctd ð2:9:60Þ
B2 snc B snc nc

B Bore m
S Stroke m
Db Bearing diameter m
Lb Bearing length m
nb No. of bearings –
nc No. of cylinders –
N Engine rotational Speed rpm
Ccb Coefficient of the hydrodynamic losses in main bearings Pa/rpm m
Ccs Coefficient of friction losses in main bearing seals Pa m2
Ctd Coefficient of friction losses due to viscous dissipation Pa s2/m2 rpm
110 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2. Piston (Reciprocating) Group

The friction means effective pressure in the reciprocating group may be
calculated using the following equation [2]:
      
ND3b Lb nb Vp 103 1
meppb ¼ cpb þ Cps þ Cpr 1 þ
B2 Snc B N B2
  ð2:9:61Þ
Pi ð1:332:38102 Vp Þ
Co  0:088rc þ 0:182rc
Pa
where:

Ccb Coefficient for connecting rod bearing hydrodynamics Pa/rpm m

Cps Coefficient for skirt-cylinder wall hydrodynamics Pa s
Cpr Coefficient for piston ring-cylinder wall Pa m2
Co Coefficient for gas pressure to ring friction Pa
Vp Mean piston speed m/s

3. Valve Train
The friction means effective pressure in the valve train is calculated using
the following equation [2]:
   1:5 0:5 
Nnb L N nv
Fmepcv ¼cvb 2 þ cvo þ Cvh v
B Snc BSnc
 3
 ð2:9:62Þ
10 Lv nv
þ Cvm 1 þ þ Fmepcam follower
N Snc

Flat Cam Follower [2]:

 
103 nv
Fmepcam follower ¼ Cvf 1þ ð2:9:63Þ
N snc

Roller Cam Follower [2]:

 
Nnv
Fmepcam follower ¼ Cvr ð2:9:64Þ
snc

where:

Cvb Coefficient for camshaft bearing hydrodynamic Pa m3/rpm

Cvh Oscillating hydrodynamic lubrication constant Pa m0.5/rpm0.5
Cvm Oscillating mixed lubrication constant Pa
Cvo Boundary lubrication constant due to the camshaft bearing seals Pa
Lv Maximum valve lift m
(continued)
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 111

nv No. of valves –
Cvf Flat cam follower constant Pa m
Cvr Roller cam follower constant Pa m

Both of the cam followers’ constants depend on the valve train configuration.
4. Auxiliary Losses
The following equation can be used to calculate the FMEP due to the
auxiliaries [2]:

Fmepaux ¼ a þ bN þ cN 2 ð2:9:65Þ

The constants α, β and γ are used to be 6.23 × 103 Pa, 5.22 Pa/rpm,
−1.79 × 10−4 Pa/rpm2, respectively.
B. Pumping Losses
The correlation used by Bohic has been used. That is [2]:

Disp
Pmep ¼ 105

0:0025 
 0:0785 þ 4:02105 N þ 1:06  108 N2 þ 4:64  108 IMEP þ 2:171010 NIMEP
ð2:9:66Þ
where: IMEP, Disp are the indicated mean effective pressure and engine
displacement, respectively.
III. Engine Losses: Modified PNH Model
The rate at which the engine structure and lubricating oil warm-up influences
friction losses over the cycle, because these depend on oil viscosity, which in turn
depends upon temperature. The friction power losses drop sharply over the first 50 s
of engine warm-up [4], after which the rate of fall is greatly reduced. Such behavior
indicates that friction level changes are likely to be influenced by the oil viscosity.
The effect of viscosity changes is taken into account by scaling the instantaneous
friction loss in proportion to values for fully warmed up [2].
 0:24
FmepToil vToil
¼ ð2:9:67Þ
FmepToil ¼ 90  C vToil ¼ 90  C

IV. Engine Losses: SLM Model

Shayler et al. [5], SLM, compiled and examined the model fits friction teardown
data from motored engine tests on 4 cylinder diesel engines. The original purpose of
the experimental work was to examine friction losses at low temperatures and low
engine speeds in connection with studies of cold start behavior. At low, sub-zero
temperature typically between −20 and −30 °C, engine friction take causes a
substantial increase in the time taken to complete the start-up process. The focus
had been on capturing the characteristics of the experimental data for cold, low
speed operating conditions. The bulk of the experimental data was obtained through
motoring tests carried out on engines enclosed within a compact cold cell. The test
112 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

engine was motored by a DC motor with an in-line torque transducer in the

driveline connecting the DC motor and the test engine. Friction teardown was
carried out on four engine designs.
A. Mechanical Friction
1. Crankshaft
Friction Mean Effective Pressure in the crankshaft group is calculated using
the following equation [2]:
 0:6 3  n  
N Db Lb nb l Db
Fmepcrankshaft ¼ ccb þ Ccs 2 ð2:9:68Þ
B2 Snc lref B Snc
where:

Ccb Coefficient of the hydrodynamic losses in main bearings Pa/rpm m

Ccs Coefficient of friction losses in main bearing seals Pa m2
n Viscosity index –
μ Oil dynamic viscosity at the operating temperature Pa s
μref Oil dynamic viscosity at fully warm, reference condition Pa s

2. Piston (Reciprocating) Group

Means effective pressure due to the friction in the piston group is expressed
as follows [2]:
 0:6 3  ! !! 
N Db Lb nb Vp0:5 Vp0:5 l n
Fmeppiston ¼ cpb þ Cps þ C pr
B2 Snc B B2 lref
ð2:9:69Þ
where:

Cpb Coefficient for connecting rod bearing hydrodynamics kPa/rpm0.6 mm

Cps Coefficient for skirt-cylinder wall hydrodynamics kPa mm0.5s0.5
Cpr Coefficient for piston ring-cylinder wall kPa mm1.5s0.5
n Viscocity index (=0.4) –

3. Valve Train
Means effective pressure due to the friction in the piston group is expressed
as follows [2]:
  
l n
N 0:6 nb
Fmepvalvetrain ¼ cvb
B2 Snc
lref
 1:5 0:5  n  
Lv N nv l 10 Lv nv
þ Cvs þ Cvh þ Cvm 2 þ
BSnc lref 5 þ lN Snc
þ fmepcam=follower
ð2:9:70Þ
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 113

Flat cam follower [2]:

 
10 nv
Fmepcam follower ¼ Cvf 2 þ ð2:9:71Þ
5 þ lN Snc

Roller cam follower [2]:

 
Nnv
Fmepcam follower ¼ Cvr ð2:9:72Þ
Snc
where:

Cvb Coefficient for camshaft bearing hydrodynamic kPa mm3/rpm0.6

Cvh Oscillating hydrodynamic lubrication constant Pa mm0.5/rpm0.5
Cvm Oscillating mixed lubrication constant Pa
Cvs Boundary lubrication constant due to the camshaft bearing seals Pa
Cvf Flat cam follower constant Pa m
Cvr Roller cam follower constant Pa m
n Viscosity index –

4. Auxiliary Losses [2]

 n

 l
Fmepaux ¼ a þ bN þ cN 2 ð2:9:73Þ
lref

For oil pump, the constants α, β, γ & viscosity index (n) are: 1.28 kPa,
7.9 × 10−3 kPa mm3/rpm, −8.4 × 10−7 kPa mm3/rpm2, 0.3 (viscosity index),
respectively. For water pump α, β, γ & viscosity index (n) 0.13 kPa,
2 × 10−3 kPa mm3/rpm, 3 × 10−7 kPa mm3/rpm2, 0.7, respectively. They are:
1.72 kPa, 6.9 × 10−4 kPa mm3/rpm, 1.2 × 10−7 kPa mm3/rpm2, 0.5,
respectively for the oil pump.
5. Pumping Losses
The model was developed for motored engines. Therefore, the pumping
losses are zero.

2.9.9.7 Fuel Consumption

The fuel consumption is linearly interpolated for the engine speed u_ E;out and the
mean effective pressure peff,act out of the fuel consumption map bE,h u_ E;out ; pE .


For u_ E;out \u_ E;idle and αth < 0, the fuel consumption can optionally be taken
out of the overall map, out of the detailed map, or can be the fixed idle
consumption.
114 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.9.10 Fuel Shut-Off

The fuel shut-off is used to cut off the fuel injection while thrust operation. This is
used in modern cars to decrease the fuel consumption

zE,SA Switch for Fuel Shut-Off (Yes/No) –

For the fuel cut-off, two speeds are necessary to create a hysteresis so that the
fuel shut-off is not always activated and deactivated in too short times.

u_ E;SA;low Lower Speed Border for Fuel Shut-Off rpm

This speed is the lowest speed the shut-off can work on. If the engine speed falls
below this lower speed, the fuel shut-off is deactivated.

u_ E;SA;high Upper Speed Border for Fuel Shut-Off rpm

This speed has to be reached once that the fuel shut-off can be activated.

u_ E;SA;low;rel Speed Difference above Idle Speed for Lower Speed Limit rpm
u_ E;SA;high;rel Speed Difference above Idle Speed for Upper Speed Limit rpm

If ‘Relative Speed Differences’ are chosen, the upper and lower speed borders
are calculated with these values relative to the actual idle speed.

bE,SA Residual Fuel Consumption l/h

The residual fuel consumption is the fuel consumption while the fuel shut-off is
active.
This is, for example, needed if you have an additional heater.

zE,SA,fc Consumption Increase after Deactivation (linear/sharp rise) –

The button for Consumption Increase after Deactivation is to change the way
the fuel consumption is increasing after the fuel shut-off is deactivated (refer to
Figs. 2.13 and 2.14).


(a) for u_ E;act  u_ E;SA;low and ZE,SA,fc = activated [2]:

bE;idle  bE;SA

bE;act ¼ bE;idle   u_ E;act  u_ E;idle ð2:9:74Þ
u_ E;SA;low  u_ E;idle
2.9 Internal Combustion Engine (E) 115

Fig. 2.13 Consumption increase after deactivation linear [2]

Fig. 2.14 Consumption increase after deactivation sharp rise [2]


(b) for u_ E;act [ u_ E;SA;low [2]:

bE;act ¼ bE;SA ð2:9:75Þ

2.9.10.1 Emissions

At first the factor of fuel consumption is evaluated. It is the relation between the
actual and the map consumption [2]:

bE;act
ffuel ¼ ð2:9:76Þ
bE;h

The emissions are linear interpolated out of the maps for u_ E;act and PE,act.
116 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

This values out of the map have to be transformed with ffuel [2]:

eE;xx;act ¼ eE;xx  ffuel ð2:9:77Þ

2.9.10.2 Start Enrichment

Here, the additional fuel consumption after starting the engine is interpolated out of
a user-defined characteristic.

2.9.10.3 Acceleration Enrichment

Here, the additional fuel consumption while stepping on the acceleration pedal is
interpolated out of a user-defined characteristic.

2.9.10.4 Starter Current

The charge of battery charge caused by the engine starter is calculated [2]:


0:5  IE;start ðti1 Þ þ IE;start ðtiþ1 Þ
QE;Q ¼ QE;Q 
 ð2:9:78Þ
IE;start ðti Þ  IE;start ðti2 Þ

2.10 Generator (L)

The generator (alternator) must provide the vehicle electrical system with a sufficient
supply of current under all operating conditions in order to ensure that the State of
Charge (SOC) in the engine storage device (battery) is consistently maintained at an
adequate level. The object is to achieve balanced charging, i.e., the curves for
performance and speed–frequency response must be selected to ensure that the
amount of current generated by the alternator under actual operating conditions is at
least equal to the consumption of all electrical equipment within the same period [1].
Automotive alternators are designed to supply charge voltages of 14 V (with
28 V for heavy utility vehicles) in order to maintain an adequate charge in 12 V (or
24 V) batteries.
The alternator produces alternating current. The vehicle’s electrical system, on
the other hand, requires direct current to recharge the battery and operate the
electrical equipment; it is thus direct current that must ultimately be supplied to the
electrical system. For this case a rectifier must be provided to convert the alter-
nator’s three-phase alternating current into DC.
This arrangement also provides the battery from discharging when the vehicle is
stationary. In the input data for the component generator the already into direct
2.10 Generator (L) 117

current converted characteristics have to be given. The characteristics used here are
measured behind the rectifier [1].
In the component generator a simple regulator is integrated. The regulator works
in that way that a threshold voltage has to be defined. If the voltage of the onboard
network is below this threshold the generator is activated.
The generator will be separated from the network if the voltage of the onboard
network reaches the threshold [1].
The current delivered by the generator results from a map dependent on the
speed and the mains voltage. By considering the internal resistance, the instanta-
neous current consumption helps to acquire the torque absorbed by the generator
with the corresponding moments of loss [1].

2.10.1 Properties

Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
Selection button Definition
Efficiency Map
Torque and Efficiency Characteristic
The description of the losses in the generator is done by the efficiency map.
Selection button Definition
Efficiency Map
Torque and Efficiency Characteristic
The description of the losses in the generator is done by a speed dependent torque
loss (mechanical losses) and a current dependent efficiency (electrical losses).

2.10.2 User-Defined Variables

UG,nom Nominal Voltage V

The nominal voltage is the threshold voltage for the regulator of the generator. If
the voltage in the onboard network is below this threshold the generator is acti-
vated. If the voltage is above the threshold the generator is deactivated.

RG,reg,equ Equivalent Resistance Regulator Ohm

The equivalent resistance regulator defines the gradient of the regulator voltage
(see Fig. 2.15).

θL Inertia Moment of the generator kg m2

118 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

UG,reg

UG,Nom

IG

Fig. 2.15 Regulator voltage [2]

Idle Voltage

RG,equ Equivalent Resistance without Regulator Ohm

The equivalent resistance without regulator defines the gradient of the idle voltage.


UG;idle u_ L;gen Idle Voltage as a function of the generator speed V

The idle voltage is the voltage the generator is producing without an electrical
consumer, means that there is no flow of current. This idle voltage is a function of
the speed.
Efficiency Map

gL;idle ðu_ L ; IL Þ Efficiency Map –

The efficiency map describes all losses of the generator (mechanical and elec-
trical). It depends on speed and current.
Torque Loss

M L;pd;gen u_ L;gen Torque Loss of the generator as a function of the generator speed Nm

The moment of loss is the mechanical loss in the generator due to friction at the
roller bearings and at the collector ring, aerodynamic friction at the fan, and, above
all, the power required to run the fan itself, which increases dramatically at higher
speeds.
Together with the torque that is transferred into electrical energy the moment of
loss builds the absorbed torque of the whole generator. The moment of loss depends
on the generator speed.
Efficiency

ƞL(IL) Efficiency as a function of current –

2.10 Generator (L) 119

The efficiency is used to consider the copper and the iron losses. The copper
losses are produced by resistance in the rotor and stator windings. Their extent is
proportional to the power-to-weight ratio, i.e., the ratio of generated electrical
power to the mass of the effective components.
The iron losses result from the hysteresis and eddy currents produced by the
alternating magnetic fields in the iron in the stator and rotor. This efficiency is a
function of the delivered current.
Maximum Current

I L;max u_ L;gen Maximum Generator Current as a function of the generator speed A

The maximum generator current is the maximum current the generator can
deliver. The characteristic depends on the kind of generator (AC, DC).

2.10.3 Input and Output Variables

2.10.3.1 Mechanical Connections

u_ L;in Angular velocity on the drive side rad/s

€ L;in
u Angular acceleration on the drive side rad/s2
ML,in Torque on the drive side Nm

2.10.3.2 Electrical Connections

UL,net Actual net voltage V

IL Instantaneous generator current A

2.10.3.3 Data Input

ZL Switch –

2.10.3.4 Data Output

UL,net Net Voltage V

IL Current A
u_ L;in Speed rad/s
(continued)
120 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

ML,in Generator Torque Nm

PL,el Electric Power W
PL,mech Mechanical Power W
PL,loss Power Loss W

2.10.4 Computation Variables

IL,max,act Maximum generator current A

UL,max,act Maximum generator voltage V
u_ L;cont Generator speed at nominal voltage rad/s
IL,max,cont Generator current at nominal voltage A
UL,max,cont Generator Voltage at nominal voltage V
CL,cont Controller Coefficient –
UL,switch Voltage for current switching V

2.10.5 Equation System

2.10.5.1 Charge Controlling

(a) For the generator current conditions

, UL,max,act
The maximum values of the generator current and voltage IL,max,act 
for a given angular velocity is evaluated out of the maps UL;idle u_ L;gen and


IL;max u_ L;gen
The minimum voltage is determined be the equation [2]:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
IL;max;act
UL;min;act ¼ UL;max;act  ð2:10:1Þ
RG;equ

(b) For the controller voltage conditions

The controller current and voltage IL,max,cont, UL,max,cont

for a given
angular
velocity u_ L;cont is evaluated out of the maps UL;idle u_ L;cont and IL;max u_ L;cont
The controller factor is defined as function of the controller current [2]:

1
CL;cont ¼ RG;equ  ð2:10:2Þ
IL;max;cont

The minimum voltage fixed by the controller [2]:

2.10 Generator (L) 121

UL;min;cont ¼ UL;max;cont þ CL;cont  Ic;max;act ð2:10:3Þ

Now the program selects between three conditions:

(a) For the generator area higher than the controller minimum voltage:
UL;min;cont  UL;min;act ! Controller Charatcteristic
(b) For generator voltage lower than the maximum controller voltage:
UL;max;cont  UL;max;act ! Generator Charatcteristic
(c) For the area between: → Mixed Characteristic

2.10.5.2 Controller Characteristic

The current flow depends on the net and the controller minimum and maximum
voltages as well as the controller factor [2]:



UL;net  UL;min;cont  ½1  UL;net  UL;max;cont 
IL ¼ 
 ð2:10:4Þ
CL;cont  UL;net  UL;max;cont

2.10.5.3 Generator Characteristic

In the Generator Characteristic, the current flow is fixed by the net and the con-
troller minimum and maximum voltages as well as the maximum available gen-
erator current [2]:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi!2
IL;max;act

IL ¼ IL;max;act  RG;equ  UL;net  UL;max;act þ  UL;net  UL;min;act
RG;equ


 1  UL;net  UL;max;act
ð2:10:5Þ

2.10.5.4 Mixed Characteristic

In the Mixed Characteristic, the conditions are changing between Generator

Characteristic and Controller Characteristic. The switch voltage determines the
actual used characteristic [2]:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
b b2  4  a  c
UL;switch ¼ þ ð2:10:6Þ
2a 2a
a ¼ RG;equ ð2:10:7Þ
122 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi!
IL;max;act 1
b ¼ 2  UL;max;act þ  RG;equ  ð2:10:8Þ
RG;equ CL;cont

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi!2
IL;max;act UL;max;cont
c ¼ IC;max;act  RG;equ  UL;max;act þ þ ð2:10:9Þ
RG;equ CL;cont

If the net voltage is lower than the switch voltage:

UL,net < UL,switch → Generator Characteristic
else
UL,net ≥ UL,switch → Controller Characteristic

Efficiency

The generator efficiency ƞL,act for the actual loading conditions is evaluated out of
the efficiency curve for the actual generator current IL.

Torque

(a) Evaluation with loss torque

For the torque calculation, the loss moment and the working moment have to be
added. The loss moment ML,pd,act is interpolated out of the loss function.
Thus, we can write the equation for the whole generator torque [2]:

IL  UL;net
ML;in ¼ ML;pt;act  ð2:10:10Þ
ZL  u_ L;in

(b) Evaluation with efficiency value

The overall efficiency value ƞL,act is evaluated out of the map for the actual
current flow and the generator speed.
Thus, we can write the equation for the whole generator torque [2]:

1 IL  UL;net
ML;in ¼   ð2:10:11Þ
gL;act gL;el  u_ L;in

2.11 Electrical Consumer (X)

Electric consumers are represented as ohmic resistors in the onboard network. They
represent an electric current loss. The number of the resistors that can be defined is
user-dependent. The resistors can be fixed by a constant value or by means of
2.11 Electrical Consumer (X) 123

characteristic curves. It is possible to define resistors as a function of any external

input value. It is also possible to define an external switch that switches on and off
the resistor depending on the exceeding of an external value [1].

2.11.1 Properties

Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
Selection Button Definition
Resistance
Current (Power)
The Resistance is defined depending on the value of the Data Bus input ‘Set Value X’.
Selection Button Definition
Resistance
Current (Power)
In this case, the Current or Power has to be defined depending on the values of the
Data Bus inputs ‘Set Value X’ and ‘Set Value Y’.

2.11.2 User-Defined Variables

Ux,nom Nominal Voltage V

The nominal voltage is the definition of the voltage in the onboard network.

Ux,border Threshold Value –

Zx,dir Direction (positive/negative) –
Zx,ref Reference (absolute/relative) –
Zx,exceed Exceeding of Value Range (admissible/inadmissible) –

Resistance Curve
The Resistance Curve has to be defined if the selection button ‘Definition’ is set
to Resistance.

Rx(setValueX) Resistance as function of Set Value X Ω

As described before the electrical consumer can be described as resistance

depending on any input value. In addition it is possible to define a switch for the
resistor. To do this the electrical consumer has to be connected to the Data Bus. In
this Data Bus there are two input values:
Set value: This is the value the resistance depends on.
124 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Switch: This is used to switch the resistor on and off depending on exceeding a
definable value of the switch. For this connected switch you can define a threshold
(Ux, border) which is the border for the on and off switching.
For on and off switching there are different possibilities:
Direction (positive/negative): Positive means that the switch is turned on when
the input of the switch is above the threshold value and it is turned off when the
input of the switch is below the threshold value. If negative is chosen it is vice
versa.
Reference (absolute/relative): The resistance is defined dependent on an input
value. If absolute is chosen the resistance is switched on and off when the switch is
turned on and off. If relative is chosen the resistance starts every time the switch is
turned on at zero.
Exceeding of value range (admissible/inadmissible): Sometimes it can occur that
the switch is longer open than the resistance is defined or that the set value is
outside the defined range (e.g. the resistance is defined as a function of the engine
speed with a maximum of 6000 rpm and the engine speed reaches 6500 rpm, i.e.,
that the resistance is outside the defined value range. If the exceeding of value range
is inadmissible the switch will be turned off when the defined border is reached. If
exceeding of value range is admissible the resistance will be extrapolated to get data
for the resistance.
Current (Power) Map
The Current (Power) map has to be defined if the selection button ‘Definition’ is
set to Current (Power).

Ix(setValueX, setValueY) or Current or Power as function of Set Value X A or

Px(setValueX, setValueY) and Set Value Y W

The Current or Power is defined depending on the values of the Data Bus Inputs
‘Set Value X’ and ‘Set Value Y’.
Additionally, the map interpolation mode can be selected between ‘Continuous’
and ‘Steplike’. For further description of these modes, please refer to the description
of component ‘Map’.

2.11.3 Input and Output Variables

2.11.3.1 Electrical Connection

UX,net Net voltage V

IX Current absorbed by the consumer A
2.11 Electrical Consumer (X) 125

2.11.3.2 Data Input

SX,act Switch –
ZX,act Set Value X –
ZY,act Set Value Y –

2.11.3.3 Data Output

IX Current A
UX,net Net voltage V
Px Power W

2.11.4 Computation Variables

RX,act Actual internal resistance Ω

2.11.5 Equation System

The electrical consumer is switched on or off dependent on the switch and the
regulation value.
The actual inner resistance RX,act is evaluated out of the map with consideration
of the current switch position.
With this, the instantaneous current can be calculated [2]:

UX;net
IX ¼ ð2:11:1Þ
RX;act

2.12 Electric Motor (J)

The electric motor can be used for electrically driven vehicles, cars with hybrid
drive or to operate auxiliaries such as a fan or an oil pump.
The electric motor is defined by means of characteristic curves. Therefore, dif-
ferent motor type models can be constructed [1].
126 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.12.1 Properties

Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
Selection Button Definition
Efficiency
Efficiency Map
Load-dependent Efficiency Maps
Current Map
The efficiency is defined as a constant value. In addition to the torque map, the
efficiency-current curves (idle current map, starting current map) have to be given.
Selection Button Definition
Efficiency
Efficiency Map
Load-dependent Efficiency Maps
Current Map
Here the efficiency map has to be defined. Then the current–voltage characteristic is
calculated with the efficiency map and the torque-speed map.
Selection Button Definition
Efficiency
Efficiency Map
Load-dependent Efficiency Maps
Current Map
In addition to the torque map and the efficiency–current curves, there can be up to 5
load-dependent efficiency maps defined.
The efficiency value of the actual voltage is interpolated from this data.
Selection Button Definition
Efficiency
Efficiency Map
Load-dependent Efficiency Maps
Current Map
The Motor Characteristic is defined by the torque map and the current–voltage map.
5. Switches: Load-Dependent Efficiency Map U1, …, U5
If the selection button Definition is set to Load-dependent Efficiency Maps, up to
5 efficiency maps can be defined for up to 5 voltage levels.

2.12.2 User-Defined Variables

θJ Inertia Moment of the Electric Motor kg m2

2.12 Electric Motor (J) 127

u_ J;min Minimum Speed rad/s

The minimum speed is the minimum angular velocity the electric motor can run at.

u_ J;max Maximum Speed rad/s

The maximum speed is the maximum angular velocity the electric motor can run at.

UJ,nom Nominal Voltage V

The nominal voltage is defined for every electric motor. Normally it should be
the same as in the whole onboard network.

ηJ Efficiency %

This input can only be provided if the selection button Definition is set to
Efficiency.


M J u_ J;out ; UJ Torque–Voltage Map of Motor Nm

Map of the output torque dependent on the speed and the voltage.


I J u_ J;out ; U J Current–Voltage Map of Motor A

Map of the absorbed current dependent on the speed and the voltage.


gJ u_ J;out ; U J Efficiency Map –

Efficiency map is dependent on the speed and the voltage. It has to be defined
when selected in the property window. In addition the starting current value has to
be given.


gJ;i u_ J;out;i ; PJ;i Load-dependent Efficiency Maps i = 1, …,5 –

For each voltage level selected by the Load-dependent Efficiency Maps switches,
efficiency map depending on the speed and the electrical power can be defined.


I J u_ J;out Idle Current Curve A

Curve of the absorbed current dependent on the idle speed.


I J;A hJ;out Starting Current Curve A

Curve of the absorbed current dependent on the starting speed.

128 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

The last 2 curves must be defined if the selection button Definition is set to
Efficiency or Load-dependent Efficiency Maps.

2.12.3 Input and Output Variables

2.12.3.1 Mechanical Connections

u_ J;out Angular velocity of the motor rad/s

€ J;out
u Angular acceleration of the motor rad/s2
MJ,out Instantaneous motor torque Nm

2.12.3.2 Electrical Connections

UJ,net Net Voltage V

IJ Absorbed motor current A

2.12.3.3 Data Input

αJ Load Signal –
ZJ Switch –

2.12.3.4 Data Output

KJ,act Operation Control –

UJ,net Net Voltage V
u_ J;out Speed rad/s
MJ,out Electric Motor Torque Nm
QJ Energy Consumption As
IJ Current A
PJ Mechanical Power W
PJ,loss Power Loss W
2.12 Electric Motor (J) 129

2.12.4 Computation Variables

MJ,act Actual motor moment Nm

IJ,act Actual motor current A
ηJ,act Actual efficiency value of the motor –
IJ,A Starting Current of the motor A
PJ,el,act Actual electrical power of the motor W
PJ,mech,act Actual mechanical power of the motor W
UJ,act Actual voltage of the motor V
αJ Load control signal –

2.12.5 Equation System

2.12.5.1 Mechanical Part

For the actual angular velocity nact and the actual voltage the actual values of MJ are
calculated:
n, nact... (actual) speed of the motor [2]:

MJ;act ¼ Mðnact ; Uact Þ  aJ ð2:12:1Þ

For the actual angular velocity nact and the actual net voltage, the actual value of
the mechanical power is determined from the torque map M (nact, UJ,act) [2]:

PJ;mech;act ¼ MJ;act  nact ð2:12:2Þ

2.12.5.2 Electrical Part

Current–Voltage Map

Calculation of the actual current by the current–voltage map [2]:


IJ;act ¼ I nact ; UJ;net :absðaJ Þ ð2:12:3Þ

Constant Efficiency Value

Calculation by efficiency value, idle current map, and starting current map. Actual
electrical power [2]:
130 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

PJ;mech;act
PJ;el;act ¼ n 6¼ 0; M 6¼ 0 ð2:12:4Þ
gJ

Actual current of the motor [2]:

PJ;el;act
IJ;act ¼ : ð2:12:5Þ
UJ;act

Special cases:
n = 0, M = 0 → Iact = 0.
n ≠ 0, M = 0 → by the idle current curve: IJ,act = I(nact).
n = 0, M ≠ 0 → by the starting current curve: IJ,act = I(MJ,act).

Efficiency Map

Calculation of the actual power and the actual current by the efficiency map and the
starting current [2]:

PJ;mech;act
PJ;el;act ¼ ð2:12:6Þ
gJ;act

with ηJ,act = η(nact,Uact) with n ≠ 0 [2]:

PJ;el;ct
IJ;act ¼ ð2:12:7Þ
UJ;act

Special case [2]:

n ¼ 0 ! IJ;act ¼ IJ;A : ð2:12:8Þ

Load-dependent efficiency maps

There are maps for certain load levels.

η = f (n, PJ,mech), each U1, …,U5 can be optionally defined.
Determination of the electrical power [2]:

PJ;mech;ct
PJ;el;act ¼ ð2:12:9Þ
gJ;act

whereas ηJ,act is calculated as follows:

For those (two) voltage levels with Uj  UJ;act  Uk the ηj,act and ηk,act act are
calculated.
2.12 Electric Motor (J) 131

These values are used for the interpolation of ηj,act.

The current is defined by [2]:

PJ;el;act
IJ;act ¼ ð2:12:10Þ
UJ;act

Special cases:
n = 0, M = 0 → IJ,act = 0.
n = 0, M ≠ 0 → by the starting current curve: IJ,act = I(MJ,act).
n ≠ 0, M = 0 → by the idle current curve: IJ,act = I(nact).

Definitions of Idle and Starting

Minimal angular velocity u_ min maximal angular velocity u_ max ... are given by the
user; Minimal

 Mmin, maximal torque Mmax … are determined by the torque
torque
map MJ u_ J;out ; UJ
If the actual values of angular velocity/torque are beyond their 1 %-limit of their
maximum values, the engine is in starting/idle status.
Starting limit u_ 0 ¼ u_ max  0:01
When u_ act ¼ u_ 0 we consider the motor to be in standstill, and the calculation
uses the starting current curve.
Idle limit M0 = Mmax · 0.01
When Mact < M0, we consider the motor to be in idle status, and the calculation
uses the idle current curve.

2.13 Electric Machine (EM)

The Electric Machine component can be used either as an electric motor or as a

generator. There are separate Characteristic Maps for each mode. With this com-
ponent and together with the components battery H and supercapacitor, the user can
simulate hybrid systems.
The model of the electric machine contains two components, the inverter and the
electric motor. For this kind of model a Characteristic Map for the efficiency is used
to calculate the loss of power [1].
The thermal model takes the warm up of the electric machine into account regarding
the occurring losses. The warm up of the environment, respectively, the cooling system
due to the electric machine is not considered in the electric machine component.
The actual temperature of the semiconductor elements in the inverter must not
(not even at starting time or at transient load cycle) exceed the upper limit, since the
consequence would be the destruction of the inverter [1].
The maximal power should be restricted to avoid a exceeding of the given limit
for the temperature due to the occurring losses. Therefore, the permissible losses are
132 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

dependent on the actual temperature of the motor and the maximal moment of
inertia is determined according to these values [1].

2.13.1 Properties

Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
Selection Button Losses
Efficiency
Power Loss
The efficiency has to be defined depending on speed and power (or torque).
Selection Button Losses
Efficiency
Power Loss
In this case, the power loss has to be defined depending on speed and power (or
torque).
Selection Button Temperature
Calculated
From Data Bus
The machine temperature is calculated by the component using a special thermal
model. Selection button Temperature
Calculated
From Data Bus
The actual value of the machine temperature is taken from the Data Bus and used
for further calculations in the component.
Selection Button Current Limit
On
Off
If the button is switched on, the actual current is set to the user-defined limit every
time it exceeds this limit.
Selection Button Current Limit
On
Off
When the button is switched off, the actual current has no user-defined limit.
Selection Button Control Variable
Load Signal
Desired Torque
In this case the Electric Machine is controlled by Load Signal. The Data Bus Input
‘Load Signal’ has to be connected.
2.13 Electric Machine (EM) 133

Selection Button Control Variable

Load Signal
Desired Torque
In this case the electric machine is controlled by desired torque. The Data Bus input
‘Desired Torque’ has to be connected.
4. Switches: Machine Maps U2, …, U5
When these switches are deactivated, the user can enter the characteristic maps only
for one user-defined constant voltage level U1. If the user activates some of the
switches U2…U5, the Characteristic Maps of the machine (maximum power
(torque) and efficiency) can be defined in more detail by defining every map
dependent on the corresponding voltage level U2…U5 (which could be entered in
“Characteristic Maps of Machine”). In this case the actual characteristics are
interpolated out of the defined maps.

2.13.2 User-Defined Variables

EEM Type of Machine –

The user can select between an ASM (Asynchronous Motor) and a PSM
(Permanent magnetic Synchronous Motor).

MEM Selection switch for Characteristic Maps and Curves –

Selection between ‘motor-related’, ‘generator-related’ and ‘overall.’

motor-related: data of the Characteristic Maps have been measured in motoric
mode and are referred to the 1st drive quadrant.
generator-related: data of the Characteristic Maps have been measured in
generatoric mode and are referred to the 4th drive quadrant.
overall: 4 Quadrants mode; data for all quadrants can be entered. At least data
for
one motoric quadrant (1st or 3rd) and for one generatoric quadrant (2nd or 4th) are
required. Quadrants with no data are calculated by reflection over the point (0/0).
Nominal Values

UEM,nom Nominal Voltage V

The Nominal Voltage should be the same as in the onboard network.

ΘEM,nom Inertia Moment kg m2

IEM,mot,max Maximum Current–Motor A
134 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

u_ EM;mot;max Maximum Speed 1/min

The maximum speed is the maximum angular velocity the electric motor can run at.

MEM,drag Drag Torque Nm

IEM,gen,max Maximum Current–Generator A

Thermal Model

mEM Mass of Machine kg

TEM,init Initial Temperature °C

This is the temperature which the electric machine has at calculation start.

αEM,th Specific Heat Transition W/K

The specific heat transition sums up all influences (such as material, surface state
etc.), which influence the transmission of heat.

tEM,T Thermal Time Constant of Maximum Power s

This is the maximum time that the machine can run with maximum power.
The thermal time constant of maximum power is the time duration where the
maximum power can be delivered. During this time, the ambient temperature must
not increase.

TEM,max Maximum Temperature °C

CEM,th Specific Heat Capacity J/kg K

The specific heat capacity defines the different heating behavior of the material.
It is the energy, which is needed in order to warm up material of 1 kg mass by 1 K
(temperature).

TEM,L Layout Temperature °C

The layout temperature is the temperature where the electric machine has its
highest efficiency.

βEM,Rem Temperature Coefficient of Remanence Induction 1/K

With this coefficient, the influence of the temperature on the remanence induc-
tion is defined.
2.13 Electric Machine (EM) 135

Characteristic Maps of Machine

The value of the voltage level should be entered at which the following
Characteristic Maps of the machine have been measured. In addition to the U1
level, up to 4 further levels U2…U5 could be activated in the property window. For
each activated level the corresponding voltage value must be defined and the
corresponding Characteristic Maps.

UEM Voltage V


PEM;UEM ;max u_ EM;out Maximum Power (Torque) mechanical kW

Either the maximum mechanical power or the maximum mechanical torque is

defined as function of the machine’s speed.

gEM PEM;UEM;act ;_uEM;out . Efficiency %

The Efficiency of the electric machine is defined dependent on speed and power
(or torque). This has to be defined if the selection button ‘Losses’ is set to
Efficiency.


PEM;loss PEM;UEM;act ;_uEM;out . Power Loss W

The Power Loss of the electric machine is defined dependent on speed and
power (or torque). This has to be defined if the selection button ‘Losses’ is set to
Power Loss.

2.13.3 Input and Output Variables

2.13.3.1 Mechanical Connections

u_ EMt Angular velocity rad/s

€ EM
u Angular acceleration rad/s2
u_ EM;max Maximum of angular velocity rad/s
MEM,dt Torque Nm

2.13.3.2 Electrical Connections

UEM,net Net Voltage V

IEM Current A
136 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.13.3.3 Data Input

TEM,env Ambient temperature °C

TEM,ext External temperature °C
αEM Load signal –
MEM,desired Desired Torque Nm
ZEM Switch –

2.13.3.4 Data Output

UEM,net Net Voltage V

IEM Current A
MEMt (TEM) Torque Nm
u_ EM;out Angular velocity rad/s
TEM Temperature °C
MEM,max,mot Maximum torque-motor Nm
MEM,max,gen Maximum torque-generator Nm
KEM,mode Operating mode −
KEM Operating control −
KEM,overvolt State-Voltage overflow −
PEM,el Electric Power W
αEM Actual Load Signal –
PEM,mech Mechanical Power W
PEM,loss Power Loss W

2.13.4 Computation Variables

PEM,loss,max Maximum loss of power kW

PEM,loss Actual loss of power kW
PEM,el Actual electric power W
MEM,max Maximum torque Nm
PEM,mech Actual mechanical power kW
2.13 Electric Machine (EM) 137

2.13.5 Equation System

2.13.5.1 Mechanical Part

The actual moment of the drivetrain is given by [2]:

€ EM;out
MEM;dt ¼ MEM  HEM;nom u ð2:13:1Þ

The following calculation is used for permanent field machines [2]:

MEM ðTEM Þ ¼ ð1 þ bEM;REm ðTEM  TEM;L ÞÞMEM ðTEM;L Þ ð2:13:2Þ

(drivetrain turned off) [2]

2
MEM ¼ MEM;drag u_ EM =u_ EM;max ð2:13:3Þ

For permanent field machines the losses of iron have to be taken into
consideration.
If the drivetrain is turned on the following calculation is used [2].

MEM ¼ kMEM;max;mot ; if k [ 0; ð2:13:4Þ

MEM = (−k)MEM,max,gen, otherwise.

Special Case: If the torque of the generator is very small or if it is zero, then the
drivetrain is in motor-related mode to balance friction torque, etc.

2.13.5.2 Electrical Part

The electric power is given by [2]:

PEM;el ¼ PEM;mech þ PEM;loss : ð2:13:5Þ

The loss of power PEM,loss consists of losses of iron, copper, and losses
according to friction.
It is completely transformed into heat. The mechanical power of the drivetrain is
defined by [2]:

PEM;mech ¼ u_ EM MEM ð2:13:6Þ

There are the following conventions of the sign:

If PEM,el > 0, then the motor-related mode is chosen, else if PEM,el < 0, then the
generator-related mode is chosen.
138 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

There are two possible cases for the loss of power and the efficiency in
motor-related mode. There MEM,1 and u_ EM;1 are the smallest data points in the
characteristic map of the machine.
Motor-related losses [2]
If M EM;out [ M EM;1 ; u_ EM;out [ u_ EM;1


PEM;loss;act ¼ PEM;mech;act 1=EM MEM;out ; u_ EM;out  1 ð2:13:7Þ

If M EM;out [ M EM;1 ; 0\u_ EM;out  u_ EM;1



PEM;loss;act ¼ u_ EM;out;1 MEM; 1=g MEM;out ; u_ EM;out  1 ð2:13:8Þ
EM

Generator-related losses [2]

If M EM;1 [ M EM;drag ; then M EM;1 is set to M EM;drag :
If jM EM j 0; u_ EM 0

PEM;loss ¼ PEM;mech ð1  gEM ðMEM ; u_ EM ÞÞ ð2:13:9Þ

If jM EM j 0; u_ EM ffi 0

PEM;loss ¼ u_ EM;1 MEM ð1  gEM ðMEM ; u_ EM ÞÞ ð2:13:10Þ

Losses due to small torque [2]

If MEM;out 0; u_ EM;out 0
h 


i
PEM;loss ¼ u_ EM MEM;1 aðMEM Þ 1=EM MEM;1 ; u_ EM  1 þ ð1  aðMEM ÞÞ 1  gEM MEM;1 ; u_ EM

ð2:13:11Þ

If MEM;out _ EM;out ffi 0
0; ug
h 


 i
PEM;loss ¼ u_ EM MEM;1 aðMEM Þ 1=g MEM;1 ; u_ EM;1  1 þ ð1  aðMEM ÞÞ 1  gEM MEM;1 ; u_ EM;1
EM

ð2:13:12Þ

where



aðMEM Þ ¼ MEM  MEM;drag u_ EM 2 = MEM;1  MEM;drag u_ EM 2 ð2:13:13Þ

The difference between the losses in motor-related mode and the losses in
generator-related mode is given by the lowest torque in the Characteristic Map and
the drag torque. In the domain above the smallest positive torque the motor-related
mode is used and the efficiency is unique defined. In the domain below the negative
torque and below the drag torque the generator-related mode is used. In the domain
2.13 Electric Machine (EM) 139

between the described domains again the motor-related mode is being used. There a
smooth transition in the loss of power.
Furthermore the terminal current of the drivetrain is given by [2]:

IEM ¼ PEM;el =UEM;net ð2:13:14Þ

For the maximal torque the following is defined using the loss of power and [2]:

Rth ¼ 1=aEM;th ð2:13:15Þ

IEM ¼ PEM;el =UEM;net ð2:13:16Þ





   
PEM;loss;max ¼ TEM  TEM;env þ TEM;max  TEM = 1  exp 1 tEM;T = CEM;th Rth =Rth :
ð2:13:17Þ


MEM;max;mot ¼ MEM;max;mot PEM;loss;max ; IEM;mot;max ð2:13:18Þ


MEM;max;gen ¼ MEM;max;gen PEM;loss;max ; IEM;gen;max ð2:13:19Þ

Here the complete Characteristic Map is being searched beginning at the max-
imal permitted torque, until the loss of power is smaller than PEM,loss,max. This value
is the maximal permitted torque. The same holds for the generator-related mode.
There the maximal torque is calculated using the maximum of all angular
velocities using [2]:

MEM;max ¼ PEM;UEM ;max ðu_ EM Þ=u_ EM ð2:13:20Þ

2.13.5.3 Thermal Part

The basic equations of the transition of heat in the electric machine are [2]:

dQ ¼ mEM CEM;th dT ¼ =PEM;W dt ð2:13:21Þ

PEM,W is the complete power, which is transformed into heat. It consists of the heat
power due to electric losses and due to the heat transition to the environment [2]:

PW ¼ PEM;loss þ PEM;env ð2:13:22Þ

and [2]:


PEM;env ¼ aEM;th TEM  TEM;env ð2:13:23Þ
140 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.14 Battery H (QH)

Together with the components supercapacitor and electric machine, the component
battery H is used for modeling hybrid vehicles.
The basic model consists of a voltage source and a resistance. The resistance is
constructed that way that complex processes within the battery can be considered.
2 RC elements can be added optionally. They describe the concentration over-
voltage and the transition overvoltage.
Also, the resistance’s dependence on the temperature can be activated optionally.
There can be modeled single cells as well as a combination of them. Therefore,
any modules can be constructed [1].
The thermal behavior of the battery is described by a thermal model. Here, the
warming caused by the losses and the cooling caused by convection is taken under
consideration [1].

2.14.1 Properties

Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
Selection Button Temperature
Calculated
From Data Bus
The battery’s temperature is calculated by the component using a thermal model.
Selection Button Temperature
Calculated
From Data Bus
The actual value of the battery’s temperature which has been calculated externally
is taken from the Data Bus and used for further calculations in the component.
Selection Button Ohmic Resistances
Constant
Temperature Dependent
Temperature and SOC Dependent
The constant values are used for the calculation.
Selection Button Ohmic Resistances
Constant
Temperature Dependent
Temperature and SOC Dependent
In this case the temperature-dependent maps for the internal resistances are used.
2.14 Battery H (QH) 141

Selection Button Ohmic Resistances

Constant
Temperature Dependent
Temperature and SOC Dependent
In this case, up to 5 ‘Battery Characteristics—Temperature and SOC Dependent’
can be used where each is associated with a user-defined constant temperature
value. During calculation in every time step an interpolation between these char-
acteristics is done to generate temperature-dependent values.
Switch Coulombic Efficiency
This switch can only be activated if the selection button Ohmic Resistances is set
to temperature and SOC dependent.
If this switch is selected, the coulombic efficiency in charge mode can be defined
dependent on the State of Charge. This can be defined for up to 5 temperature
levels.
Switch Resistances RC Concentration Overvoltage
By activating this switch, the RC concentration overvoltage resistances are taken
into consideration during the calculation.
Switch Resistances RC Transfer Overvoltage
By activating this switch, the RC transfer overvoltage resistances are taken into
consideration during the calculation.
Switch Characteristics T1–T5
With these switches, the associated ‘Battery Characteristics—Temperature and
SOC Dependent’ can be activated for up to 5 temperature levels. This selection is
only available if the selection button Ohmic Resistances is set to Temperature and
SOC Dependent.

2.14.2 User-Defined Variables

Nominal Values of Cell

QQH,max Maximum Charge As

QQH,init Initial Charge %

The initial charge is the charge the cell has at the beginning of the calculation. It
is defined as percentage of the maximum charge.

UQH,nom Nominal Voltage V

142 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

The nominal voltage of the cell depends on the used material.

UQH,max Maximum Voltage V

The actual voltage of the cell should not exceed the defined value of the
maximum voltage.

UQH,min Minimum Voltage V

The actual voltage of the cell should not be lower than the defined value of the
minimum voltage.
Number of Cells

NQH,cells_in_row Number of Cells per Cell-Row –

NQH,cell_rows Number of Cell-Rows –

The battery’s cell structure is kind of a matrix with a constant number of rows
and a constant number of cells in each row.
Thermal Model

TQH,op Operating Temperature K

This is the temperature where the battery has its highest efficiency.

mQH,cell Mass of a Cell kg

αQH,th,trans Specific Heat Transition W/K

The specific heat transition summarizes all influences (such as material, surface
state, conductivity) which influence the transmission of heat.

CQH,th Specific Heat Capacity J/kg K

The specific heat capacity defines the different heating behaviors of the
material. It is the energy which is needed in order to warm up material of 1 kg mass
by 1 K.
Characteristic Maps of Machine

UQH,idle,charge(QQH,act) Idle Voltage—Charge V

The idle voltage—charger is the idle voltage of one cell in charge mode. There is
no electrical consumer. It is a function of the SOC.
2.14 Battery H (QH) 143

UQH,idle,discharge(QQH,act) Idle Voltage—Discharge V

The idle voltage—discharge of one cell is the voltage without an electrical

consumer that means there is no flow of the current. It is a function of the SOC.

RQH,charge(TQH,act) Ohmic Resistance—Charge Ohm

The ohmic resistance—charge is the internal resistance of one cell in charge

mode. It is a function of the temperature of the battery. If the switch resistances
temperature dependent is switched off, then only a fixed value is needed.

RQH,discharge(TQH,act) Ohmic Resistance—Discharge Ohm

The ohmic resistance—discharge is the internal resistance of one cell in dis-

charge mode. It is a dependent on the temperature of the battery. If the switch
resistances temperature dependent is switched off, then only a fixed value is needed.

CQH,conc,charge Capacity of RC Concentration Overvoltage—Charge A s/V

The capacity of RC concentration—charge is the nominal capacity of the RC

concentration overvoltage in charge mode.
This input is only needed if the switch resistances RC concentration overvoltage
is activated.

RQH,conc,charge(TQH,act) Resistance of RC Concentration Overvoltage—Charge Ohm

The resistance RC concentration overvoltage—charge is the internal resistance

of the RC concentration overvoltage in charge mode. It is defined as a function of
the temperature of the battery. This input is only needed if the switch resistances
RC concentration overvoltage is activated. Additionally, only a fixed value is
needed, if the switch resistances temperature dependent is switched off.

CQH,conc,discharge Capacity of RC Concentration Overvoltage—Discharge A s/V

The capacity of RC concentration—discharge is the nominal capacity of the RC

concentration overvoltage in discharge mode. This input is only needed if the
switch resistances RC concentration overvoltage is activated.

RQH,conc,discharge(TQH, Resistance of RC Concentration Overvoltage—Discharge Ohm

act)

The resistance RC concentration overvoltage—discharge is the internal resis-

tance of the RC concentration overvoltage in discharge mode. It is defined as a
function of the temperature of the battery. This input is only needed if the switch
144 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

resistances RC concentration overvoltage is activated. Additionally, only a fixed

value is needed, if the switch resistances temperature dependent is switched off.

CQH,trans,charge Capacity of RC Transfer Overvoltage—Charge A s/V

The capacity of RC transfer—charge is the nominal capacity of the RC transfer

overvoltage in charge mode. This input is only needed if the switch resistances RC
concentration overvoltage is activated.

RQH,trans,charge(TQH,act) Resistance of RC Transfer Overvoltage—Charge Ohm

The resistance RC transfer overvoltage—charge is the internal resistance of the

RC transfer overvoltage in charge mode. It is defined as a function of the tem-
perature of the battery. This input is only needed if the switch resistances RC
transfer overvoltage is activated. Additionally, only a fixed value is needed, if the
switch resistances temperature dependent is switched off.

CQH,trans,discharge Capacity of RC Transfer Overvoltage—Discharge A s/V

The capacity of RC transfer—discharge is the nominal capacity of the RC

transfer overvoltage in discharge mode. This input is only needed if the switch
resistances RC concentration overvoltage is activated.

RQH,trans,discharge(TQH,act) Resistance of RC Transfer Overvoltage—Discharge Ohm

The resistance RC transfer overvoltage—discharge is the internal resistance of

the RC transfer overvoltage in discharge mode. It is defined as a function of the
temperature of the battery. This input is only needed if the switch resistances RC
transfer overvoltage is activated. Additionally, only a fixed value is needed, if the
switch resistances temperature dependent is switched off.
Battery Characteristics—Temperature and SOC Dependent
The following input is only required if the selection button Ohmic Resistances is
set to Temperature and SOC Dependent.

TG,i Temperature i = 1, …, 5 °C

For each activated, temperature depending ‘battery characteristics—temperature

and SOC dependent’, the temperature level has to be specified.

UQH,idle,charge,i(QQH,act) Idle Voltage—Charge i = 1, …, 5 V

UQH,idle,discharge,i(QQH,act) Idle Voltage—Discharge i = 1, …, 5 V

For each activated, temperature depending ‘battery characteristics—temperature

and SOC dependent’, the idle voltage has to be defined depending on the State of
Charge.
2.14 Battery H (QH) 145

RQH,charge,i(QQH,act) Ohmic Resistance—Charge i =, …, 5 Ohm

RQH,discharge,i(QQH,act) Ohmic Resistance—Discharge i =, …, 5 Ohm

For each activated, temperature depending ‘battery characteristics—temperature

and SOC dependent’, the ohmic resistance has to be defined depending on the State
of Charge.

ηQH,charge,i(QQH,act) Coulombic Efficiency—Charge i = 1, …, 5 %

For each activated, temperature depending ‘battery characteristics—temperature

and SOC dependent’, the coulombic efficiency in charge mode has to be defined
depending on the State of Charge.

RQH,conc,charge,i(QQH,act) Resistance of RC Concentration Overvoltage—Charge Ohm

i = , …, 5
RQH,conc,discharge,i(QQH,act) Resistance of RC Concentration Overvoltage— Ohm
Discharge i = , …, 5

For each activated, temperature depending ‘battery characteristics—temperature

and SOC dependent’, the resistance of RC concentration overvoltage has to be
defined depending on the State of Charge.

RQH,trans,charge,i(QQH,act) Resistance of RC Transfer Overvoltage—Charge i = , …, Ohm

5
RQH,trans,discharge(QQH,act) Resistance of RC Transfer Overvoltage—Discharge Ohm

For each activated, temperature depending ‘battery characteristics—temperature

and SOC dependent’, the resistance of RC transfer overvoltage has to be defined
depending on the State of Charge.

2.14.3 Input and Output Variables

2.14.3.1 Electrical Connections

IQH Actual Battery Current A

UQH,net Actual Net Voltage V

2.14.3.2 Data Input

TQH,ambient Ambient Temperature °C

(continued)
146 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

TQH,extern Temperature external °C

ZQH Switch –

2.14.3.3 Data Output

UQH,net Net Voltage V

IQH Current A
QQH Battery Charge As
SOCQH State of Charge As
TQH Temperature °C
ZQH,overcharge Status—Overcharge –
ZQH,overvoltage Status—Overvoltage –
ZQH,undervoltage Status—Undervoltage –
PQH Power W
PQH,loss Power Loss W

2.14.4 Computation Variables

UQH,terminal Terminal Voltage of a cell V

UQH,idle Idle Voltage of a cell V
IQH,terminal Terminal Current of a cell A
SOCQH State of Capacity of a cell –
IQH,ohmic Actual Current through cell A
QQH,conc Charge of RC Concentration Overvoltage As
QQH,trans Charge of RC Transfer Overvoltage As
QQH Actual Charge of the cell As
IQH,ohmic,trans Current through resistance of RC Transfer Overvoltage A
IQH,ohmic,conc Current through ohmic resistance of RC Concentration Overvoltage A
IQH,max,charge Maximum Current in charge mode A
IQH,max,discharge Maximum Current in discharge mode A
PQH,out,max Maximum Power out W
PQH,in,max Maximum Power in W
PQH,th Total thermal Power W
PQH,th,el Thermal Power within the cell W
PQH,th,ambient Thermal Power transferred to the environment W
TQH,bat Actual Temperature of the battery °C
TQH,ambient Actual ambient Temperature °C
2.14 Battery H (QH) 147

2.14.5 Equation System

Through an internal calculation it is possible to use one single cell as well as any
combination of cells. Therefore the user can construct any desired module.

2.14.5.1 Electrical Equations

The electrical equations of a battery cell are described as follows [2]:



UQH;terminal ¼ UQH;idle IQH;terminal ; SOC  IQH;ohmic  RQH IQH;terminal
 QQH;conc =CQH;conc  QQH;trans =CQH;trans ð2:14:1Þ


IQH;ohmic;trans ¼ QQH;trans = CQH;trans  RQH;trans ð2:14:2Þ


IQH;ohmic;conc ¼ QQH;conc = CQH;conc  RQH;conc ð2:14:3Þ

Here the current influences the idle voltage and the resistance only by its sign.
The maximal currents of the battery cell are calculated by [2]:


IQH;max;charge ¼ ðUQH;idle;charge IQH;terminal ; SOC

 UQH;max
  QQH;conc =CQH;conc
 QQH;trans =CQH;trans Þ=RQH IQH;terminal :
ð2:14:4Þ

and [2]:


IQH;max;discharge ¼ ðUQH;idle;discharge IQH;terminal ; SOC  UQH;min;discharge


 QQH;conc =CQH;conc  QQH;trans =CQH;trans Þ=RQH IQH;terminal
ð2:14:5Þ

with [2]:

SOCQH ¼ QQH =QQH;max ð2:14:6Þ

The initial values are calculated by [2]:

QQH;init ¼ SOCQH;init  QQH;max ð2:14:7Þ

The maximum power in and maximum power out are calculated in a numerical
way by searching for the maximum within the functions [2]:



PQH;out;max UQH;min;discharge ; IQH;terminal and PQH;in;max UQH;max;charge ; I QH;terminal
148 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.14.5.2 Thermal Equations

The basic equation for the heating within a material is [2]:

dQ ¼ mQH;cell  CQH;heat dTQH;bat ¼ PQH;th dt ð2:14:8Þ

Here, PQH,th is the total power that is converted into heat. It consists of the heat
power inside the cell caused by electrical losses and of the heat transfer to the
environment [2]:

PQH;th ¼ PQH;th;el þ PQH;th;ambient ð2:14:9Þ

and it is [2]:


PQH;th;ambient ¼ aQH;th;trans TQH;bat  TQH;ambient ð2:14:10Þ

and [2]:


PQH;th;el ¼ IQH;ohmic
2
 RQH þ IQH;ohmic;trans
2
 RQH;trans þ IQH;conc
2
TQH;act  RQH;conc




þ 0:5IQH;terminal  UQH;idle IQH;terminal  SOCQH  UQH;idle IQH;terminal ; SOCQH
ð2:14:11Þ

with the last term describing the losses caused by the polarization voltage.

2.15 Gearbox Control (O)

The gearbox control is needed to define an automatic gearbox. In the gearbox

control, the gear shifting process can be defined automatically without any influ-
ence of the driver [1].
The gearbox control shifts the gears dependent on a speed or a velocity. The
decision which one of the two shifting strategies is used is done in the calculation
tasks. Which speed, respectively which velocity is used can be defined via the
Data Bus. It is possible to define the engine speed but it is also possible to define the
wheel speed as reference [1].
The gearbox control is also the connection between the gearbox program and the
gearbox [1].

2.15.1 Properties

Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
2.15 Gearbox Control (O) 149

Switch Time Delay Gear Dependent

If this switch is activated, the time delay between the start of a shifting procedure
and the start of a gear change can be defined gear dependent.
This functionality is necessary especially for automatic gearboxes or Shift by
Wire (Step-Tronic).
Switch Skipping Gear(s) For Upshifting Allowed
When this switch is activated, then the highest gear satisfying the shifting condition
will be shifted, thus more than one gear step could be skipped.
Switch Skipping Gear(s) For Downshifting Allowed
When this switch is activated, then the lowest gear satisfying the shifting condition
will be shifted, thus more than one gear step could be skipped.
The following Selection Buttons are only used for Task ‘System Analysis Mode
(SAM)’:
Selection Button SAM
Shifting Strategy
Gearbox Control
For automatic cockpits it can be determined that the gearbox control controls the
gear shifting process.
Gear Shifting Program
For automatic cockpits it can be determined that the gearbox program controls the
gear shifting process.
Selection Button SAM
Gear Selection Upshifting
According to Velocity
The values for shifting gears according to velocity as defined for the driver (manual
cockpit or pressed Tiptronic switch for automatic cockpits) or with gear box control
(automatic cockpit and deactivated Tiptronic switch) are activated.
According to Speed
The values for shifting gears according to speed as defined for the driver (manual
cockpit or pressed Tiptronic switch for automatic cockpits) or with gear box control
(automatic cockpit and deactivated Tiptronic switch) are activated.
Selection Button SAM
Gear Selection Downshifting
This selection button has to be selected analog to the button SAM: Gear Selection
Upshifting.
150 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.15.2 User-Defined Variables

Gear Shifting according to Velocity

vO,inc[n] Upshifting Velocity vO,inc[n] for the nth gear km/h

vO,decr[n] Downshifting Velocity vO,decr[n] for the nth gear km/h

The velocities for up- and downshifting can be read e.g. in the following way:
The upshifting velocity of the 2nd gear means that at this velocity the gearbox
control is upshifting from the 2nd into the 3rd gear. The downshifting velocity for
the 2nd gear means that at this velocity the gearbox control is downshifting from
the 3rd into the 2nd gear. Therefore it is necessary to define the up- and down-
shifting velocities always only for one gear less than are available in the gearbox
(i.e., for a five step gearbox, only for four gears the up- and downshifting velocities
have to be defined).
Gear Shifting according to Speed

u_ O;incr ½i Upshifting Speed u_ O;incr ½i for the nth gear rpm
u_ O;decr ½i Downshifting Speed u_ O;decr ½i for the nth gear rpm

Similar to the shifting according to velocity the speeds for up- and downshifting
can be read e.g. in that way:
The upshifting speed of the 2nd gear means that at this speed the gearbox control
is upshifting from the 2nd into the 3rd gear. The downshifting speed for the 2nd
gear means that at this speed the gearbox control is downshifting from the 3rd into
the 2nd gear.
Therefore it is necessary to define the up- and downshifting speeds always only
for one gear less than are available in the gearbox (i.e., for a five step gearbox, only
for four gears the up- and downshifting speeds have to be defined).
Gear Shifting according to Speed of next Gear

u_ O;incr;next ½i Upshifting Speed of next Gear for the nth gear rpm
u_ O;decr;next ½i Downshifting Speed of next Gear for the nth gear rpm

Here the upshifting and downshifting speeds of the next gear are defined sep-
arate for each gear.
Delay Time Gear Dependent

TO,delay,incr[i] Upshifting delay time for the ith gear s

TO,delay,decr[i] Downshifting delay time for the ith gear s

Here the upshifting and downshifting time delays are defined separately for each
gear. Shifting procedures which are not described in the table get the time delay 0.
2.15 Gearbox Control (O) 151

2.15.3 Input and Output Variables

2.15.3.1 Data Input

Zcont,up Gear Selection Upshifting –

Zcont,dn Gear Selection Downshifting –
jO,targ Desired Gear (Cockpit) –
jO,actual Current Gear –
vV,act Velocity km/h
u_ ref;act Reference Speed rad/s
Zoperate Operation Control –
jO,prog Desired Gear (Gearbox Program) –

2.15.3.2 Data Output

jO,new Desired Gear –

tO,delay Time Delay Gear Dependent s

2.15.4 Computation Variables

jG,new/up New gear up –

jG,new,dn New gear down –

2.15.5 Equation System

The gear shifting strategy up (Zcont,up) and down (Zcont,dn) has the information from
where the gearbox control should take the target gear:
• profile shifting
• velocity shifting
• speed shifting
• program shifting
152 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.15.5.1 Profile Shifting

The target gear position comes from the driving profile [2]:


If jG;target  jG;act ! jG;new;up ¼ jG;target ð2:15:1Þ


If jG;target  jG;act ! jG;new;dn ¼ jG;target ð2:15:2Þ

2.15.5.2 Velocity Shifting

The reference is the vehicle velocity [2].



If jG;act \ NG ^ Vv;act  Vo;incr bjG;act c ! jG;new;up ¼ jG;act þ 1 ð2:15:3Þ



If jG;act [ 1 ^ Vv;act  Vo;decv bjG;act c ! jG;new;dn ¼ jG;act  1 ð2:15:4Þ

2.15.5.3 Speed Shifting

Each angular velocity could be selected via Data Bus for the reference speed [2].



If jG;act \ NG ^ u_ ref;act  u_ o;incr bjG;act b ! jG;new;up ¼ jG;act þ 1 ð2:15:5Þ



If jG;act [ 1 ^ u_ ref;act  u_ o;deu bjG;act c ! jG;new;dn ¼ jG;act  1 ð2:15:6Þ

2.15.5.4 Program Shifting

The shifting information is taken from the shifting program.

For up- and downshifting [2]:


If jG;prog  jG;act ! jG;new;up ¼ jG;prog ð2:15:7Þ


If jG;prog  jG;act ! jG;new;dn ¼ jG;prog ð2:15:8Þ

The new gear position is chosen as follows [2]:


If jG;new;up  jG;act þ 1 ! jG;new ¼ jG;act þ 1 ð2:15:9Þ


else if jG;new;dn  jG;act  1 ! jG;new ¼ jG;act  1 ð2:15:10Þ

else ! jG;new ¼ jG;act ð2:15:11Þ

2.16 Gearbox Program (P) 153

2.16 Gearbox Program (P)

Is used for automatic gearboxes in combination with the gearbox control.

The gearbox program allows for a more complicated gear shifting process than
the gearbox control, because here in addition the load signal of the engine is
considered [1].
The gearbox program shifts the gears according to given curves. The curves are
given as a function of the load signal and the engine speed. The target gear
determined by the program is transmitted to the gearbox control that transmits it to
the gearbox. Furthermore the curves could be optimized using iSIGHT. These
optimized curves (optimized shifting program) could also be used as input curves
for the gearbox program [1].

2.16.1 Properties

Switch Output
A result output for this component is made if this switch is activated.
Switch Optimized Shifting Program
By activating this switch the optimized shifting table is used in the gearbox
program. (An optimized shifting table must be established using “Start
Optimization of Shifting Program”.)
Selection Button Shifting Program Selection
Default
Optimized
Advanced
In this case up to five shifting programs can be defined.
Selection Button Shifting Program Selection
Default
Optimized
Advanced
In this case a shifting program is activated which can be optimized with iSIGHT.
Selection Button Shifting Program Selection
Default
Optimized
Advanced
In this case up to five shifting programs and up to five kick down tables can be
defined.
Remark: the advanced shifting programs import gear shifting data generated by the
task ‘GSP Generation’.
154 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Switch Shifting Program 2–5 (Data Bus Dependent)

With these switches the additional defined shifting programs (from 2 up to 5,
default or advanced) can be activated. With the Data Bus input ‘Shifting Program
Selector’ (which provides a double value), interpolations between the shifting
programs can be done.
Switch Kickdown
With this switch the kickdown table is activated. If the ‘Advanced Shifting Program
Selection’ has been done, up to 5 kickdown tables can be activated.
Switch Shift Remaining Time
When this switch is activated, the remaining time for upshifting and downshifting
for every gear can be defined. The remaining time is the minimal time after the shift
decision, in which no further shifting is allowed.

2.16.2 User-Defined Variables

Shifting Programs Standard

Shifting Program

u_ P;incr n; aE;dk or Upshifting Speed (Velocity) dependent on the gear rpm or

vP;incr n; aE;dk and the load signal km/h
u_ P;decr n; aE;dk or Downshifting Speed (Velocity) dependent on the gear rpm or
vP;decr n; aE;dk and the load signal km/h

The gear shifting process is done similar to the gearbox control. The only
difference is the dependence on the load signal of the engine.
If the shifting program should be defined not by speed but by velocity, the Data
Bus input ‘Velocity’ must be connected. The units of the shifting program and the
optimized shifting program influence each other. That means, if one of these pro-
grams is loaded with a different unit, also the other program gets this new unit.
The speeds for up- and downshifting can be read e.g. in the following way:
The upshifting speed of the 2nd gear with the special load signal means that at
this speed with this load signal the gearbox control is upshifting from the 2nd into
the 3rd gear.
The downshifting speed for the 2nd gear with the special load signal means that
at this speed with this load signal the gearbox control is downshifting from the 3rd
into the 2nd gear. Because it is not possible to define the shifting speeds for every
possible load signal the characteristic will be interpolated between the given points.
It is only necessary to define the up- and downshifting speeds always for one
gear less than are available in the gearbox (i.e., for a five step gearbox, only for four
gears the up- and downshifting speeds have to be defined).
2.16 Gearbox Program (P) 155

Shifting Programs 2–5

u_ P;incr n; aE;dk or Upshifting Speed 2–5 (Velocity) dependent on the gear rpm or
vP;incr n; aE;dk and the load signal km/h
u_ P;decr n; aE;dk or Downshifting Speed 2–5 (Velocity) dependent on the rpm or
vP;decr n; aE;dk gear and the load signal km/h

With the properties switches ‘Shifting Program 2–5’ up to four additional

shifting programs can be defined.
With the Data Bus input ‘Shifting Program Selector’ (which provides a double
value), interpolations between the defined shifting programs can be done.
Optimized Shifting Program

b1 Weight for the penalty term “Performance” in the objective function –

b3 Weight for the penalty term “Driveability” in the objective function –

Regarding the minimization of the fuel consumption and the minimization of the
Full Load Acceleration time in standard driving cycles, it is possible to optimize the
Gear Shifting Program. Furthermore the driving performance should be improved
and the shifting process which should be optimized is equal to the normal gear
shifting process (see Fig. 2.16).
Figure 2.16 shows a typical gear shifting map. The green line is for downshif-
ting, the red one for upshifting of the gear. The first lines are the change between
the gears one and two, second pair between two and three and so on. This means, if
the actual speed is lower than the most left green line, then the gear is changed from
the second to the first gear, and if it is larger than the first red one, then the gear is
changed from the first to the second gear.

2 to 1 1 to 2
100
90
80 1 Up
70
Load signal [%]

2 Up
60
3 Up
50
4 Up
40
30 1 Down
20 2 Down
10 3 Down
0
4 Down
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Gear output speed [1/min]

Fig. 2.16 Gear shifting map example. (dashed red down shifting, black up shifting) [2]
156 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

100
90
80
Load signal [%] 70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Gear output speed [1/min]

Fig. 2.17 Restrictions in the Gear Shifting Program [2]

The discretized gear shifting map has between 80 and 100 unknowns, depending
on the refinement level of the gear shifting map in the input data.
The following figure denotes the possible movements of the unknowns (dis-
cretization node). The horizontal lines can move to the right and left and the inner
points may move up and down.
The limits for the movements are for the inner points the neighbor points of the
same line and for the horizontal lines the corresponding other line (the up for the
down line and vice versa) such that there is still a hysteresis in the curve.
This is needed for the decision of the Gear Shifting Program about up or
downshifting for an actual speed of the vehicle (Fig. 2.17).
The fuel consumption is given by the calculation of the driving cycle in liters per
100 km as calculated in the task for the cycle. To the optimization objective
different penalty terms are added to introduce some regularization of the perfor-
mance and the result.
The objective function for the fuel optimization is [2]:
Z Z Z
J ¼ afc þ b1 ðvactual  vdesired Þ2 dt þ b2 jgear0 jdt þ b3 jacceleration0 jdt:
time time time
ð2:16:1Þ

where the weight β2 is calculated according to the input of β1 and β3

The penalty terms stand for the driving accuracy (the difference between the
actual velocity and the desired velocity should be minimized), measuring the
number of gear changes to avoid oscillations and the drivability avoiding large
changes in the acceleration of the car.
For the Full Load Acceleration optimization the sum over the velocity measure
points is minimized. The measure points si describe the time, when a prescribed
velocity is reached.
2.16 Gearbox Program (P) 157
P
The objective function is the sum over all measure points si :
For the optimization of the fuel consumption different driving cycles can be
included. Thereby a wider range of the gear shifting map may be covered. For the
Full Load Acceleration 100 % of the gas pedal as well as smaller values are
possible, as it can be configured in the task.
Velocity measure points which are not reached with the initial gear shifting map
are ignored. Afterwards only modifications are allowed such that all velocity
measure points are reached.
The data preparation is similar to the preparation for a normal calculation of the
model in AVL CRUISE, only that some input data now has a special meaning.
The driving cycles now determine the fuel consumption for the objective, similar
with the Full Load Acceleration. Other tasks are not taken into consideration.
At least one driving cycle or one Full Load Acceleration task has to be active.
Only the active ones are taken into account.
As described for the Full Load Acceleration the objective function in this case is
determined through the velocity measure points. The measure points which are
defined in the task then describe also the objective function for the optimization.
The subdivisions in the gear shifting map of the gear shifting program determine
the number of unknowns. Each of the divisions is taken as unknown, one for the
upshifting and one for down. The finer the map the more unknowns.
After the optimization run the result can be loaded using the switch “Optimized
Shifting Program” in the properties box. About the result calculated by the opti-
mization routines one has to note that only active parts of the gear shifting map are
adapted.
This means only those parts who have an effect on the result may be different
from the original one. The other parts are not changed. This may lead to some sharp
bends in the curve.
Since iSIGHT is a standalone program it is possible to start other AVL CRUISE
processes which are not related to the optimization process during optimization
takes place. Due to the fact that the objective function (2.16.1) includes all char-
acteristics of the vehicle and its parts with the connections, no smoothness
assumptions are valid for the objective function.
Consequently the direct application of gradient based methods is avoided and a
line search in coordinate direction (meaning every unknown) is used to achieve a
decrease of the objective function in a stable way in a first step. For every calcu-
lation of the objective values AVL CRUISE (optimization kernel calls) must be
called (see Fig. 2.18).
For the optimization within iSIGHT a Sequential Quadratic Programming
(SQP) method (NLPQL by Prof. Dr. K Schittkowsi) is used which is described
shortly below.
NLPQL solves smooth nonlinear problems under nonlinear equality and
inequality constraints, i.e. [2]:
min f(x)
158 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

file system
data check adaptation
data
AVL
data adaptation
CRUISE iSIGHT
GUI preparation optimization
kernel calls
iSIGHT call
results

Fig. 2.18 iSIGHT is called for optimization in AVL CRUISE [2]

x 2 IRn : gj ð xÞ ¼ 0; j ¼ 1; . . .; me ð2:16:2Þ

gj ðxÞ  0; j ¼ me þ 1; . . .; m
x l  x  xu

where x is an n-dimensional parameter vector (see discretization nodes) with the

lower bound xl and the upper bound xu. These are not handled separately, but
considered as general inequality constraints. Since the objective function f (x) and
the constraints gj (x) are continuously differentiable and the problem is not too big
NLPQL has proved to find the local minimum of the minimization problem very
efficiently. None the less it has to be stated that it is necessary to find start values
sufficiently close to the optimum.
The basics of SQP algorithms is described in more detail below:
The idea of this algorithm is to formulate and solve a quadratic programming sub
problem in each iteration which is obtained by linearizing the constraints and
approximating the Lagrangian function [2]:

X
m
Lð x; uÞ :¼ f ð xÞ  uj gj ðx): ð2:16:3Þ
j¼1

quadratically, where x ϵ IRn, and where u = (u1,…, um)T ϵ IRm is the multiplier
vector.
To formulate the quadratic subproblem, it will be proceeded from given iterates
xk ϵ IRn, an approximation of the solution, vk ϵ IRm and approximation of the
multipliers, and Bk ϵ IRnxn an approximation of the Hessian of the Lagrangian
function.
Then the following quadratic programming problem has to be solved [2]:
2.16 Gearbox Program (P) 159

1
min d T Bk d þ rf ðxk ÞT d ð2:16:4Þ
2

d 2 IRn : rgj ðxk ÞT d þ gj ðxk Þ ¼ 0; j ¼ 1; . . .; me

rgj ðxk ÞT d þ gj ðxk Þ  0; j ¼ me ; . . .; m:. Let dk be the optimal solution and uk the
corresponding multiplier. A new itereate is obtained by [2]:

     
xkþ1 xk dk
:= þ ak ð2:16:5Þ
vkþ1 vk uk  vk

where αk ϵ (0, 1] is a suitable steplength parameter.

An SQP method is identical to Newtons’s method to solve the necessary opti-
mality conditions, if Bk is the Hessian of the
Lagrangian function and if the startvalues are close to a solution.
If dk = 0 is an optimal solution of (4) and uk the corresponding multiplier
vector, then xk and uk satisfy the necessary optimality conditions of (2.16.1).
Since the calculation of the Hessian of the Lagrangian function is very expensive
regarding run time, the Hessian matrix is approximated by updating Bk by the
BFGS quasi-Newton formula. The calculation of any new matrix Bk + 1 depends
only on Bk and two vectors [2]:

qk :¼ rx Lðxkþ1 ; uk Þ  rx Lðxk ; uk Þ ð2:16:6Þ

wk :¼ xkþ1  xk ð2:16:2Þ
Y
Bkþ1 :¼ ðBk ; qk ; wk Þ ð2:16:7Þ

Y qqT BwwT B
ðB; q; wÞ :¼ B þ T  T ð2:16:8Þ
q w w Bw

The above formula yields a positive definite matrix Bk+1 provided that Bk is
positive definite and qTk wk [ 0.
As already stated, the given optimization problem is not smooth. To avoid the
direct calculation of the gradients the results calculated in the line search are
approximated with a quadratic function. Since this function is differentiable, the
gradients used in the SQP method could be calculated. The optimization of the gear
shifting map does not include any constraints, but some boundaries for the
parameter vector (discretization nodes) which are chosen according to the possible
movement of the nodes.
The optimized shifting program can be defined and optimized in the unit for
speed as well as in the unit for velocity. The units of the shifting program and the
optimized shifting program influence each other. That means, if one of these pro-
grams is loaded with a different unit, also the other program gets this new unit.
160 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

If the optimized shifting program is defined in the unit for velocity, the Data Bus
input ‘Velocity’ must be connected.
Kickdown Table

u_ P;incr;KD ½n Upshifting Speed at Kickdown dependent on the gear rpm

u_ P;decr;KD ½n Downshifting Speed at Kickdown dependent on the gear rpm

The Kickdown Table is used when the driver steps full on the acceleration pedal
(load signal = 100 %). Instead of this criterion, the optional Data Bus input
‘Kickdown Signal’ can be used to control the kickdown event.
Velocities can be defined instead of speeds. In this case the Data Bus input
‘Velocity’ has to be connected.
Shifting Programs Advanced
Shifting Programs 1–5

u_ P;adv;incr n; aE;dk or Upshifting Speed 1–5 (Velocity) dependent on the rpm or

vP;adv;incr n; aE;dk gear and the load signal km/h
u_ P;adv;decr n; aE;dk or Downshifting Speed 1–5 (Velocity) dependent on rpm or
vP;adv;decr n; aE;dk the gear and the load signal km/h

Up to five shifting programs can be defined. With the Data Bus input ‘Shifting
Program Selector’ (which provides a double value), interpolations between the
shifting programs can be done.
Kickdown Tables 1–5

u_ P;adv;incr;KD ½n. Upshifting Speed at Kickdown dependent on the gear rpm

u_ P;adv;decr;KD ½n. Downshifting Speed at Kickdown dependent on the gear rpm

To each advanced Shifting Program an associated Kickdown Table can be

defined. To do this, the properties switch ‘Kickdown Table’ must be activated.
Selection Button Data Sheet Selection
All 1,…,5
When this switch is set to ‘all’ and more than one shifting program is activated,
the Data Bus input ‘Shifting Program Selector’ is used to determine the shifting
program and Kickdown Table used for calculation. A constant program/kickdown
table can be selected with the values 1–5.
Remark: The advanced shifting programs import gear shifting data generated by
the task ‘GSP Generation’
2.16 Gearbox Program (P) 161

Shift Remaining Time

tP;upShiftRemain ½n Remaining Time for Upshifting dependent on the gear s

tP;DownShiftRemain ½n Remaining Time for Downshifting dependent on the gear s

When in the properties window the switch ‘Shift Remaining Time’ is activated,
the remaining time for upshifting and downshifting for every gear can be defined.
The remaining time is the minimal time after the shift decision, in which no further
shifting is allowed.
Exception: a kickdown situation. In this case there is no remaining time.

2.16.3 Input and Output Variables

2.16.3.1 Data Input

jP,act Current Gear –

u_ P;ref;act Speed rad/s
αP,act Load Signal –
SP,KD Kickdown Signal –
vP,act Velocity m/s
cP,sel Shifting Program Selector –

2.16.3.2 Data Output

jP,new Desired Gear –

u_ P;upshifting Speed Upshifting rad/s
u_ P;downshifting Speed Downshifting rad/s

These channels with the actual speeds for up and downshifting are available for
user-defined controls (in function component, Black Box, MATLAB® API,
MATLAB® DLL).
For advanced control algorithms, for current load signal and gear, the gearbox
program calculates upper and lower speed limits for shifting.
In order to ensure the existence of upper and lower speed limits, in the lowest gear,
lower speed limit is calculated as (current speed—INFINITESPEED), and in the
highest gear, upper speed limit is calculated as (current speed + INFINITESPEED).
INFINITESPEED is defined in the Cruise.ini file with the default value of
104.72 rad/s which equals 1000 rpm.
162 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.16.4 Computation Variables

NG Number of gears –

2.16.5 Equation System

Gear shifting to the next or next lowest gear will be done according to the gear
shifting criteria by using the defined maps.

2.17 CVT Control (H)

The CVT Control is an easy way to pretend a target transmission considering the
velocity and the engine load. In addition there is a possibility of controlling a
clutch. This clutch is simply added to the model but it is not necessary [1].

2.17.1 Properties

Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
Selection Button Control Value
Transmission Ratio
Input Speed
Input Speed (ECO)
In this case the CVT is controlled by definition of Desired Transmission Ratio
depending on velocity and load signal.
Selection Button Control Value
Transmission Ratio
Input Speed
Input Speed (ECO)
In this case the CVT is controlled by definition of Desired Input Speed depending
on velocity and load signal. With this information the actual transmission ratio is
then calculated. When using this option, the Data Bus input channel ‘Input Speed’
has to be connected.
2.17 CVT Control (H) 163

Selection Button Control Value

Transmission Ratio
Input Speed
Input Speed (ECO)
In this case a separate map can be activated to import data generated by the task
‘GSP Generation’.

2.17.2 User-Defined Variables

Time Constant Load Signal

tload Time constant Load Signal s

Here the time constant of the PT1-retarding element for the load signal can be
defined.
Time Constant Velocity

tv Time constant Velocity s

Here the time constant of the PT1-retarding element for the velocity can be
defined.
Desired Transmission Ratio

iH,soll (vV, αE,dk) Desired Transmission Ratio as a function of velocity and load signal –

Here the demand transmission of the CVT gearbox can be defined as a function
of the velocity and the load signal.
Desired Input Speed


u_ H;soll vV ; aE;dk Desired Input Speed as a function of velocity and load signal rad/s

Here the demand input speed of the CVT gearbox can be defined as a function of
the velocity and the load signal.
To use this option, the Selection button ‘Control Value’ has to be set to ‘Input
Speed’ and the Data Bus input channel ‘Output Speed’ has to be connected.
Desired Input Speed (ECO)


u_ H;soll vV ; aE;dk Desired Input Speed as a function of velocity and load signal rad/s
164 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

This map works just like the ‘Desired Input Speed’ map. To use it, the selection
button ‘Control Value’ has to be set to ‘Input Speed (ECO)’ and the Data Bus input
channel ‘Output Speed’ has to be connected.
Desired Clutch Release


_ aE;dk or
LH;soll u; Desired Clutch Release as a function of speed (or %


LH;soll vV ; aE;dk velocity) and load signal

The demand clutch release of the starting clutch can be defined as a function of
the speed (or velocity) and the load signal.
Fast Linear Interpolation for CVT Control Maps
The interpolation in the maps of CVT control (e.g. interpolation of transmission
ratio) is done by an alternative method which does not use the map preprocessing
approximation to equidistant points.
This method is the default setting and can be changed in the ‘Interpolation and
Approximation’ section in the ‘Expert Mode’ settings of the Project Settings
(switch ‘Fast Linear Interpolation for CVT-Control-Maps’).

2.17.3 Input and Output Variables

2.17.3.1 Data Input

αH,act Load Signal –

u_ H;ref;act Speed rad/s
iH Current Transmission Ratio –
VH Velocity m/s
MH Torque Nm
u_ H;out;control Output Speed rad/s

2.17.3.2 Data Output

_iH;dem;act Desired Transmission Ratio –

LH,dem,act Desired Clutch Release %
2.17 CVT Control (H) 165

2.17.3.3 Equation System

The demanded transmission step is selected from the map for the current vehicle
velocity and the throttle position.
The same thing is done for the new clutch release. Here, the reference speed and
the throttle position are taken into consideration.

2.18 Anti-Slip Control (ASC)

The Anti-Slip Control checks the Force Transmission Factor (ratio between force
that has to be transmitted and maximum transmittable force) of all connected
wheels (driven wheels). If the force that has to be transmitted exceeds the adhesion
limit, the load signal or the clutch release changes [1].
The Anti-Slip Control is only active when a model is calculated quasi-stationary
in combination with special drive train configurations [1].

2.18.1 Properties

Switch Output
A result output for this component is made if this switch is activated.
Switch Use for Simulation
If the ASC should be used for calculations in simulation mode this switch can be
activated. In this case the parameters for the PID controller can be set.

2.18.2 User-Defined Variables

PID Controller

PASC,pro Proportional Parameter –

PASC,dif Differential Parameter s
PASC,int Integral Parameter 1/s

Here the parameters for the PID controller can be defined. This controller is used
for the controlling of the ASC.
166 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.18.3 Input and Output Variables

2.18.3.1 Data Input

αASC,in Load Signal %

SASC,in Clutch Release –
SASC,i Wheel slip of the ith connected wheel –

A maximum of four wheels can be connected with the ASC.

2.18.3.2 Data Output

αASC,out Load Signal %

SASC,out Clutch Release –

2.18.3.3 Equation System

At first, the wheel with the highest value for the load transmitting factor is selected
(Fig. 2.19). If this value greater than 1, the Anti-Slip Control is activated (ZASC = −1)
and the load position will be reduced as long as the wheels have slip conditions.
For the task Full Load Acceleration from rest, the value for the clutch release
will be increased.
For the modification of the signals a PID controller is used. The parameter values
have to be entered in the input dialog.

Fig. 2.19 Load transmitting factor [2]

2.19 PID Control (PID) 167

2.19 PID Control (PID)

Combined with other signal processing components (e.g. ‘function’ component),

the PID control may be used to build up more powerful control subsystems in
AVL CRUISE. It basically supports two operation modes [1].
The first mode is the ‘Standard PID Control’ mode, using the difference between
a desired value and an actual value’ to generate an ‘output value’. The second mode
is the ‘Advanced Signal Control with Limitation’ mode, where an additional input
‘Control Value’ (typically ‘Desired Clutch Release’ signal from component
‘Cockpit’) is taken into account and added to the ‘output value’ [1].
In this mode, ‘Output Value’ may be used to limit ‘Actual Value’ from the lower
side (as, e.g., wheel load signal) or from the upper side (as, e.g., vehicle acceler-
ation). This mode may be used with caution for other signals, too. It is important
that the ‘Control Value’ has a ‘natural’ limit of zero, as it is the case with ‘Desired
Clutch Release’ [1].

2.19.1 Properties

Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
Selection Button PID Mode
Standard PID Control
Advanced Signal Control With Limitation
The functionality of a standard PID control is supported.
Selection Button PID Mode
Standard PID Control
Advanced Signal Control With Limitation
The second operation mode of the PID control is calculated.
Selection Button Actual Value Limitation
Lower Limit
Upper Limit
The actual value is limited from the lower side. This option is only available in the
second operation mode of the PID control.
Selection Button Actual Value Limitation
Lower Limit
Upper Limit
The actual value is limited from the upper side. This option is only available in the
second operation mode of the PID control.
168 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Switch Fixed Desired Value

In this case the desired value is defined by a constant value. This switch can only be
chosen in the ‘Simple PID Control’ mode.
Switch Output Value Limitation
If this switch is activated, the output value can be limited by defining of a minimum
and a maximum value.

2.19.2 User-Defined Variables

CPID,P Proportional Parameter –

CPID,P Differential Parameter s
CPID,I Integral Parameter 1/s

The PID parameters should be defined.

Actual Value Limitation

CPID,act,min Minimum –

If the selection button Actual Value Limitation is set to Lower Limit, the
possible minimum of the actual value has to be defined.

CPID,act,max Maximum –

If the selection button Actual Value Limitation is set to Upper Limit, the
possible minimum of the actual value has to be defined.
Fixed Desired Value

CPID,fixed Fixed Value –

If the switch Fixed Desired Value is chosen, the desired constant has to be
defined.
Output Value Limitation

CPID,out,min Minimum –
CPID,out,max Maximum –

If the switch Output Value Limitation is chosen, the possible minimum and
maximum of the output value are defined here.
2.19 PID Control (PID) 169

2.19.3 Input and Output Variables

2.19.3.1 Data Input

CPID,act Actual Value –

CPID,desired Desired Value –
CPID,control Control Value –

2.19.3.2 Data Output

CPID,out Output Value –

The output value is sent to the Data Bus and can be used by other components.

2.19.4 Equation System

2.19.4.1 Calculation of Delta Signal and PID output

The difference between target value and actual value is calculated by [2]:

DC ¼ CPID;desired  CPID;act ð2:19:1Þ

If there is a limitation of the actual value by definition of a lower limit, the sign
of ΔC is changed.
The controller output is defined by [2]:

Zt dðDC Þ
CPID;out ¼ CPID;P  DC þ CPID;I  ðDCÞðsÞds þ CPID;D  ð2:19:2Þ
0
dt

In the 2nd mode (‘Advanced Signal Control With Limitation’), the entire con-
troller output is calculated by [2]:

CPID;entireOut ¼ CPID;out þ CPID;control ð2:19:3Þ

2.19.4.2 Output Value Limitation

CPID,entireOut is limited by CPID,act,min and CPID,act,max.

Additionally, in the following 2 cases:
170 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

1. CPID;out;old  CPID;act;min and CPID;out \0

2. CPID;out;old  CPID;act;max and CPID;out [ 0;
CPID,out is set to 0.

2.19.4.3 Reset of Integral

If the PID Control is in 2nd mode (‘Advanced Signal Control With Limitation’),
ΔC < 0 and CPID,out = 0, the control is set to ‘neutral’ position, that means ΔC,
ΔCold and the
Integral are set to 0.

2.20 Brake (B)

The brake component is described by brake data and dimensions. It is possible to

define drum brakes as well as disc brakes. The retarder is used for heavy vehicles
and is described below.
The braking torque is computed considering the braking dimensions and the
input brake pressure. This brake pressure can come from the cockpit component or
brake control [1].
If the vehicle is standing still, the degrees of freedom will be reduced as this
reduces the calculation time also. This reduction is done in a way that the equation
system is switched if a small velocity threshold is reached. In this case movement is
suppressed. At the same time it is always checked if the instantaneous compulsive
force is smaller than the braking torque. If this condition is no longer true the brake
is given free again [1].

2.20.1 Properties

Switch Output
A result output for this component is made if this switch is activated.
Switch Dynamic Mode
This switch is activated by default. The brake calculation always stays dynamic and
never switches to a kinematic connection. Deactivation might be done for modeling
a sticking brake in kinematic mode.
Selection Button Control Variable
Brake Pressure
Braking Torque
2.20 Brake (B) 171

In this case the brake is controlled by the brake pressure which has to be supplied
via Data Bus input ‘Brake Pressure’.
Selection Button Control Variable
Brake Pressure
Braking Torque
In this case the engine is controlled by the desired braking torque value which has
to come from the connected Data Bus input ‘Braking Torque.’

2.20.2 User-Defined Variables

AB Brake Piston Surface m2

The brake piston surface is the area of the hydraulic cylinder. Multiplied with the
brake pressure and the efficiency, it gives the axial brake force.

µB Friction Coefficient –

The friction coefficient is between the brake drum, respectively the friction disc
and the brake shoes.

cB Specific Brake Factor (Disc brake cB = 1; Drum brake cB > 1) –

The specific brake factor is a factor that depends on the design of the brake.
For disc brakes it is always one, for drum brakes it is usually larger than 1.

rB Effective Friction Radius m

The effective friction radius is the radius where the braking force applies.

ƞB Efficiency –

The efficiency considers the effects of the conversion of the hydraulic into the
mechanical part of the brake (Fig. 2.20).

ΘB Inertia Moment kg m2
172 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Drum Brake Drum Brake

(Simplex) (Duplex)

cB 2.7 cB 3.7
Drum Brake
(Duplex)

cB 1.7

Fig. 2.20 Specific brake factors for different brake types [2]

2.20.3 Input and Output Variables

2.20.3.1 Mechanical Connection

u_ B Angular velocity of the brake rad/s

€B
u Angular acceleration of the brake rad/s2
MB Braking torque Nm

2.20.3.2 Data Input

PB Brake Pressure Pa
MB Braking Torque Nm
2.20 Brake (B) 173

2.20.3.3 Data Output

u_ B Speed rad/s
MB Braking Torque Nm
PB Power W

2.20.3.4 Equation System

The instantaneous braking torque will be computed as follows [2]:

M B ¼ 2  p B  A B  g B  lB  r B  c B ð2:20:1Þ

2.21 Cockpit (CO)

The cockpit links the driver and the vehicle. In this component, there are only
connections made via the Data Bus. On one hand, the driver receives information
such as the vehicle velocity and the vehicle acceleration. On the other hand,
information about of the driver, such as the pedal positions, are delivered to other
components. The pedal positions (e.g. clutch pedal position) are transferred into
corresponding indicators (e.g.. clutch release) via the pedal characteristics (e.g.
clutch pedal characteristic) [1].

2.21.1 Properties

Switch Output
A result output for this component is made if this switch is activated.
Switch Actual Distance and Velocity From Data Bus
The actual distance and velocity are taken from the Data Bus channels ‘Actual
Distance extern’ and ‘Actual Velocity extern’.
Switch Desired Velocity From Data Bus
When using AVL CRUISE as a dynamic linked library (CruiseNT.dll) with the
component ‘Interface’, the internal driver can control the velocity which is preset
over the Data Bus channel ‘Desired Velocity extern’.
It is important to connect the channel on the Data Bus system with an external
time depending signal. The driver will follow this desired velocity in an appropriate
range. Note that there must be an adapted profile. e.g.. gear shifting in the task
Cycle Run.
174 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.21.2 User-Defined Variables

ZCO,gear Switch for manual or automatic gear shifting –

The switch is used for the Calculation Tasks, so that the calculation knows if the
gear shifting process should be controlled by the driver (manual) or the gearbox
control.

NCO,G,for Number of Gears (forward) –

NCO,G,rev Number of Gears (reverse) –

This is used to indicate to the driver how many gears the gearbox contains, i.e., if
there is still another gear for upshifting or not.

FCO,brake,max Maximum Brake Force N

The maximum brake pedal force is needed for the calculation of the brake pedal
position. Output of the driver component is the brake pedal force. This brake pedal
force divided by the maximum brake pedal force is the brake pedal position.
It is also possible to define a maximum brake force in the component driver.
With this maximum brake force, the behavior of a driver can be considered. You
can have a driver who is stepping with a maximum of e.g. 100 N on the brake pedal
(defined in the driver component) and in the cockpit the maximum brake pedal
force is defined as 200 N. That means that the driver can have a maximum of 50 %
of the brake pedal position (100 N divided by 200 N). Thus, he has a lower brake
pressure and a longer brake distance.

NCO,R Number of Retarder Steps –

This is used to give the driver the information how many retarder steps the
retarder is containing, i.e., if there is still another step with a higher braking torque
or not.
Acceleration Pedal Characteristic

αCO,th (Ldk) Load signal as function of the Acceleration Pedal Travel %

Clutch Pedal Characteristic

ZCO,clutch (LC) Clutch Release as a function of the Clutch Pedal Travel %

Brake Pedal Characteristic

pCO,brake (LBr) Brake Pressure as a function of the Specific Brake Pedal Force bar
2.21 Cockpit (CO) 175

The characteristics of the brake pedal, the clutch pedal, and the acceleration
pedal can be defined. It is possible to define an idle path or a special shape of the
characteristic.

2.21.3 Input and Output Variables

2.21.3.1 Data Input

u_ CO Speed rad/s
ZCO,cont,in (i) Operation Control 0–4 –
jCO,act Gear Indicator –
jCO,target Target Gear –
u_ CO;measure 1 Measuring Speed 1 rad/s
u_ CO;measure 2 Measuring Speed 2 rad/s
sextern Actual Distance extern m
vextern Actual Velocity extern m/s
vextern Desired Velocity extern m/s

2.21.3.2 Data Output

ZCO,acc,out Load Signal –

pCO,br,out Brake Pressure bar
ZCO,cl,out Desired Clutch Release %
NCO,G,out Desired Gear –
ZCO,sh,up,out Gear Selection Upshifting –
ZCO,sh,dn,out Gear Selection Downshifting –
ZCO,sh,sel Control Lever –
NCO,ret,out Retarder Step –
ZCO,br,sigl Brake Light Switch –
ZCO,rev,sig Reverse Gear Switch –
u_ CO;out Speed rad/s
vCO,out Velocity m/s
αCO,out Acceleration m/s2
tCO,out Real Time s
sCO,out Distance m
ZCO,start,out Start Switch –
TCO,ambient Ambient Temperature °C
ZCO,cont,out Operation Control –
(continued)
176 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

ZCO,sig,out(i) Course Signal 1–3 –

ZCO,kick,out Kickdown Signal –
u_ CO;measure 1 Measuring Speed 1 rad/s
u_ CO;measure 2 Measuring Speed 2 rad/s
ZCO,Jake Brake Jake Brake Activation –
vCO,desired Desired Velocity from Profile m/s
vCO,max Course Speed Limit m/s
jCO,profile Desired Gear from Profile –
NCO,task Type of Task –

2.21.3.3 Equation System

In the module cockpit, switch, and selection functions were done. Input data were
transformed depending to the calculation settings and maps.
After that the changed values were put onto the output channels.

2.22 Exhaust System (EX)

Exhaust systems consider the effects of the catalytic converter and soot filter on the
raw emissions of the engine. Starting with the temperature of the catalytic con-
verter, factors for the conversion will be computed for the single emissions com-
ponents on the basis of the temperature-dependent maps [1].

2.22.1 Properties

Switch Output
A result output for this component is made if this switch is activated.
Selection Button Temperature
Temperature calculated
Temperature from Data Bus
Calculation of temperature by using the thermal model
Selection Button Temperature
Temperature calculated
Temperature from Data Bus
The temperature is calculated by an external simulation tool and is transferred into
the catalyst component via Data Bus.
2.22 Exhaust System (EX) 177

2.22.2 User-Defined Variables

ZEX,loss Heat Loss Coefficient –

The heat loss coefficient is for determining which amount of the exhaust energy
the engine has delivered reaches the exhaust system and which amount is lost
between the engine and the exhaust system to the environment.
The heat loss coefficient is the percentage of the exhaust energy delivered by the
engine which reaches the exhaust system.

mEX Weight of Catalytic Converter kg

This is the weight of the catalytic converter. This weight is needed for the
calculation of the temperature of the catalytic converter and as consequence the
efficiency of the emission conversion (Fig. 2.21).

Cp,EX Specific Heat Capacity Cat J/kg

This is the specific heat capacity of the catalytic converter which is needed for
the calculation of the temperature of the catalytic converter.

AEX,ref Reference Area Cat/Air m2

The reference area of the exhaust system is the outside surface area of the
catalytic converter. It is needed for the calculation of the heat transfer between the
catalytic converter and the ambient air.

αEX,air Heat Transfer Coefficient Cat/Air W/m2 K

This is the coefficient for the heat transfer between the catalytic converter and the
ambient air. With this heat transfer, the energy lost to the environment can be
determined.

TEX,op Operating Temperature Cat °C

Fig. 2.21 Thermal balance in Heat transfer from the

the exhaust system [2] Exhaust Gas to the
Catalytic Converter

Catalytic Converter Heat transfer from the

mEX, cp,EX Catalytic Converter to
the Environment
178 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

The operating temperature is needed for a calculation with hot start. If the hot
start is chosen, the temperature of the catalytic converter at the beginning of the
calculation is equal to the operating temperature. If cold start is chosen, the tem-
perature of the catalytic converter at the beginning of the calculation is equal to the
ambient temperature.
Conversion Efficiency

gEX;NOx ðTEX Þ NOx—Conversion Efficiency –

gEX;CO ðTEX Þ CO—Conversion Efficiency –
gEX;HC ðTEX Þ HC—Conversion Efficiency –
gEX;Soot ðTEX Þ Soot—Conversion Efficiency –

In these tables, the conversion efficiencies of the different emissions can be

defined dependent on the actual temperature of the catalytic converter.
Heat Transfer Gas/Cat

αEX,gas(TEX) Heat-up Proportion of Exhaust Gas Energy –

This is the proportion of the heat of the exhaust gas which is transferred to the
exhaust system.

2.22.3 Input and Output Variables

2.22.3.1 Data Input

TEZ,ext,in Temperature External K

2.22.3.2 Data Output

PEX,out Residual Energy W

eEX,NOx,out Rest Emissions NOX kg/s
eEX,CO,out Rest Emissions CO kg/s
eEX,HC,out Rest Emissions HC kg/s
eEX,SOOT,out Rest Emissions SOOT kg/s
TEX Temperature °C
2.22 Exhaust System (EX) 179

2.22.4 Computation Variables

QEX Heat capacity of the exhaust system J/K

ƞEX, …,act Actual reduction rate –

2.22.5 Equation System

In relation to the entered exhaust energy PEX, the heat transmitting conditions, the
heat capacity of the exhaust system, and the temperature of the exhaust system TEX
are calculated.
In the next calculation step, the efficiency values ƞEX,act concerning TEX are
evaluated out of the maps.
The rest emissions are calculated with the following formula [2]


eEX;out ¼ eEX;...;in  1  gEX;...;act ð2:22:1Þ

2.23 MATLAB®/Simulink™ (ml)

The interface to MATLAB® integrates controllers and also mechanical elements,

such as special drives created by MATLAB®/Simulink™, into the computational
model of AVL CRUISE. An element created and parameterized under Simulink™
will be compiled to a so-called “Dynamic Link Library” (DLL) under Windows.
These files will be integrated into AVL CRUISE. The advantage of this procedure
is that AVL CRUISE itself does not need to be recompiled if MATLAB®/
Simulink™ modules are integrated [1].
The input and output variables will be transferred by means of imports and
outports. These ports create the interface to the MATLAB® module and are
available at the AVL CRUISE Data Bus. As two simulations, i.e., those of
AVL CRUISE and MATLAB®/Simulink™, take place at the same time in this
case, the integration steps of the two programs will have to be harmonized by a
suitable selection of the step width [1].

2.23.1 Properties

Switch Output
A result output for this component is made if this switch is activated.
180 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.23.2 User-Defined Variables

CML,Lib Name of MATLAB®-Library (can be selected in a file selection dialog) –

2.23.3 Input and Output Variables

2.23.3.1 Data Input

XML,in(i) Inport 0–98 –

2.23.3.2 Data Output

XML,out(i) Outport 0–98 –

2.23.3.3 Equation System

The input values are transferred to the MATLAB® function. From the module, the
results are received and input to the output channels.
Refer to the interfaces manual for more information.

2.24 Function (FU)

The component Function can be used for calculating with user-defined functions.
There are two possibilities to define the function:
(a) Function definition in RPN-notation style (Reverse Polish Notation, UPN,
Postfix Notation, Stack Logic). No need for programming, the component has
a user-friendly selection table. Only one function output y can be defined.
(b) Programming in C code. Up to 99 function outputs can be defined.
Up to 99 input values can be read through the Data Bus. The values are the
function arguments, together with up to 10 constants defined by the user.
Those arguments must be connected to form the function term by using
operators which can be selected from a selection menu. Also the most
important physical constants (e.g., n) are in this menu, which can be selected
as additional function arguments. After the function value has been calculated,
it can be used on the Data Bus as an output value. When defining the function
in C code, it is possible to deliver values up to 99 function outputs [1].
2.24 Function (FU) 181

2.24.1 Properties
Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
Selection Button Formula Mode
RPN-Formula
C-Function
In this case the formula definition has to be done by the so-called Reverse Polish
Notation (UPN, postfix notation, stack logic).
Selection Button Formula Mode
RPN-Formula
C-Function
The function has to be defined in C code.

2.24.2 User-Defined Variables

RPN-Formula Mode
This mode is active if the selection button ‘Formula Mode’ is set to RPN-formula.

ZFU(i) User-defined Constants (maximum 10) –

Up to 10 constants can be defined to be used in the function as arguments (upper

case letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K, M).

ZFU,pi Physical Constant PI (π) –

ZFU,acc Physical Constant 9.81 kg m/s2

The most important pre-defined constants can be selected from a selection menu
and used as function arguments.

tFU Variable ‘realTime’ –

In every time step this variable has the same value as the Data Bus output channel
‘Real Time’ of component cockpit. It can be used in System Analysis Mode
(SAM) in models without a cockpit.
182 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

opFU,arith(j) Arithmetical Operators: +, −, −, / –

opFU,arith(j) Operators: Derivation (2 arguments), Integration (3 arguments; the 3rd –
argument represents the Reset signal, see below)
opFU,arith(j) Operators: Time Derivation (1 argument), Time Integration (2 –
arguments; the 2rd argument represents the Reset signal, see below)
opFU,unary(j) Operators: abs, sgn, high, low, max, min, 1/x, **, +/− –
opFU,unary(j) Operators: rad > deg, deg > rad –
opFU,trig(j) Operators: sin, cos, tan, arcsin, arccos, arctan –
opFU,hyp(j) Operators: sinh, cosh, tanh, arsinh, arcosh, artanh –
opFU,log(j) Operators: ln, exp –
opFU,logical(j) Operators: NOT, AND, OR, <=, >=, <, >, ==, != –
? Space Symbol –
ENTER End Mark of the function definition –

The operators are selected from a selection menu. They form a function term
with the constants and input values from the Data Bus as arguments. The function
definition format is the so-called Reverse Polish Notation (UPN, postfix notation,
stack logic), i.e., the term “A + a[0] =” is written as “A a[0] + ENTER”. The
definition is done in a table and should be completed by typing Enter.
Click on the Function Preview button to open a window showing the function
term converted into the “normal” prefix notation. Additionally, there is a copy
button so that the user can copy this prefix term and paste it for example into the
comment line.
C-Function Mode
This mode is active if the selection button ‘Formula Mode’ is set to C-Function.

ZFU,C-Function Function String –

The function is written in C code, e.g.

‘y[0] = sin(2*a[0])/pow(a[1],1.5)—2.3’
Following contents are allowed (besides the input channels: a[0], a[1], …, a
[98]):

ZFU,C,Num Numerical Constants –

Free user-defined, e.g. 1, 3.14, 0.05

User-defined constants A, B, C like in the RPN-mode can be defined in C code
as variables.

tFU Variable ‘realTime’ –

2.24 Function (FU) 183

This is a pre-defined variable of type ‘double’ which can be used in the C code
without a declaration. In every time step this variable has the same value as the Data
Bus output channel ‘Real Time’ of component cockpit. It can be used in System
Analysis Mode (SAM) in models without a cockpit.
Additionally, most of the ANSI C operators and statements can be used, e.g., the
if-then statement.
Up to 99 Data Bus output variables y[0], y[1], …, y[98] can be delivered with
output values.

2.24.3 Input and Output Variables

2.24.3.1 Data Input

XFU,in(i) Input Channels a[0], a[1], …, a[98] –

Up to 99 values can be read from the Data Bus and used as function arguments
(for RPN- mode only the first 20).

2.24.3.2 Data Output

XFU,out Output Channels y[0], y[1], …, y[98] (for RPN-mode only y) –

The function values are sent to the Data Bus and can be used by other com-
ponents. When defining the function in RPN-Formula mode, only the output y[0]
can be used.

2.24.4 Equation System

The user-defined constants and the input values are transferred to the function
which calculates the output values by using the formula that has been defined by the
user in a table, or by using the user-defined C-function code. The output value(s)
can be used by other components through the Data Bus.
Example
The input value a[0] should be multiplied by 9.81. The result should be multiplied
by the factor 0.92 which has been defined as a constant (B).
In the parameter field the letter B is assigned the value 0.92. The function is
defined in the formula table as follows:
B:= 0.92
184 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Position Y=
1 a[0]
2 9.81
3 *
4 B
5 *
6 ENTER

The expressions of the table are selected in a certain selection menu. At the end
of the table ENTER should always be written.
Derivation
This operation has 2 arguments. For example, the following input table means that
the signal of Data Bus input a[0] should be differentiated by the signal of Data Bus
input a[1].

Position y=
1 a[0]
2 a[1]
3 Derivation
4 ENTER

Integration
This operation has 3 arguments:

Position y=
1 a[0]
2 a[1]
3 a[2]
4 Integration
5 ENTER

The above input table means that the signal of Data Bus input a[0] should be
integrated by the signal of Data Bus input a[1], whereas Data Bus signal a[4]
represents the reset signal.
The meaning of the reset signal is as follows:

Value Action
>0 “normal” summation
0 Reset; integration output is set to 0 and stays 0 as long as the reset value is <=0
<0 No further summation

The trapezoid method is used as integration method.

2.24 Function (FU) 185

Time Derivation, Time Integration

These operations are similar to derivation/integration, except that they have one
argument less.
Their first argument is not differentiated/integrated by a second argument which
can be chosen by using the Data Bus, but always by the (internal) simulation time.

2.25 Constants (CN)

In the Constants component the user can define up to 99 constant values which can
be used by other components through the Data Bus. The values can be of type
integer, double or string [1].

2.25.1 Properties

Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.

2.25.2 User-Defined Variables

ZCN(i) User-defined Constants (maximum 99) –

Up to 99 constants can be defined which can be used by other components via

Data Bus. Every constant requires the definition of the Data Bus channel number, a
comment, the constant value, the unit and the data type. Data type can be of integer,
double or string.
In the case of a string constant, the unit definition is not used in calculation. The
Data Bus transfers the pointer (address) of the string.

2.25.3 Input and Output Variables

2.25.3.1 Data Output

ZCN,out(i) Constant Outputs (maximum 99) –

The constant output values are sent to the Data Bus and can be used by other
components.
186 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.26 Monitor

The monitor can be introduced if the calculation run must be detected. It is possible
to show some results of the calculation while the calculation is running. This is
done via the online-monitor [1].
It is possible to connect up to ten input channels of the monitor to output
channels of different components that are available at the AVL CRUISE Data Bus.
Currently, the output in the online-monitor is only available in the form of
tables [1].

2.26.1 Properties

Switch Output
A result output for this component is made if this switch is activated.

2.26.2 Input and Output Variables

2.26.2.1 Data Input

XMon,in(i) Input 0–9 –

These input values can be read in via the Data Bus. During the calculation, they
were written on the online-monitor for each time step.

2.27 Wheel/Tire (W)

The wheels and tires link the vehicle to the road. The component wheel allows to
consider many influencing variables and their effect on the rolling state.
The moment of rolling drag can be computed on the basis of the wheel load, the
corrected dynamic rolling radius, and the coefficient of rolling drag [1].
The longitudinal tire force (circumferential force) results from the friction
coefficient, the wheel load as well as from the wheel load factor and the slip factor.
It is possible to define variable friction coefficients along the driving profile when
different road conditions are considered [1].
The wheel component also includes a detailed rolling resistance furnished by
Michelin. This model describes the rolling resistance of the tire depending on the
tire inflation pressure, load, translation speed, the ambient temperature and the time
[1].
2.27 Wheel/Tire (W) 187

2.27.1 Properties

Switch Variation
The Wheel can be given free for variation with this switch. The setup of the
variation parameters is done in the folder.
Switch Output
If this switch is activated a result output for this component is made.
Selection Button Dynamic Rolling Radius
Constant Value
From Characteristic
In this case the input constant value is used for the dynamic rolling radius.
Selection Button Dynamic Rolling Radius
Constant Value
From Characteristic
In this case the dynamic rolling radius is interpolated out of the characteristic.
Selection Button Wheel Slip
deactivated
Function
Function with Limit
Map
Map with Limit
In this case no consideration of the wheel slip in the calculation is possible.
Selection Button Wheel Slip
deactivated
Function
Function with Limit
Map
Map with Limit
Here the definition of the wheel slip is done by the characteristics “Maximum in the
Slip Characteristic” and “Asymptote in the slip characteristic.” If Function with
Limit is selected the maximum slip is limited with a slip which is slightly higher
than the maximum value from the slip characteristic.
This limitation is also used for Function without limitation for all stationary
calculations (Climbing Performance, Full Load Acceleration/Acceleration in all
Gears, Maximum Traction Force). This is done to avoid instabilities in the calcu-
lation and therefore results which can be misunderstood.
Selection Button Wheel Slip
deactivated
Function
Function with Limit
Map
Map with Limit
188 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

Here the specific traction (as percentage of the wheel load) is defined as function
of the wheel slip and the friction coefficient of the road. If Map with Limit is
selected the maximum slip is limited with a slip which is slightly higher than the
maximum value from the traction map.
This limitation is also used for Map without limitation for all stationary cal-
culations (Climbing Performance, Full Load Acceleration/Acceleration in all Gears,
Maximum Traction Force). This is done to avoid instabilities in the calculation and
therefore results which can be misunderstood.
Switch Rolling Resistance Model
If this switch is activated, the rolling resistance is calculated by a detailed resistance
model.
Switch Rolling Resistance
wheel load dependent
wheel pressure dependent
velocity dependent
temperature dependent
With these switches the input of the rolling resistance can be defined. It is possible
to activate more than one influence. All activated rolling resistances are added to the
overall rolling resistance. These switches can only be activated if the Switch
Rolling Resistance Model is deactivated.
Selection Button Dimensions
calculated
defined
In this case the tire diameter and the surface area are calculated with the input data
of tire section width, tire aspect ratio and tire seat diameter.
Selection Button Dimensions
calculated
defined
In this case the tire diameter and the surface area are defined by the user.
Selection Button Wheel Location
Vehicle: Front Left
Vehicle: Rear Left
Vehicle: Rear Right
Vehicle: Front Right
Trailer: Left
Trailer: Right
Two Axle Trailer: Front Left
Two Axle Trailer: Rear Left
Two Axle Trailer: Rear Right
Two Axle Trailer: Front Right
With this selection button the location can be defined where this wheel is located on
the vehicle or the trailer.
2.27 Wheel/Tire (W) 189

2.27.2 User-Defined Variables

θW Inertia Moment of the Wheel kg m2

Wheel Slip

µW,tire Friction Coefficient of Tire –

The friction coefficient of the tire depends on the material used in the tire. With
this friction coefficient it is possible to consider the effects of different wheels on the
behavior of the vehicle.

FW,s,norm Reference Wheel Load N

The curves for the maximum slip in the slip curve and the transmission ratio at
infinite slip are measured at the reference wheel load.
The calculation of the longitudinal force is done like follows [2]:

FL ¼ lRoad  lW;Tire  cS  cF  FW;s ð2:27:1Þ

FL Longitudinal force
µRoad Friction Coefficient of the road
cS Slip Correction Factor
cF Wheel Load Correction Factor
FW,s Wheel Load
cW,s,F Wheel Load Correction Coefficient –

For the real wheel load is never the reference wheel load the longitudinal force
has to be corrected with the wheel load correction factor (cF). For this case the
correction coefficient is used. It determines the gradient of the curve (refer to
cW;S;F
Fig. 2.22; the gradient is  FW;S;norm ÞAlthough the gradient is normally negative, a
positive correction coefficient has to be entered in the input field [2].

FW;act  FW;S;norm
cF ¼ 1   cW;S;F ð2:27:2Þ
FW;S;norm

FW,act actual wheel load

190 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

cF

FW,s,norm FW,s

Fig. 2.22 Wheel load correction factor [2]

Rolling Radius
Static Rolling Radius

rW,stat Static Rolling Radius mm

The static rolling radius is the distance between the center of the wheel and the
road surface for the loaded vehicle but without moving.
The dynamic rolling radius is the distance between the center of the wheel and
the road surface for the loaded vehicle with moving. The dynamic rolling radius is
usually a little bit bigger than the static rolling radius.
Dynamic Rolling Radius (Constant)

rW,dyn Dynamic Rolling Radius mm

The constant value is used when the selection button Dynamic rolling radius is
set to constant value.
Dynamic Rolling Radius (Characteristic)

rW,dyn(vV) Dynamic Rolling Radius mm

Here the dynamic rolling radius can be defined as function of the velocity. This
characteristic is active when the selection button Dynamic rolling radius is set to
“from characteristic.”
Slip Curve
Maximum in the Slip Characteristic

sW,grenz(µU,road) Slip at Maximum Traction %

2.27 Wheel/Tire (W) 191

cs
1
µ W,U

sW,grenz sw

Fig. 2.23 Slip correction factor [2]

Asymptote of Slip Characteristic

µW,U(µU,road) Specific Traction at Infinite Slip –

The slip at maximum traction is together with the specific traction at infinite slip
the Characteristic Values for the slip correction factor (refer to Fig. 2.23). The slip
correction factor depends on the friction coefficient of the road.
Traction Map

µW,U(sW,µU,road) Specific Traction %

This is a second possibility for the description of the wheel slip.

Rolling Resistance Factor
The rolling resistance is given in %, i.e., the rolling resistance force is calculated
with [2]:

FW;r ¼ cW;r  FW;s ð2:27:3Þ

FW,r Rolling Resistance Force

cW,r,load Rolling Resistance wheel load dependent %

This part of the rolling resistance depends on the wheel load.

cW,r,pres Rolling Resistance wheel pressure dependent %

pW,ref Nominal wheel pressure bar

This part of the rolling resistance is converted form the nominal wheel pressure
to the actual wheel pressure.
192 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

cW,r

vV

Fig. 2.24 Rolling resistance [2]

cW,r(vV) Rolling Resistance as function of Vehicle Velocity %

The rolling resistance depends on the vehicle velocity. It is nearly constant at

lower velocities and increases when the velocity is getting higher. The velocity
where the rolling resistance starts to increase depends on the design of the tire (refer
to Fig. 2.24).

cW,r,temp(TU) Rolling Resistance temperature dependent %

This part of the rolling resistance depends on the actual environment

temperature.
In the case of cornering the rolling resistance increases. It is possible specify a
proximity relationship between this increase and the actual side slip angle.
Transient Rolling Resistance
The following inputs are required when the switch Rolling Resistance Model is
activated.
Specification of dimension:

WW Tire Section Width mm

The Tire Section Width is the linear distance between the outside sidewalls of an
inflated tire without any load (exclusive of protruding side ribs and decorations).

RW Tire Aspect ratio %

The Tire Aspect Ratio is (Section Height).100/Section Width, whereas the

Section Height is the distance from rim seat to outer thread surface of the unloaded
tire.

DW,seat Tire Seat diameter in

The tire seat diameter is the diameter of the rim seat supporting the tire bead.
2.27 Wheel/Tire (W) 193

DW,design Tire Design Diameter m

The tire design diameter is the diameter of the inflated tire without any load.

AW Tire Surface Area m2

The surface area is the total external surface area of the tire.
Depending on the selection button dimensions, the tire section width, tire aspect
ratio and tire seat diameter, or the tire design diameter and tire surface area have to
be defined.
Measured data at ISO-test conditions:

cW,roll,ISO Rolling Resistance Coefficient –

pW,ISO Tire Inflation Pressure bar
FW,ISO Tire Load N
vW,ISO Tire Velocity m/s

The tire velocity is the tangential velocity of the tire.

TW,ISO Reference Temperature C

cW,conv,ISO Convection Coefficient –

Tire-specific data:

αW Pressure Sensitivity Exponent –

βW Load Sensitivity Exponent –
bW,lin Linear Speed Coefficient –
cW,quad Quadratic Speed Coefficient –
cW,ambient Temperature Sensitivity Coefficient 1/k
γW,conv Convection Coefficient Exponent –
mW Tire Mass kg
cW,heat,equiv Specific Heat Capacity Of Tire J/kg K
kW,emp Empirical Rolling Resistance Coefficient 1/K
cW,aero Air Resistance N

Initial conditions:

TW,init Initial Temperature C

194 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

2.27.3 Input and Output Variables

2.27.3.1 Mechanical Connection

u_ W;in Angular velocity of the wheel rad/s

€ W;in
u Angular acceleration of the wheel rad/s2
u_ W;out Angular velocity of a virtual wheel rad/s
€ W;out
u Angular acceleration of a virtual wheel rad/s2
MW,in Torque on the drive side Nm
MW,out Vehicle forced moment Nm

2.27.3.2 Data Input

TW,ambient Ambient Temperature K

2.27.3.3 Data Output

sW Slip Signal %
u_ W Speed rad/s
MW,trans Wheel Torque Nm
TW,act Tire Temperature K
FW,act Wheel Load Nm
PW Power W
PW,loss Power Loss W
FW,roll Rolling Resistance Force N

2.27.4 Computation Variables

SW,peak,act Actual slip of peak friction point for current road condition –
µW,asym,act Actual Asymptote of slip correction factor for current road condition –
CW,coeff1 Wheel slip coefficient 1 –
CW,coeff2 Wheel slip coefficient 2 –
vW,ref Reference Velocity m/s
FW,a Longitudinal force of tires N
FW,roll Rolling drag N
rW,dyn Corrected dynamic rolling radius m
(continued)
2.27 Wheel/Tire (W) 195

MW,trans Torque transmitted by the wheel Nm

Mw,roll Rolling drag moment Nm
Mw,slip Slip moment Nm
Mw,virt Vehicle moment on a virtual wheel Nm
FW,roll Instantaneous Rolling Resistance N
TW,act Instantaneous Tire Temperature K
TW,stab Stabilized Tire Temperature K

2.27.5 Equation System

2.27.5.1 Dynamic Wheel Radius

There are two possibilities for determining the dynamic wheel radius.
1. Dynamic wheel base radius (ZW=1)
The dynamic wheel radius is constant for the whole speed range [2]:

rW;dyn ¼ rW;dyn;base ð2:27:4Þ

2. Dynamic wheel radius map (ZW = 2)

The dynamic wheel radius rW, dyn is evaluated from the map for the actual
wheel speed u_ W;out 2].

rW;dyn ¼ rW;dyn;list ðvV Þ ð2:27:5Þ

2.27.5.2 Forces and Moments

Rolling Drag Moment [2]


MW;roll ¼ FW;in  cW;r vV;act  rW;dyn ð2:27:6Þ

The rolling resistance coefficient is evaluated out of the map Cw,f(Vv) for the
actual vehicle velocity.
The rolling resistance is defined as followed [2]:

c ¼ cv þ cq cRL þ cT þ cp ð2:27:7Þ

c rolling resistance factor

cV velocity proportional part
196 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

cv = cv(v)
cρ Rolling resistance influenced by side slip angle [2]:

mvehicle  v2vehicle


cq ¼  abs sin af ðrÞ ð2:27:8Þ
qg

af(r) side slip angle

cRL wheel load proportional part [2]:


cRL ¼ cRL FN  FN;Norm =FN ð2:27:9Þ

cRL* reference wheel load proportional part

FN,Norm reference wheel load
cT temperature proportional part [2]:

cT ¼ cT ðTU Þ ð2:27:10Þ

cp tire pressure proportional part [2]:

cp ¼ cp ðpNorm  pact Þ=pNorm ð2:27:11Þ

cRL* factor at reference tire pressure

pNorm reference tire pressure
pact actual tire pressure (load-dependent definition in vehicle component)

Slip Moment
Wheel Slip function
For the current
road condition

) the Slip Characteristics can be evaluated
(µu,road
from the SW;peak lu;road and lw;asym lu;road
With this, we calculate the slip coefficients [2]:


2  arcsin lw;asxm;act
Cw;coeff1 ¼2 ð2:27:12Þ
p

1 p2
Cw;coeff2 ¼  tan

 ð2:27:13Þ
SW;peak;act 4  p  arcsin lw;asym;act

Reference Velocity [2]

If vV;act [ u_ W;in  rw;dyn ! vW;ref ¼ vV;act ð2:27:14Þ

Else ! vW;ref ¼ u_ W;in  rW;dyn ð2:27:15Þ

2.27 Wheel/Tire (W) 197

Current wheel slip

Independently from the operating mode the wheel slip results from [2]

u_ W;in  rW;dyn  vV;act

sW ¼ for vW;ref \104 sW ¼ 0 ð2:27:16Þ
vW;ref

Slip difference
The slip difference is defined as difference between the actual slip and the infinite
slip with the peak friction value [2].

DSW ¼ SW  SW;peak;act ð2:27:17Þ

Selection for different ΔsW [2]

DSW \0
ð2:27:18Þ
Mw;slip ¼ 0

DSW  0:03
ð2:27:19Þ
MW;slip ¼ SIGNðSW Þ  5  105  DS2W

DSW [ 0:03
ð2:27:20Þ
MW;slip ¼ SIGNðSW Þ  5  105  0:03  ð2  DSw  0:03Þ

The Transmittable Longitudinal Wheel Force

This is the force value which can be transmitted by the wheel—road friction.
The maximum slip correction factor is [2]:


CW;lim ¼ sin CW;coeff1  arctan CW;coeff2  SW
h 
2 i: ð2:27:21Þ
 tanh 3:6  v2V;act þ 0:0278 þ u_  rW;dyn 0:02

Fw;pot ¼ Fw;in  lw;tire  lu;road ð2:27:22Þ

For the actual wheel slip, the maximum transmittable force is [2]:

FV;a;lim ¼ CW;lim  FW;pot ð2:27:23Þ

The moment of the vehicle (acting at the virtual wheel with r =1 m) in defined as
followed [2]:

MV;virt ¼ FV;a;lim  1 m ð2:27:24Þ

198 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

For the actual longitudinal force FW,a

For the actual longitudinal force, the necessary slip correction factor can be cal-
culated back [2]:

FW;a
CW;act ¼ ð2:27:25Þ
FW;pot

FW;a
Cslip ¼ ð2:27:26Þ
FW;pot  Cw;coeff1  Cw;coeff2

if (Fw,a> FV,a,lim) more longitudinal force should be transmitted as it is possible

with the actual wheel slip.
For rolling resistance and slip together [2]:


MW;trans ¼  FW;a  rW;dyn  MW;roll  MW;lip ð2:27:27Þ

Wheel power
The wheel power is calculated out of the transmitted wheel torque and the wheel
speed [2]:

PW;trans ¼ MW;trans  u_ W ð2:27:28Þ

2.27.5.3 Rolling Resistance Model

Determination of the exterior diameter and the surface area [2]:

2RW  WW
DW;design ¼ DW;seat þ ð2:27:29Þ
100
!
D2W;design D2W;seat
AW ¼ DW;design  p  WW þ 2p  ð2:27:30Þ
4 4

The fundamental assumption of this detailed tire model is that the transient tire
temperature response can be modeled in the same way as the steady state response
to the ambient temperature [2]:


FW;roll ¼ FW;roll;stab 1 þ kW;emp TW;act  TW;stab ð2:27:31Þ

In order to calculate the instantaneous rolling resistance at each time step, the
subsequent algorithm has to be followed:
2.27 Wheel/Tire (W) 199

(1) The steady state rolling resistance value FW,roll,stab at current conditions as a
function of tire load FW,act, tire inflation pressure zV,load, tire translation speed
vW,act and ambient temperature TU [2]:
!aW  
pact FW;act bW
FW;roll;stab ¼ cW;roll;ISO  FW;act
pW;ISO FW;ISO
"     #
vW;act  vW;ISO vW;act  vW;ISO 2
 1þb þc
vW;ISO vW;ISO


 1 þ cW;ambient T W;ISO  T U
ð2:27:32Þ
in which the coefficients cW,roll,ISO, pW,ISO, vW,ISO, TW,ISO, bW,lin, cW,quad, αW,
βW and cW,ambient are unique to each tire. The subscript ISO simply refers to
the parameters value under ISO (or actual) test conditions. Naturally these
values must be furnished along with the model coefficients.
In the above equation, we have not yet added the aerodynamic drag. Since the
aerodynamic drag is assumed independent of temperature, it is added after the
instantaneous rolling resistance is calculated.
(2) The stabilized tire temperature TW,stab is equal to [2]:

vW;act  FW;roll;stab
TW;stab ¼ TU þ ð2:27:33Þ
CW;conv  AW

where [2]:
 c
vW;act
cW;conv ¼ cW;conv;ISO ð2:27:34Þ
vW;ISO

and cW,conv,ISO, γ and AW are unique to each tire. For the case of vW,act = 0 it is
necessary
To apply a free convection exchange coefficient. In this case, we first calculate
the Rayleigh number [2]:


g  bW TW;act  TU  D3W;design
RaD ¼ ð2:27:35Þ
va

with [2]:
g gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2)
βW volumetric thermal expansion coefficient of air (which can be
approximated as TW;act2þTU ½K 1 
v [m/s2] kinematic viscosity of air (evaluated at TW;act þTU through interpola-
2
tion in a table)
200 2 Mathematics Behind the Models

α [m/s2] thermal diffusivity of air (evaluated at TW;act þTU through interpolation

2
in a table)

Then the Nusselt number and subsequently the heat transfer coefficient are
calculated [2]:

NuD ¼ 0:15RaD
0:333
ð2:27:36Þ

NuD  kW;therm
cW;heat ¼ ð2:27:37Þ
DW;design

with
kW,therm [W/mK] thermal conductivity of air (evaluated at TW;act þTU
2 through
interpolation in a table)

(3) The instantaneous average tire temperature at each time increment is then
obtained by integrating [2]:

1 Zt

TW;act ðtÞ  TW;act;last ¼ FW;roll  vW;act  cW;heat  AW TW;act;last  TU d~t
mW  CW;heat;equiv 0
ð2:27:38Þ

with
cW,heat,equiv equivalent specific heat of the tire [J/kg K]

(4) Once the instantaneous tire temperature is calculated, the instantaneous rolling
resistance is calculated by [2]:


FW;roll ¼ FW;roll;stab 1 þ kW;emp TW;act  TW;stab ð2:27:39Þ

(5) Concluding the (temperature-independent) aerodynamic drag is added to

receive the final, entire instantaneous rolling resistance [2]:
 2
vW;act
FW;roll ¼ FW;roll þ cW;aero ð2:27:40Þ
vW;ISO

References

1. AVL Cruise (2011) Users guide, AVL list GmbH, Graz, Austria, Document no. 04.0104.2011,
Edition 06.2011
2. AVL Cruise (2009) Theory manual, AVL list GmbH, Graz, Austria, Document no.
04.0108.2009, Edition 06.2009
References 201

3. Patton KJ, Nitschke RG, Heywood JB, Development and evalu-ation of a friction model for
spark-ignition engines. SAE Paper No. 89-0836
4. Shayler PJ, Christian SJ, Ma T, A model for the investigation of temperature heat flow and
friction characteristics during engine warm-up. SAE Paper 93-1153
5. Shayler PJ, Leong DKW, Murphy M (2003) Friction teardown data from motored engine tests
on light duty automotive diesel engines at low temperatures and speeds. In: ASME 2003, Fall
Technical Conference
Chapter 3
Virtual Powertrain Design

The drivetrain configuration is freely definable and the user can build in as many
clutches, torque converters, or elastic shafts as required.
The drivetrain configuration is like a standard vehicle with a manual gearbox. In
this configuration, only one clutch is allowed. In front and after the clutch, there can
only be one degree of freedom. In addition, just one gearbox is allowed in this
configuration. The standard manual gearbox was developed for shifting in the next
gear according to the engine speeds. In addition, check that the friction clutch is
directly connected to the gearbox.
The drivetrain configuration is like a standard vehicle with an automatic gear-
box. In this configuration, only one torque converter is allowed. In front and after
the torque, converter there can only be one degree of freedom. In addition, just one
gearbox or one Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) is allowed in this
configuration. For the different configurations, different calculation algorithms are
used. Thus the calculation times can be decreased for standard drivetrains [1].
Standard automatic was developed for shifting according to speeds in the next
gear. In addition, the torque converter is directly connected to the gearbox or the
CVT.
In the User Area (Fig. 3.1) click on the Projects folder with the right mouse
button and select new project. Enter a name and select OK. The new name will
appear in the projects tree. Select this new project with the right mouse button and
select new version. Enter the new version name or keep the default version name.
Select OK. Select the version with the right mouse button and select save. All files
and subdirectories required for the project management are created [2].
In the navigation frame there is current default project directory with tree
structure, showing all existing subfolders, projects, and versions in that directory.
On the right side of the window, there are detailed data regarding objects in the tree
structure.
To start a new project, in User tab with right mouse click popup menu, select
new and chose project or version and create project or version with new name. For
already existing project, load project or version by selecting the desired version of
the project from project tree structure in User view [1].
After starting AVL CRUISE platform, select Desk tab and click to Vehicle
Model to open Desk Area to begin building the new model.
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 203
B.O. Varga et al., Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles,
Green Energy and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-18639-9_3
204 3 Virtual Powertrain Design

Fig. 3.1 User Area

Fig. 3.2 Desk Area

To insert component into model click on the Desk Area (Fig. 3.2) and then click
on the Vehicle Model.
The components used to build the models are located under the Desk Area—
Modules Sidebar, and are described in Table 3.1.
In addition to the components of the drivetrain, whose single modules are
defined by a Configuration File at the program start, there are general modules on
each view which corresponds to a vehicle.
3 Virtual Powertrain Design 205

Table 3.1 Components Description

Symbol Component
Category Vehicles
Vehicle: The vehicle is the basic component of every model. In this
component, the general data of a model like the nominal dimensions or
the weights are defined. Only one vehicle component is required in a
model. Road resistances and dynamic wheel loads are calculated for road
and dynamometer runs based on the dimensions and the load state. The
wheel loads are calculated considering motion. The aerodynamic, rolling,
climbing, acceleration, and total resistance are calculated.
Category Clutches
Clutch: The clutch contains a model for a friction clutch as it is used in
vehicle with manual gearboxes. In this case, the clutch is controlled by
the driver via the cockpit. The clutch can also be used together with a
CVT gearbox and it is only necessary for starting. In this case, the clutch
is controlled by the control module CVT control. The clutch slips to
compensate for the difference in the rotational speeds of engine and
drivetrain when the vehicle is set in motion.
Torque Converter: employ the force represented by a moving fluid to
transmit engine torque. As these devices compensate for differences in
the rotating speeds of engine and drivetrain, they are ideal for effecting
the transition from stationary to mobile operation. The torque converter
also multiplies torque. First, pump converts the mechanical energy
emanating from the power unit into fluid energy; a second
transformation, back into mechanical energy.
Automatic Clutch: The automatic clutch is used as the starting clutch in
vehicles. This component holds a model of an uncontrolled automatic
clutch which is often used as the starting clutch (centrifugal clutch) in
vehicles. The transferable torque is based on the speed ratio between
input and output considering the mass moments of inertia. The clutch
torque is described by characteristics which depend on the speed ratio
between input and output.
Shaft: is used to make elastic connections between different components
and for the study of low-frequency dynamic effects in the drivetrain,
which are caused by shifting gears. Shaft connections in the drivetrain
can be modeled to be rigid or elastic at torsion. The clearance in elastic
shaft connections can also be taken into account. The torsional stiffness
of the shaft depends on the length of the shaft.
Category Gearbox
Gearbox: Gear transmissions featuring several fixed ratios can maintain
a correspondence between the respective performance curves for engine
and vehicle. The component gearbox contains a model for a gearbox with
different gear steps. The gearbox can be used for a manual or automatic
gearbox. When used as an automatic gearbox, the gear shifting process
will be controlled by the control module gearbox control or gearbox
program.
(continued)
206 3 Virtual Powertrain Design

Table 3.1 (continued)

Symbol Component
CVT: The Continuously Variable Transmission can convert every point
on the engine’s operating curve to an operating curve of its own, and
every engine operating curve into an operating range within the field of
potential driving conditions. With the model of the CVT gearbox it is
possible to change the transmission between two user-defined threshold
values. The adjusting speed between different transmissions is internal
fixed at a constant value.
Single Ratio (Transmission Step): The Single Ratio Transmission is a
gear step with fixed ratio. It can be used as a transmission step of the
differential (final drive unit). A drive torque will be transferred to a power
take-off torque of the transmission step by considering the transmission,
the mass moments of inertia and the loss moments. The transmission
ratio can be changed by multiplication with an additional factor and is
defined by the number of teeth of input and output.
Differential (Power Divider): The division of one drive torque into two
power take-off torques will be done by considering the transmission, the
moments of inertia. The differential unit compensates for discrepancies in
the respective rotation rates of the drive wheels: between inside and
outside wheels during cornering and between different drive axles on
4WD vehicles. This wheel then responds to the application of excessive
force by spinning.
Planetary Gear: The planetary gearbox belongs to the power split
devices. It consists of three main components: the sun gear, the planet
carrier and the ring gear. This gearbox can be used in hybrid systems,
where vehicles are be driven using different power supplies. With the
planetary gear, it is possible to add torque and speed with different
directions at the transmission input shafts. The speed ratio and the
direction of rotation can be changed according to which member is fixed.
Category Engines
Engine: The internal combustion engine will be modeled by means of
characteristic curves and maps. This component contains a model for a
internal combustion engine. The characteristic curves for the full load,
the fuel consumption, and others can be freely defined by the user. It is
possible to define a gasoline engine as well as a diesel engine. In this
component, a temperature model is included to consider the influence of
the temperature on the fuel consumption and emissions while the engine
is cold.
Boost Engine: The Boost engine component supplies a connection to the
engine cycle simulation AVL BOOST and enables a coupling with the
BOOST combustion engine model in AVL CRUISE. Additionally, the
AVL CRUISE user can start the pre- and postprocessors of AVL BOOST
by pressing the appropriate button, thereby using all the features of
AVL BOOST. Engine maps can be either precalculated or then used as
stationary maps or the calculation can run online considering all the
transient effects.
(continued)
3 Virtual Powertrain Design 207

Table 3.1 (continued)

Symbol Component
Category Electrical Modules
Electric Motor: Can be used for electrically driven vehicles, cars with
hybrid drive or to operate auxiliaries such as a fan or an oil pump. The
electric motor is defined by means of characteristic curves. Therefore,
different motor type models can be constructed. Efficiency map is
dependent on the speed and the voltage. Map of the output torque
dependent on the speed and the voltage. Efficiency map is dependent on
the speed and the voltage.
Generator: The generator must furnish the vehicle’s electrical system
with a sufficient supply of current under all operating conditions. The
objective is to achieve balanced charging the curves for performance and
speed-frequency response must be selected to ensure that the amount of
current generated under actual operating conditions. The current
delivered by the generator results from a map dependent on the speed and
the main voltage.
Battery: The battery must be capable of limited-duration high-current
delivery for starting, and it must be able to furnish some or all of the
electrical energy for other important system components for limited
periods with the engine at idle or off. The lead-acid storage battery
represents the usual means of meeting these demands. The instantaneous
charge of the battery is determined by means of a balance computation.
The charge capacity is the nominal capacity of the battery.
Electrical Consumer: Electric consumers are represented as ohmic
resistors in the onboard network. They represent an electric current loss.
The number of resistors that can be defined is user dependent. The
resistors can be fixed by a constant value or by means of characteristic
curves. It is possible to define resistors as a function of any external input
value. It is also possible to define an external switch that switches the
resistor on and off depending on exceeding an external value.
Category Hybrid Modules
Electric Machine: The electric machine component can be used either as
an electric motor or as a generator. There are separate characteristic maps
for each mode. Together with the battery H and supercapacitor
components, the user can simulate hybrid systems. The model of the
electric machine contains two components, the inverter and the electric
motor. For this type of model, a characteristic map for the efficiency is
used to calculate the loss of power.
Supercapacitor: This component is a capacitor with a very high
capacity. It stores energy in electrostatic fields and can reach a very high
power density (up to 1 kW per kg). The thermal behavior of the
supercapacitor is described by a thermal substitution model. Single cells
can be modeled as well as any combination of them. The supercapacitors
cell structure is kind of a matrix with a constant number of rows and a
constant number of cells in each row.
(continued)
208 3 Virtual Powertrain Design

Table 3.1 (continued)

Symbol Component
Battery H: The basic model consists of a voltage source and an ohmic
resistance. Internal resistance can be defined either as a constant value or
as a temperature dependent function. The resistance is constructed in a
way that a big part of the complex processes within the battery are taken
into consideration. The thermal behavior of the battery is described by a
thermal substitution model. Single cells can be modeled as well as any
combination of them.
Category Controls
Gearbox control: The gearbox control is required to define an automatic
gearbox. In the gearbox control, the gear shifting process can be defined
automatically without any influence of the driver. The gearbox control
shifts the gears dependent on a speed or velocity. In the calculation tasks
it is decided which of the two shifting strategies is used. The speed,
respectively, which velocity is used can be defined via the Data Bus
connection.
Gearbox program: This is used for automatic gearboxes in combination
with the gearbox control. The gearbox program allows for a more
complicated gear shifting process than the gearbox control, as the load
signal of the engine is considered. The gearbox program shifts the gears
according to given curves as a function of the load signal and the engine
speed. The target gear determined by the program is transmitted to the
gearbox control that transmits it to the gearbox.
CVT control: This component controls the CVT gearbox. The
transmission of the CVT can be defined as function of the vehicle
velocity and the throttle position. The CVT is controlled by definition of
desired input speed depending on velocity and load signal. When using
this option, the Data Bus input channel input speed has to be connected.
Multiple transmission ratio maps can be handled in a single simulation
by changing the value of input signal.
ASC (Anti-Slip Control): This component controls the coefficient of
friction of the single wheels. For the maximum value, the throttle
position or the clutch release is changed. The ASC checks the force
transmission factor (ratio between force that should be transmitted and
maximum transmittable force) of all connected wheels (driven wheels). If
the force that has to be transmitted exceeds the adhesion limit, the load
signal or the clutches release change.
PID control: Combined with other signal processing components
(function component), the PID control may be used to build-up more
powerful control subsystems in AVL CRUISE. It basically supports two
operation modes. The first mode is the standard PID control mode, using
the difference between a desired value and an actual value to generate an
output value. The second mode is the advanced signal control with
limitation mode.
Battery Management System: This component serves to control energy
flow from/to the battery. The desired current limits from/to the battery
can be defined as function of any set parameter so that the electric loads
(like electric machine) can adapt themselves to. For the set parameter, the
type of data and the units can be selected by a special input dialog. The
lower and upper thresholds of State of Charge determine the operation
area of the battery.
(continued)
3 Virtual Powertrain Design 209

Table 3.1 (continued)

Symbol Component
Category Brakes
Brake: The brake component is described by brake data and dimensions.
It is possible to define drum brakes as well as disk brakes. The braking
torque is computed considering the braking dimensions and the input
brake pressure. This brake pressure can come from the cockpit
component or brake control. The brake calculation always stays dynamic
and never switches to a kinematic connection. The brake is controlled by
the brake pressure which has to be supplied via Data Bus input.
Category Special Modules
Cockpit: The cockpit links the driver and the vehicle. In this component,
connections are only made via the Data Bus connection. On one hand,
the driver gets information such as the vehicle velocity and the vehicle
acceleration. On the other hand, information from the driver such as the
pedal positions is delivered to other components. The pedal positions
(clutch pedal position) are transferred into corresponding indicators
(clutch release) via the pedal characteristics (clutch pedal).
Exhaust System: Exhaust systems consider the effects of the catalytic
converter and soot filler on the raw emissions of the engine. Starting with
the temperature of the catalytic converter, factors for the conversion will
be computed for the single emissions components on the basis of the
temperature dependent maps. The heat loss coefficient is the percentage
of the exhaust energy delivered by the engine which reaches the exhaust
system.
Map: The component map interpolates a user-defined function which can
be one or two dimensional. It has two Data Bus inputs for the
independent function variables and one output for the interpolated
function value. In the case of a one-dimensional function the second Data
Bus input is ignored. The type of data can be selected by a special input
dialog. Please note that all data coming via the Data Bus are in SI units.
The conversion to the defined unit in the map is then done in the
component.
Steplike Map: The map is defined as a group of curves. The first column
contains the curve parameters, which can be interpreted as the curve
height (z-value). The points belonging to the same curve share the same
parameter value. The second and the third columns contain the x and y
values. This group of curves separates the domain into sections with
constant z-values, equal to parameter of the lower boundary curve (lower
means smaller z-value).
Function: The component function can be used for calculating with
user-defined functions. There are two possibilities to define the function:
in RPN-notation style (Reverse Polish Notation) where only one function
output y can be defined and programming in C-style, where up to 99
function outputs can be defined. Those arguments must be connected to
form the function term by using operators which can be selected from a
selection menu.
(continued)
210 3 Virtual Powertrain Design

Table 3.1 (continued)

Symbol Component
Constants: Up to 99 constants can be defined which can be used by other
components via Data Bus. Every constant requires the definition of the
Data Bus channel number, a comment, the constant value, the unit and
the data type. Data type can be of integer, double or string. In the case of
a string constant, the unit definition is not used in calculation. The
constant output values are sent to the Data Bus and can be used by other
components.
Monitor: The monitor can be introduced, if the calculation run must be
detected. It is possible to show some results of the calculation while the
calculation is running. This is done via the online monitor. It is possible
to connect up to ten input channels of the monitor to output channels of
different components that are available at the AVL CRUISE Data Bus.
The output in the online monitor is only available in the form of tables.
More than one monitor component can be used in a AVL CRUISE
model.
Hub: The component hub is a combination of a brake and a virtual
wheel. It is used in models with an interface to a co-simulating program
which simulates the environment, the vehicle and the wheel. The
component has the Data Bus inputs braking torque and (wheel) resistance
torque which can be connected with an interface component like
AVL CRUISE interface or CM-Car. When set to dynamic, the brake
calculation always stays dynamic and never switches to a kinematic
connection.
nD-Table: The component n-dimensional lookup table interpolates a
user-defined function which can be up to ten dimensions. It has ten Data
Bus inputs for the independent function variables and five Data Bus
outputs for the interpolated function value. In the case of less than ten
input connected, the leftover Data Bus are ignored. The component n-d
lookup table serves for the input of general maps. These maps can have
from one to ten independent input values.
Category Interfaces
AVL Exhaust System: The component AVL Exhaust System extends
the AVL CRUISE library in order to meet all user requirements
regarding emissions (more detailed and accurate results). The component
supplies a connection to the after treatment system of AVL BOOST and
enables a coupling with the BOOST after treatment model in
AVL CRUISE. By naming a BOOSTDLL and a model file (*.atm), the
BOOST after treatment system can be started from AVL CRUISE in the
form of a coupled calculation.
MATLAB®/Simulink™: The interface that allows integrating controllers
and/or mechanical elements, such as special drives, into the
computational model of AVL CRUISE. The input and output variables
will be transferred by means of inports and outports. As two simulations,
for AVL CRUISE and MATLAB®, take place at the same time in this
case, the integration steps of the two programs will have to be
harmonized by a suitable selection of the step width.
(continued)
3 Virtual Powertrain Design 211

Table 3.1 (continued)

Symbol Component
AVL CRUISE Interface: The AVL CRUISE interface component
defines the interface between AVL CRUISE models calculated in client
mode with AVL CRUISE DLL and the calling applications. In every
time step, AVL CRUISE data goes to the server application through up
to 99 Data Bus input channels AVL CRUISE to environment, and from
there, data comes back to AVL CRUISE through up to 99 output
channels environment to AVL CRUISE which can be connected with
AVL CRUISE components.
CarMaker Interface: The CM-Car component defines the interface in
co-simulation between AVL CRUISE powertrain models calculated with
the SAM calculation task and the CarMaker simulation package. In every
time step, AVL CRUISE data goes to the CarMaker application through
Data Bus input channels AVL CRUISE to CarMaker, and from there,
data comes back through output channels CarMaker to AVL CRUISE
which can be connected to the other components.
TruckMaker Interface: The CM-Truck component defines the interface
in co-simulation between AVL CRUISE powertrain models calculated
with the SAM calculation task and the TruckMaker simulation package.
In every time step, AVL CRUISE data goes to the TruckMaker
application through Data Bus input channels AVL CRUISE to
TruckMaker, and from there, data comes back through output channels
TruckMaker to AVL CRUISE which can be connected to the other
components.
CarSim Interface: The CarSim component defines the interface in
co-simulation between AVL CRUISE powertrain models calculated with
the SAM Calculation Task and the CarSim simulation package. In every
time step, AVL CRUISE data goes to the CarSim application through
Data Bus input channels AVL CRUISE to CarSim, and from there, data
comes back to AVL CRUISE through output channels CarSim to
AVL CRUISE which can be connected to the other AVL CRUISE
components.
TruckSim Interface: The TruckSim component defines the interface in
co-simulation between AVL CRUISE powertrain models calculated with
the SAM calculation task and the TruckSim simulation package. In every
time step, AVL CRUISE data goes to the TruckSim application through
Data Bus input channels AVL CRUISE to CarSim, and from there, data
comes back to AVL CRUISE through output channels CarSim to
AVL CRUISE which can be connected to the other AVL CRUISE
components.
AVL PUMA Interface: The AVL PUMA component serves as an
interface to AVL PUMA Open engine testbed automation system and it
is based on the existing AVL CRUISE interface component.
AVL PUMA Open is the application-oriented automation system for the
engine, powertrain and vehicle testbeds of AVL. In addition to standard
features such as fully automated test runs or manual operation, the
AVL PUMA Open automation system provides reliable and precise
control of measuring devices and test cell facilities.
(continued)
212 3 Virtual Powertrain Design

Table 3.1 (continued)

Symbol Component
ETAS Interface: component defines the interface between
AVL CRUISE models calculated in client mode and the calling
applications. In every time step, AVL CRUISE data goes to the server
application through up to 99 Data Bus input channels AVL CRUISE to
ETAS, and from there, data comes back to AVL CRUISE through up to
99 output channels which can be connected with AVL CRUISE
components. This interface offers a variety of possibilities to the user, for
example, modeling of a testbed configuration in ETAS Labcar.
NI VeriStand Interface: component defines the interface between
AVL CRUISE models calculated in client mode with AVL CRUISE
DLL and the calling applications. In every time step, AVL CRUISE data
goes to the server application through up to 99 Data Bus input channels,
and from there, data comes back to AVL CRUISE through up to 99
output channels which can be connected with AVL CRUISE
components.
AVL DRIVE: The component AVL DRIVE enables an evaluation of the
drivability of AVL CRUISE results. This evaluation is possible only in
simulation mode, and therefore only in the tasks which provide this
mode. Before evaluation start, a model must be parametrized also in
AVL DRIVE. AVL DRIVE is only launched when activation is selected.
This functionality is used for calibration of the model in AVL CRUISE
without doing a AVL DRIVE evaluation every time.
Black Box: Similar to the interface for MATLAB®/Simulink™, the
Black Box component allows to process program codes provided by the
user, third parties (C or Fortran) or a dynamic link (DLL or SO). These
Black Boxes are called several times per time step and can be used for
purely logical functions which do not depend on the last call. These
Black Boxes are called only once per time step and can be used if any
memory effects should be considered.
Category Wheel
Wheel: The wheels and tires link the vehicle to the road. The wheel
component considers many influencing variables and their effect on the
rolling state. The moment of rolling drag can be computed on the basis of
the wheel load, the corrected dynamic rolling radius, and the coefficient
of rolling drag. The longitudinal tire force results from the friction
coefficient, the wheel load as well as from the wheel load factor and the
slip factor.
3 Virtual Powertrain Design 213

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Create Create vehicle Insert energetic
project/version model connection

Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

Insert Input data Create
informational in task folders
connection components add tasks

Step 7 Step 8 Step 9

Setup Run View and
calculations calculation evaluate results

Fig. 3.3 Work process flow

In the Vehicle Modeler, the components are organized in component groups and
they can simply be dragged and dropped onto the working area, where they can be
linked together to represent the desired drivetrain configuration.
To build a new model in AVL CRUISE, the recommended work process flow to
create a project/version is described in Fig. 3.3.
To connect the components, the user must click with the right mouse button on
connector of the first component to be connected and chose connect (or break the
established connections, or cloning the pin if are more of them needed). Drag the
connection with the mouse toward to desired component. Click with the left mouse
button on connector of the second component to be connected.
There are two types of connections: energetic connections (mechanical con-
nection—blue, exhaust connection—gray, electrical connection—red), and infor-
mational connection (red–green–blue).
Energetic connections which transfer energy are divided by the type of energy
which is transferred into the following groups (mechanical, exhaust, electrical) and
are established by polylines between the pins.
Information to the Data Bus is the only informational connection. These con-
nections are established by an arrow which shows the information flow. The
energetic connections are represented in form of lines on the screen [3].
The components with informational connections have only a small colored
arrow on the left bottom corner of the symbol. For connecting the different modules
with information flow, open the Data Bus dialog by double clicking with the left
mouse button on the colored lines (red—green—blue) at the bottom of the vehicle
modeler (Fig. 3.4).
The connections in the data bus are described as follows: in the first column
(component … requires) all components are listed which need information from
other components (e.g., IC Engine). In the second column (input information …
from), all values required by this component will be displayed (e.g., Throttle
Position). Values that are marked in blue in this column have to be connected;
values marked in black are optional. After selecting a value in the second column,
214 3 Virtual Powertrain Design

Fig. 3.4 Data Bus window

in the third column (component … delivering) all components appear which can
deliver such information (e.g., Cockpit; in this case the only component that can
deliver a throttle position). In the fourth column (output information …), the values
appear that can deliver this information (e.g., Throttle Position).
In AVL CRUISE a preselection is done so that only the components that can
provide the input information as requested in the second column are presented in
the third and fourth columns (in this case, only the Cockpit can deliver an infor-
mation like the throttle position). For this, the Cockpit delivers the information
about the actual throttle position to the engine, where it is used to determine the
output torque.
Click on a components Data Bus symbol (input or output) with the left mouse
visualizes the Data Bus connections between this component and other components
(Fig. 3.5). The channels appear as colored lines and also their names are written.
Freezing visualization is possible by clicking on the connection icon until other
connection is selected.
Components can be encoded using the button in the upper left corner of the
components window. The user can define a password with a maximum length of
eight characters. Encrypted components cannot be opened until the correct pass-
word is entered. If a model which contains encrypted components is calculated, all
results can be viewed except the results of the encrypted components.
Macrocomponents can also be encrypted using the right mouse button [1].
Components and their connections can be grouped into subsystems. The sub-
systems can be activated or deactivated so that several configurations of an active
subsystem can be defined. With these three subsystems it is possible to define two
3 Virtual Powertrain Design 215

Fig. 3.5 Data Bus visualization

vehicle configurations, which are from now on called systems. The structure of the
systems/subsystems and their activation status is shown i
• Conventional System, containing the subsystems:
– Main (activated);
– Manual Transmission (activated);
– Hybrid (deactivated).
• A Hybrid System, containing the active subsystems:
– Main (activated);
– Manual Transmission (deactivated);
– Hybrid (activated).
n the navigation tree and also in the “Systems” section of the sidebar of the vehicle
modeler.
Each component of the model has a popup menu accessible by right mouse
button click (Fig. 3.6).
Special components which have the sheet description of Data Bus (Function,
Map, Interface Components, etc.) have user-defined channel names.
The Kinematic Chain Browser can be launched in the popup menu of a selected
component (Fig. 3.7). All mechanical connections starting from the selected
component are shown in a tree structure in the left side of the window. When a
second component is selected in the tree structure, all speeds between the selected
components are shown in the table in the right side of the window, each row
representing one gear of the gearbox [1].
216 3 Virtual Powertrain Design

Fig. 3.6 Component popup menu

Fig. 3.7 Kinematic Chain Browser

Speed values of components which have an influence on the speed (Gearbox,

Single Ratio Transmission) are marked green. The last column of the table shows
the entire speed ratio. The input speed can be defined manually, default value is
1000 rpm.
3 Virtual Powertrain Design 217

Direction is shown with arrows above component icons. The direction can be
changed by sorting it in the tree structure. This can be done by double clicking on a
module in the tree or by clicking on the button. The selected module will then
become the new root module. In the head of the table, symbols indicate in which
direction the modules are calculated: >> X >> forward, << X << backward.
If the component data has been changed, the Kinematic Chain Browser can
calculate once more and update its results when pressing the update button.
The Kinematic Chain Browser also takes into account the ratio changes of the
Component Variation or Matrix Calculation. When opening the Kinematic Chain
Browser, the ratios of the basic model are taken for the calculation. When a certain
variation case is selected in the variations DoE plan, the chain browser calculates
with the ratios of that case.
Activation and deactivation of Task Folders and tasks within Task Folders is
always related to the actual system. Definition can be done in the sidebar of the
vehicle modeler: after the selection of a system, its Task Folders and tasks can be
activated/deactivated in the ‘Tasks’ sheet of the sidebar (Fig. 3.8).
Cycle Run (Fig. 3.9) is a calculation task for the fuel consumption and emissions
calculation. This is done for a fixed driving profile. The determination of this profile
has to be entered as function of the time. This task should be used especially for

Fig. 3.8 Task Folders

218 3 Virtual Powertrain Design

Fig. 3.9 Cycle Run

evaluations of standard driving profiles. The Cycle Run can be calculated as

quasi-stationary and simulation. It is possible to select chassis dynamometer or
road. Just as for the Driving Profile, a Gear Selection Mode can be stated.
The Cycle Run additionally depends on: Course, Profile and Driver. In this task,
the behavior of the vehicle when following a velocity profile is observed. The
reference axis is time [1].
Course component characterizes the environment and the driving conditions as
function of the driving distance or time (Fig. 3.10). Among other things, the
instantaneous atmospheric pressure and density as well as the temperature are
acquired to describe the ambient conditions [1].
These variables are based upon the values existing at standard conditions, which
will be adopted or computed according to the input.
All inputs are functions of the driving distance or time. If cornering is chosen,
the angle of approach must be declared.
The Profile data (Fig. 3.11) should be entered as function of the time or distance.
The following data is required [1]:
• Velocity: the rated of vehicle velocity;
• Gear: actual gear for shifting according to profile for manual gearboxes or
gearbox control;
• Shifting Time: for manual gearboxes this shifting time is used if it is above the
ergonomic border of the driver;
• Start Signal: to switch the engine on and off during the cycle;
• Minimum and maximum velocity: to set the threshold values that may not be
exceeded during the test run;
3 Virtual Powertrain Design 219

Fig. 3.10 Course component

Fig. 3.11 Profile data

• Stop Time: (only for distance-dependent profile) for a distance-dependent pro-

file stop times of the vehicle can be defined;
• Additional Load: is defined as a function of time or distance and added to the
load of the empty vehicle. This type of load definition can be activated in the
tasks “Cycle Run” and “Cruising”.
220 3 Virtual Powertrain Design

Fig. 3.12 Driver

The Driver should imitate the behavior of a real driver as well as possible
(Fig. 3.12). For this purpose, the behavior can be defined by different input data.
The used data can be divided into the following groups:
• Data defining the shifting behavior;
• Data defining the starting behavior;
• Data defining the driving behavior.
The data for the starting and driving behavior can be defined by the user (expert
mode) or default values can be used (standard) [1].
Simulation allows modeling of the real behavior if the overall model is har-
monized correspondingly. This will automatically lead to a control loop in which
the driver (modeled as Driver Module in the program) acts as a controller when
simulating a real driving task. For this the driver has to change the acceleration,
brake, or clutch pedal position.
In the elastic connections, the torsional stiffness of the connection (shafts) can be
taken into account.
To solve the differential equation system, a single-step integration method has
been implemented. This method calculates the actual conditions and the conditions
of the next time step. If the accuracy limits cannot be reached with the chosen time
step width (check with a second integration method), the time step width is
decreased [1].
If the temporary results cause a change of the lock conditions, the equation
system is switched to a new one.
3 Virtual Powertrain Design 221

General Configurations are models without any restrictions in the build-up of the
model. The calculation is done without special knowledge about the drivetrain.
In general, all component specific calculations are done in the respective mod-
ules. The values which are determined in the modules are combined together to an
equation system with the smallest possible number of degrees of freedom. The
integration for this reduced system can be done independent of the external modules
in the internal equation solver.

References

1. AVL Cruise (2011) Users Guide, AVL List GmbH, Graz, Austria, Document no. 04.0104.2011,
Edition 06.2011
2. AVL Cruise (2011) Release Note, AVL List GmbH, Graz, Austria, Document no.
04.0102.2011, Edition 06.2011
3. AVL Cruise (2011) Database, AVL List GmbH, Graz, Austria, Document no. 04.0112.2011,
Edition 06.2011
Chapter 4
Classical Powertrain Configuration Model
and Simulation

4.1 Classical Vehicle Model

4.1.1 Classic CVT Model

This chapter describes how to create and run the model of a manual front wheel
drive. To place a component in the working area, click on the component group
with the left mouse button, move the mouse over the required component, and then
click and drag the component into the vehicle model area. Arrange the components
as shown in Fig. 4.1 and connect the components as specified in the diagram.
Place the following components in the working area: Vehicle (1), IC Engine (2),
Torque Converter (3), CVT Continuously Variable Transmission (4), Final Drive
(5), Vehicle Front Right (6), Vehicle Rear Right (7), Vehicle Front Left (8), Vehicle
Rear Left (9), Front Disk Brake (10), Rear Drum Brake (11), Front Disk Brake (12),
Rear Drum Brake (13), Differential (14), Cockpit (15), CVT Control (16), ASC
Anti-Slip Control (17), Catalyst (18), and Monitor (19).
There are three types of energy connections: mechanical, exhaust, and electrical
and are made by connecting polylines between the pins.
All the connections in the Data Bus for this model are described in Table 4.1 [1].
Validation of the connections are marked using bold and are required for the
functioning of the model.
Vehicle (1) is one of the main objects in a model. This component contains
general data of the vehicle, such as nominal dimensions and weights. Only one
vehicle component is required in a model. Road resistances and dynamic wheel
loads are calculated for road and dynamometer runs based on the dimensions and
the load state. The wheel loads are calculated considering motion. The aerody-
namic, rolling, climbing, acceleration, and total resistance are calculated [2].
To define component input data (Table 4.2) double click on the icon or click on
it the right mouse button and select edit to open the following window (Fig. 4.2).

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 223

B.O. Varga et al., Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles,
Green Energy and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-18639-9_4
224 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 4.1 Complete CVT model

The properties window is accessed through properties button in the input data
window, or from the pop-up menu by selecting “Properties”. Selected parameters
have an influence on the needed component data input for calculation (Fig. 4.3).
With these settings it is also possible to run a calculation with minimal input data,
as the input fields of the unavailable data can be switched off.
IC Engine (2) component contains a model for an internal combustion engine.
The characteristic curves for the full load, fuel consumption, and others can be
freely defined by the user. It is possible to define a gasoline engine as well as a
diesel engine. In this component a temperature model is included to consider the
influence of the temperature on the fuel consumption and emissions while the
engine is cold. The engine will be modeled by a structure of characteristic curves
and maps [2]. To define component input data (Table 4.3) double click on the icon
or click on it with the right mouse button and select edit to open the following
window (Fig. 4.4).
To load IC Engine characteristic click on the Full Load Characteristic tab
(Fig. 4.5). Select (kW) unit from the b column using pull-down menu. Add rows by
clicking on and enter the following data (Table 4.4).
The Motoring Curve (Fig. 4.6) will be defined similar to the Full Load
Characteristic as power versus engine speed (Table 4.5). Engine Maps Basic data
can be loaded from the folder projects\CVT_FWD\CVT_FWD.dbf [1].
In the Fuel Consumption Map (Fig. 4.7, Table 4.6) the actual fuel consumption for
stationary operation is listed depending on the brake mean pressure with the engine
speed as parameter (a—speed (1/min), b—BMEP (bar), c—volume flow (l/h)).
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 225

Table 4.1 Data Bus connection

Component Input information Component Output information
requires delivering
ASC Load signal Cockpit Load Signal
Slip Signal Front Left Wheel Front Left Slip Signal
Slip Signal Front Right Wheel Front Right Slip Signal
Brake Front Disk Brake Pressure Cockpit Brake Pressure
Brake Rear Drum Brake Pressure Cockpit Brake Pressure
Brake Front Disk Brake Pressure Cockpit Brake Pressure
Brake Rear Drum Brake Pressure Cockpit Brake Pressure
Cockpit Gear Indicator CVT Current Gear
Operation Control 0 IC Engine Operation Control
Speed IC Engine Engine Speed
CVT Desired Transmission CVT Control Desired Transmission
CVT Control Current Transmission CVT Current Transmission
Load Signal Cockpit Load Signal
Speed CVT Output Speed
Torque CVT Input Torque
Velocity Cockpit Velocity
IC Engine Load Signal ASC Load Signal
Start Switch Cockpit Start Switch
Monitor Vehicle Acceleration Vehicle Acceleration
Vehicle Velocity Vehicle Velocity
Vehicle Distance Vehicle Distance
Engine Load Signal IC Engine Actual Load Signal
Engine Speed IC Engine Engine Speed
Torque Converter Desired Clutch Release CVT Control Desired Clutch Release

Table 4.2 Vehicle component input data

Name Value Unit
Gas Tank Volume 0.05 m3
Distance from Hitch to Front Axle 2970.0 mm
Height of Support Point at Bench Test 100.0 mm
Wheel Base 2250.0 mm
Distance of Gravity Center empty/half/full 900.0/910.0/920.0 mm
Height of Gravity Center empty/half/full 550.0/545.0/540.0 mm
Height of Hitch empty/half/full 420.0/410.0/400.0 mm
Tire Inflation Pressure Front Axle 2.2 bar
Tire Inflation Pressure Rear Axle 2.2 bar
Curb Weight 970.0 kg
Gross Weight 1410.0 kg
Frontal Area 1.80 m2
Drag Coefficient 0.35 –
226 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 4.2 Vehicle input data specifications window

Fig. 4.3 Properties of Vehicle

This representation is used to make a unique relation between the Brake Mean
Effective Pressure (BMEP) and the fuel consumption for a given engine speed. The
Fuel Consumption Map can also be defined as a Specific Consumption Map (Fig. 4.8,
Table 4.7).
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 227

Table 4.3 IC Engine Name Value Unit

components input data
Engine Displacement 1360.0 cm3
Engine Working Temperature 80.0 °C
Number of Cylinders 4 –
Number of Strokes 4 –
Idle Speed 800.0 1/min
Maximum Speed 6000.0 1/min
Inertia Moment 0.1 kg m2
Response Time 0.1 s
Heating Value for Gasoline 44500.0 kJ/kg
Fuel Density 0.737 kg/l
Idle Consumption 1.0 l/h
Idle Emission NOx 0.02 kg/h
Idle Emission CO 0.10 kg/h
Idle Emission HC 0.01 kg/h
Lower Speed for Fuel Shut-Off 1300.0 1/min
Upper Speed For Fuel Shut-Off 1400.0 1/min

Fig. 4.4 IC Engine input data specifications window

The Specific Consumption Map can be loaded according to the following

parameters a—speed (1/min), b—BMEP (bar), c—specific volume flow (l/kWh).
The specific fuel consumption map is only used when the corresponding switch is
activated [1].
In the emission maps the emissions for the different exhaust gases are listed
dependent on the mean pressure with the engine speed as parameter (a—speed (1/min),
b—BMEP (bar), c—mass flow (kg/h), namely NOx emission map in Fig. 4.9 and
Table 4.8, CO emission map in Fig. 4.10 and Table 4.9, HC emission map in Fig. 4.11
and Table 4.10 [1].
The Torque Converter (3) employs the force represented by a moving fluid to
transmit engine torque (Fig. 4.12). As these devices compensate for the differences
between the engine speed and drivetrain, they are ideal for the transition from
228 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

50
45
40
35
Power (kW)

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
800 1800 2800 3800 4800 5800
Speed (1/min)

Fig. 4.5 Full Load Characteristic

Table 4.4 Full Load Characteristic data

Speed (1/min) Power (kW) Speed (1/min) Power (kW)
800.0 5.3 4100.0 39.4
1300.0 9.8 4600.0 43.7
1800.0 14.7 5000.0 46.4
2000.0 17.5 5300.0 47.2
2300.0 20.6 5500.0 47.0
2900.0 27.1 5800.0 45.9
3500.0 33.5 6000.0 43.8

0
-0.5
-1
Power (kW)

-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
800 1800 2800 3800 4800 5800
Speed (1/min)

Fig. 4.6 Motoring Curve

4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 229

Table 4.5 Motoring Curve data

Speed (1/min) Power (kW)
800.0 0.0
1600.0 −0.8
2400.0 −1.5
3300.0 −2.2
4400.0 −3.0
5200.0 −3.5
6000.0 −4.0

35 Engine
Speed
30 (1/min)
850
Volume Flow (l/h)

25
1250
20 1700
2300
15 2900
10 3500
4200
5 5100
0 6000
-5 0 5 10 15 20
BMEP (bar)

Fig. 4.7 Fuel Consumption Map

stationary to mobile operation. The torque converter also multiplies torque. First, an
impeller (pump) converts the mechanical energy from the power unit into fluid
energy (hydraulic fluid); a second transformation, back into mechanical energy,
occurs using the turbine blades [2].
These devices offer economical exploitation when used together with mechan-
ical variable ratio transmissions; operation with nonpositive engagement (slip) is
limited for better efficiency. The torque on the converter input and output depends
on the speed ratio between pump and turbine as well on the absolute angular
velocity of the pump (a—speed ratio (-), b—torque ratio (-), c—pump torque (-) as
shown in Fig. 4.13 and Table 4.11) [1].
To define component input data (Table 4.12) double click on the icon or click on
it with the right mouse button and select edit to open the following window.
CVT (4) can convert every point on the engine operating curve to an operating
curve of its own, and every engine operating curve into an operating range within
the field of potential driving conditions (Fig. 4.14). Its advantage over conventional
230 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 4.6 Fuel Consumption Map data

(a)
850 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 1.6 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.3 8.6 9.3
(c) 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.8 3.2
1250 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 1.8 3.3 4.7 7.6 8.9 10.2 10.9
(c) 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.4 1.9 2.4 3.4 4.0 4.5 4.6
1700 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 2.1 3.5 4.9 7.8 9.5 10.9 12.3
(c) 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.9 2.5 3.1 4.3 5.1 6.3 7.1
2300 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 2.3 3.1 5.3 8.2 9.6 12.3 14.3
(c) 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.8 3.3 4.6 6.5 7.3 9.5 11.6
2900 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 2.4 4.0 5.5 8.4 9.8 11.3 14.8
(c) 1.7 1.8 1.9 3.5 4.6 5.7 7.8 8.9 10.0 14.1
3500 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0 2.4 4.0 7.1 10.3 11.6 13.4 15.1
(c) 2.1 2.2 2.4 4.3 5.7 8.1 11.0 12.4 14.5 16.9
4200 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0 2.4 4.0 7.1 10.3 11.6 13.4 15.1
(c) 2.7 2.8 2.9 5.1 6.6 8.0 11.2 12.8 17.6 21.7
5100 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0 3.6 5.1 6.6 9.8 11.2 12.5 14.5
(c) 3.7 3.8 4.0 8.3 10.0 12.0 16.7 19.2 22.6 28.2
6000 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0 2.8 4.2 5.5 8.4 9.7 12.1 13.1
(c) 4.8 5.0 5.2 9.2 11.4 13.5 19.0 22.7 29.8 32.7

4.00 Engine
Specific Volume Flow (l/kWh)

3.50 Speed
(1/min)
3.00 850
2.50 1250
1700
2.00
2300
1.50 2900
1.00 3500
4200
0.50
5100
0.00 6000
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00
BMEP (bar)

Fig. 4.8 Specific Consumption Map

fixed-ratio transmissions lies in the potential for enhancing performance and fuel
economy while reducing exhaust emissions [2].
To define component input data (Table 4.13) double click on the icon or click on
it with the right mouse button and select edit to open the following window [1].
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 231

Table 4.7 Specific Consumption Map data

(a)
850 (b) 1.60 3.16 4.55 5.95 7.32 8.63 9.30 – –
(c) 0.76 0.50 0.43 0.39 0.38 0.38 0.40 – –
1250 (b) 0.19 1.82 3.32 4.73 6.17 7.59 8.90 10.21 10.88
(c) 4.07 0.63 0.46 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.36 0.35 0.34
1700 (b) 0.42 2.06 3.54 4.89 6.33 7.83 9.48 10.93 12.30
(c) 1.83 0.54 0.42 0.37 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.34 0.34
2300 (b) 0.73 2.30 3.07 5.25 6.71 8.21 9.63 13.34 14.29
(c) 1.18 0.54 0.48 0.34 0.36 0.35 0.34 0.34 0.36
2900 (b) 0.71 2.42 3.47 5.49 6.97 8.41 9.81 11.29 14.75
(c) 1.18 0.51 0.41 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.32 0.31 0.33
3500 (b) 0.72 2.41 3.97 7.04 8.59 10.31 11.61 13.35 15.11
(c) 1.19 0.51 0.41 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.32
4200 (b) 0.70 2.31 3.82 5.34 6.90 8.53 9.99 13.06 15.11
(c) 1.23 0.53 0.41 0.36 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.32 0.35
5100 (b) 1.99 3.62 5.10 6.63 8.12 9.77 11.19 12.53 14.50
(c) 0.63 0.45 0.39 0.36 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.36 0.39
6000 (b) 1.21 2.76 4.18 5.53 8.39 9.72 10.88 12.05 13.05
(c) 0.97 0.56 0.46 0.41 0.38 0.39 0.40 0.41 0.42

1.2 Engine
Speed
(1/min)
1
850

0.8 1250
Mass Flow (kg/h)

1700
0.6 2300

2900
0.4
3500

0.2 4200

5100
0 6000
-4 1 6 11 16
BMEP (bar)

Fig. 4.9 NOx emission map

232 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 4.8 NOx emission map data

(a)
850 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 1.61 3.16 4.55 5.95 7.32 8.62 9.30
(c) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.11
1250 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 1.82 3.32 4.73 6.17 8.90 10.2 10.9
(c) 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.13 0.15 0.16
1700 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 0.42 2.08 4.89 7.83 9.48 10.1 12.3
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.13 0.20 0.22 0.23 0.25
2300 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 0.73 2.20 5.24 8.21 9.55 12.4 14.3
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.07 0.19 0.29 0.32 0.33 0.34
2900 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 0.70 2.41 5.47 8.41 9.81 12.0 15.2
(c) 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.11 0.27 0.40 0.44 0.49 0.58
3500 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 0.68 2.41 7.05 8.59 11.6 14.3 15.1
(c) 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.17 0.44 0.51 0.59 0.62 0.64
4200 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 0.75 2.31 5.41 8.53 9.99 12.6 15.1
(c) 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.18 0.39 0.58 0.65 0.75 0.87
5100 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 1.97 3.62 6.65 9.77 11.5 12.8 14.7
(c) 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.19 0.34 0.61 0.81 0.89 0.96 1.14
6000 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 1.21 2.76 5.68 9.43 12.3 13.5 14.2
(c) 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.27 0.48 0.73 0.95 1.11 1.18 1.23

14 Engine
Speed
12 (1/min)
850
10
1250
Mass Flow (kg/h)

8 1700

2300
6
2900

4 3500

4200
2
5100

0 6000
-4 1 6 11 16
BMEP (bar)

Fig. 4.10 CO emission map

4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 233

Table 4.9 CO emission map data

(a)
850 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 1.60 3.16 4.55 5.95 7.32 9.18 9.66
(c) 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.13 0.17 0.21 0.52 0.62
1250 (b) −4.0 −1.7 0.00 1.82 4.73 6.16 7.59 9.89 10.6 11.1
(c) 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.15 0.21 0.25 0.97 1.28 1.55
1700 (b) −4.0 −1.7 0.00 2.06 4.89 6.37 7.83 9.82 11.0 12.3
(c) 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.25 0.24 0.41 1.17 1.76 2.46
2300 (b) −4.0 −1.7 0.00 0.73 2.30 5.22 8.21 10.6 12.4 14.3
(c) 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.12 0.21 0.38 0.67 1.72 2.74 3.17
2900 (b) −4.0 −1.7 0.00 0.85 2.42 5.52 8.42 9.62 11.7 14.8
(c) 0.10 0.10 0.12 0.15 0.27 0.52 0.83 1.35 3.52 4.88
3500 (b) −4.0 −1.7 0.00 0.72 2.41 7.04 10.2 11.9 12.3 15.1
(c) 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.16 0.32 0.68 2.28 4.62 5.21 7.60
4200 (b) −4.0 −1.7 0.00 0.72 3.82 6.88 9.48 10.1 13.1 15.1
(c) 0.15 0.15 0.17 0.22 0.57 1.10 2.05 2.85 7.24 8.69
5100 (b) −4.0 −1.7 0.00 1.00 3.62 6.55 8.86 9.48 11.3 12.5
(c) 0.18 0.19 0.21 0.31 0.68 1.24 2.03 2.69 7.14 9.11
6000 (b) −4.0 −1.7 0.00 1.21 4.18 6.35 7.77 9.72 12.1 13.1
(c) 0.24 0.25 0.29 0.38 1.08 1.79 3.63 7.78 12.2 14.2

0.4 Engine
Speed
0.35 (1/min)

850
0.3
1250
Mass Flow (kg/h)

0.25
1700
0.2 2300

0.15 2900

3500
0.1
4200
0.05
5100

0 6000
-4 1 6 11 16
BMEP (bar)

Fig. 4.11 HC emission map

234 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 4.10 HC emission map data

(a)
850 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 1.60 3.16 4.55 5.95 7.32 8.63 9.30
(c) 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04
1250 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 1.82 3.32 4.73 6.17 7.60 8.90 10.9
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07
1700 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 3.54 4.89 6.33 7.83 9.72 11.9 12.8
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.11 0.14
2300 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 0.73 2.30 5.25 6.71 9.89 12.6 14.8
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.09 0.15 0.18
2900 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 0.79 2.45 5.60 6.97 9.85 11.4 14.8
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.06 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.20
3500 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 0.74 2.49 7.06 8.59 10.5 11.7 15.0
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.08 0.10 0.13 0.18 0.32
4200 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 2.43 3.89 5.38 6.91 9.85 13.0 14.6
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.13 0.26 0.33
5100 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 3.64 5.10 6.63 8.06 11.2 12.5 14.6
(c) 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.11 0.22 0.29 0.35
6000 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 2.76 4.18 5.53 6.94 10.9 12.1 13.1
(c) 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.09 0.10 0.12 0.26 0.33 0.39

Fig. 4.12 Torque Converter input data specifications window

The Efficiency Fixed curve can be defined as function of the transmission ratio
(Fig. 4.15). The additional torque loss correction fixed curve is defined as function
of the transmission ratio and the drive speed (Fig. 4.16).
Final Drive (5) is a gear step with fixed ratio. It can be used as a transmission
step of the differential (final drive unit). A drive torque will be transferred to a
power take-off torque of the transmission step by considering the transmission, the
mass moments of inertia, and the moment of loss (Fig. 4.17) [2]. To define
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 235

2.5
2
800
1.5
1

Pump Torque (-)

Torque Ratio (-)

0.5 300

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 -200
-0.5
-1
-1.5 -700
-2
-2.5 -1200
Speed Ratio (-)

Fig. 4.13 Torque conversion curve

Table 4.11 Torque conversion curve data

Speed Torque Pump Speed Torque Pump
Ratio (–) Ratio (–) Torque (–) Ratio (–) Ratio (–) Torque (–)
0.000 2.430 357 0.975 1.000 65
0.100 2.220 357 0.980 1.000 40
0.200 2.110 354 0.985 1.000 24
0.300 1.930 340 0.989 1.000 12
0.400 1.770 333 1.000 1.000 0
0.500 1.600 316 1.019 1.000 −13
0.600 1.440 301 1.021 1.000 −15
0.700 1.290 280 1.027 1.000 −18
0.800 1.120 256 1.032 1.000 −20
0.848 1.060 213 1.043 1.000 −27
0.850 1.020 202 1.065 1.000 −41
0.900 1.000 183 1.088 1.000 −59
0.920 1.000 167 1.112 1.000 −77
0.940 1.000 137 1.252 1.000 −169
0.950 1.000 117 1.431 1.000 −266
0.960 1.000 99 1.669 1.000 −416
0.965 1.000 80 2.004 1.000 −689
0.970 1.000 72 2.506 1.000 −1188

component input data double click on the Single Ratio Transmission icon and enter
the following data (Table 4.14).
The Wheels and Tires link the vehicle to the road. The wheel components take
into consideration many influencing variables and their effect on the rolling state
(Fig. 4.18).
236 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 4.12 Torque Converter input data

Name Value Unit
Inertia Moment of Pump with Oil 0.016 kg m2
Max. Torque lock-up Clutch 1.0 Nm
Inertia Moment of Turbine with Oil 0.011 kg m2
Input Mode Torque Conversion –

Fig. 4.14 CVT input data specifications window

Table 4.13 CVT input data

Name Value Unit
Adjustment Time 2.00 s
Minimum Ratio 0.85 –
Inertia Moment In 0.03 kg m2
Switching Threshold 0.001 –
Maximum Ratio 3.85 –
Inertia Moment Out 0.03 kg m2

The moment of rolling drag can be computed on the basis of the wheel load, the
corrected dynamic rolling radius, and the coefficient of rolling drag.
The longitudinal tire force results from the friction coefficient, the wheel load as
well as from the wheel load factor and the slip factor. It is possible to define
variable friction coefficients along the driving profile when different road conditions
are considered [2].
Information data for the four wheels are the same (Vehicle Front Right (6),
Vehicle Rear Right (7), Vehicle Front Left (8), and Vehicle Rear Left (9)).
Double click on the wheel and enter the following data (Table 4.15). Select
Properties menu and define the appropriate wheel location for each wheel (Vehicle:
Front Right, Rear Right, Front Left, and Rear Left) [1].
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 237

0.92

0.91

0.9
Efficiency (-)

0.89

0.88

0.87

0.86

0.85
0.85 1.35 1.85 2.35 2.85 3.35 3.85
Transmission Ratio (-)

Fig. 4.15 Efficiency

4.5
4.3
4.1
Torque Loss (Nm)

3.9
3.7
3.5
3.3
3.1
2.9
2.7
2.5
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (1/min)

Fig. 4.16 Torque loss correction fixed

Fig. 4.17 Final Drive input data specifications window

238 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 4.14 Final Drive input data

Name Value Unit
Transmission Ratio 3.40 –
Inertia Moment In 0.01 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out 0.01 kg m2
Efficiency 0.95 –

Fig. 4.18 Wheels input data specifications window

Table 4.15 Wheel input data

Name Value Unit
Wheel Inertia Moment 0.40 kg m2
Friction Coefficient of Tire 0.95 –
Reference Wheel Load 2200.0 N
Wheel Load Correction Coefficient 0.02 –
Static Rolling Radius 250.0 mm
Circumference 1570.80 mm
Dynamic Rolling Radius 260.0 mm
Circumference 1633.63 mm

The static rolling radius is the distance between the center of the wheel and the
road surface for the loaded, not moving vehicle. The static rolling radius is not used
for AVL CRUISE calculation, but only for the Kinematic Chain Browser.
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 239

Rolling Resistance Factor (%)

1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Velocity (km/h)

Fig. 4.19 Rolling resistance factor

Table 4.16 Rolling resistance factor data

Velocity (km/h) Rolling Resistance Velocity (km/h) Rolling Resistance
Factor (%) Factor (%)
0 1.00 160 1.21
20 1.00 180 1.27
50 1.00 200 1.38
100 1.01 230 1.58
125 1.05 250 1.73
150 1.13 280 2.03

The dynamic rolling radius is the distance between the center of the wheel and
the road surface for the loaded, moving vehicle. The dynamic rolling radius is
usually a little bit bigger than the static rolling radius.
The dynamic rolling radius can be defined as function of the velocity (Fig. 4.19
and Table 4.16). This characteristic is active when dynamic rolling radius is set
from characteristic (a—velocity (km/h), b—rolling resistance factors (%)).
The Brake component is described by brake data and dimensions. It is possible
to define drum brakes as well as disk brakes. The retarder is used for heavy vehicles
and is described below (Fig. 4.20).
The braking torque is computed considering the braking dimensions and the
input brake pressure. This brake pressure can come from the cockpit component or
brake control. If the vehicle is standing still, the degrees of freedom will be reduced
as this also reduces the calculation time. This reduction is done in a way that the
equation system is switched if a small velocity threshold is reached. In this case
movement is suppressed [2].
240 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 4.20 Brake input data specifications window

Table 4.17 Brakes input data

Name Value Value Value Value Unit
Brake Front Right Rear Right Front Left Rear Left –
Piston Surface 1500.0 500.0 1500.0 500.0 mm2
Specific Factor 1.00 3.00 1.00 3.00 –
Efficiency 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 –
Inertia Moment 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 kg m2
Friction Coefficient 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 –
Friction Radius 100 90 100 90 mm

At the same time, the instantaneous compulsive force is checked (if it is smaller
than the braking torque). If this condition is no longer true the brake is released.
Input data for the two front brakes are the same and also the data for the two rear
brakes are the same (Front Disk Brake Right (10), Rear Drum Brake Right (11),
Front Disk Brake Left (12) and Rear Drum Brake Left (13)). Double click on the
brake icon and enter the following data (Table 4.17).
Differential (14) unit compensates for discrepancies in the respective rotation
rates of the drive wheels: between inside and outside wheels during cornering and
between different drive axles on 4WD vehicles (Fig. 4.21).
When there is a unilateral variation in road surfaces it results in different coef-
ficients of friction at the respective wheels, this balance effect limits the effective
drive torque to a level defined as twice the traction force available at the wheel (tire)
with the lower friction coefficient [2].
This wheel then responds to the excessive force by spinning. To avoid such
effects a positive lock is available at the component.
In the differential it is possible to define the torque split factor. This is needed if
it is used as a central differential for a four wheel drive.
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 241

Fig. 4.21 Differential input data specifications window

Table 4.18 Differential input data

Name Value Unit
Differential Lock Unlocked –
Torque Split Factor 1.00 –
Inertia Moment In 0.01 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out1 0.01 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out2 0.01 kg m2

To define component input data double click on the differential icon and enter
the following data (Table 4.18).
The Kinematic Chain Browser can be launched in the pop-up menu of a selected
component (Fig. 4.22). All mechanical connections starting from the selected
component are shown in a tree structure on the left side of the window. When a
second component is selected in the tree structure, all speeds between the selected
components are shown in the table on the right side of the window, each row
representing one gear of the gearbox [2].
Cockpit (15) links the driver and the vehicle (Fig. 4.23). In this component
connections are only made via Data Bus.
The driver gets information such as vehicle velocity and vehicle acceleration, but
also generates information such as the pedal positions for other components. The
pedal positions are transferred to corresponding indicators via the pedal charac-
teristics (Table 4.19) [2].
To define the input data click on the acceleration pedal characteristic (a—
acceleration pedal travel (%), b—load signal (%)) and brake pedal characteristic (a
—specific brake pedal force (%), b—brake pressure (bar)) tabs and enter the fol-
lowing data (Fig. 4.24).
242 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 4.22 Kinematic Chain Browser

Fig. 4.23 Cockpit input data specifications window

Table 4.19 Cockpit input data

Name Value Unit
Shift Mode Automatic –
Number of Gears Forward 5 –
Number of Gears Back 1 –
Maximum Brake Force 200.0 N
Brake Light Switch Threshold 1.0 %
Number of Retarder Steps 4 –
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 243

100
90

Brake Pressure (bar) 80

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Specific Brake Pedal Force (%)

Fig. 4.24 Pedal characteristic

Fig. 4.25 CVT control input data specifications window

Table 4.20 CVT control input data

Name Value Unit
Maximum Velocity 50.00 m/s
Maximum Speed 6000 1/min
Load Signal Time Constant 0.50 s
Velocity Time Constant 0.50 s

The CVT Control (16) is an easy way to provide target transmission consid-
ering the velocity and the engine load. In addition, it is possible to control the
clutch. This clutch is simply added to the model (Fig. 4.25).
To define component input data double click on the CVT control icon and enter
the following data (Table 4.20).
244 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 4.21 Desired transmission ratio data

(a)
0 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9
5 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 2.7 2.9 3.0 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9
10 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.1 3.8
15 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.3 2.8
20 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1
25 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.7
30 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4
35 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.2
40 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.1
45 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0
50 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9

To define the input data for desired transmission ratio click on the tabs and enter the
following data (Table 4.21 and Fig. 4.26). The demand transmission of the CVT
gearbox can be defined as a function of a—velocity (m/s), b—load signal (%) and c—
transmission ratio (–). The interpolation of transmission ratio in the maps of CVT
control are done by an alternative method and can be changed in the interpolation and
approximation section in the Expert Mode settings of the Project Settings [3].
To define the input data for desired clutch release click on the tabs and enter the
following data (Fig. 4.27 and Table 4.22). The demand clutch release of the
starting clutch can be defined as a function of a—speed (1/min), b—load signal (%)
and c—clutch release (%) [3].
The ASC Anti-Slip Control (17) checks the force transmission factor (ratio
between force that should be transmitted and maximum transmittable force) of all
connected wheels (driven wheels). If the force that has to be transmitted exceeds the
adhesion limit, the load signal or the clutch releases changes [2].
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 245

4.00 Velocity
(m/s)
3.50
Transmission Ratio (-) 0
5
3.00
10
2.50 15
20
2.00 25
30
1.50 35
40
1.00 45
50
0.50
0 20 40 60 80 100
Load Signal (%)

Fig. 4.26 Desired transmission ratio

Fig. 4.27 Desired clutch

release

The Anti-Slip Control (Fig. 4.28) is only active when a model is calculated
quasi-stationary in combination with special drivetrain configurations and does not
require data entry.
If the Anti-Slip Control is used for calculations in simulation mode this switch
can be activated. In this case the parameters for the PID controller can be set
(proportional (–), differential (s) and integral parameter (1/s)).
246 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 4.22 Desired clutch release data

(a)
0 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
800 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
1600 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2400 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3200 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4000 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4800 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5600 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6400 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7200 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8000 (b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Fig. 4.28 ASC Anti-Slip Control input data specifications window

Catalyst (18) or exhaust systems consider the effects of the catalytic converter
and soot filler on the raw emissions of the engine.
Starting with the temperature of the catalytic converter, factors for the conver-
sion will be computed for the single emission components using temperature-
dependent maps (Fig. 4.29).
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 247

Fig. 4.29 Catalyst input data specifications window

Table 4.23 Catalyst input data

Name Value Unit
Heat Loss Coefficient 0.90 –
Weight of Catalyst 7.50 kg
Specific Heat Capacity of Catalyst 200.0 J/kg K
Reference Area Cat/Air 0.20 m2
Heat Transfer Coefficient Cat/Air 10.0 W/m2 K
Operating Temperature Catalyst 400.0 °C

The heat loss coefficient is the percentage of the exhaust energy delivered by the
engine which reaches the exhaust system [2].
To define component input data double click on the catalyst icon and enter the
following data (Table 4.23).
Conversion efficiencies of the different emissions (NOx, CO, HC and Soot) can
be defined dependent on the actual temperature of the catalytic converter.
Conversion efficiencies curve can be defined as function of a—temperature (°C)
and efficiency (–) (Table 4.24 and Fig. 4.30—NOx conversion efficiencies,
Table 4.25 and Fig. 4.31—CO conversion efficiencies, Table 4.26 and Fig. 4.32—
HC conversion efficiencies).
The heat transfer Gas/Cat (Table 4.27 and Fig. 4.33) is the proportion of the
exhaust gas which is transferred to the exhaust system and can be defined as a
function of a—temperature (°C) and b—heat-up proportion of exhaust gas
energy (%) [1].
The Monitor (19) can be introduced, if the calculation run must be detected. It is
possible to show some results of the calculation while the calculation is running.
This is done via the online monitor. It is possible to connect up to ten input channels
of the monitor to output channels of different components that are available at the
AVL CRUISE—Data Bus [2].
248 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 4.24 NOx conversion efficiencies data

Temperature Efficiency Temperature Efficiency Temperature Efficiency
(°C) (–) (°C) (–) (°C) (–)
0 0.000 225 0.100 265 0.975
170 0.000 230 0.160 270 0.992
180 0.003 235 0.220 280 0.996
190 0.007 240 0.320 290 0.997
200 0.013 245 0.485 300 0.997
210 0.021 250 0.670 400 0.996
215 0.031 255 0.830 500 0.996
220 0.045 260 0.920 – –

1.000
0.900
0.800
0.700
Efficiency (-)

0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 100 200 300 400 500
Temperature (°C)

Fig. 4.30 NOx conversion efficiency

Table 4.25 CO conversion efficiencies data

Temperature Efficiency Temperature Efficiency Temperature Efficiency
(°C) (–) (°C) (–) (°C) (–)
0 0.000 225 0.100 265 0.975
170 0.000 230 0.160 270 0.992
180 0.003 235 0.220 280 0.996
190 0.007 240 0.320 290 0.997
200 0.013 245 0.485 300 0.997
210 0.021 250 0.670 400 0.996
215 0.031 255 0.830 500 0.996
220 0.045 260 0.920 – –
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 249

1.000
0.900
0.800
Efficiency (-) 0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 100 200 300 400 500
Temperature (°C)

Fig. 4.31 CO conversion efficiency

Table 4.26 HC conversion efficiencies data

Temperature Efficiency Temperature Efficiency Temperature Efficiency
(°C) (–) (°C) (–) (°C) (–)
0 0.000 225 0.100 265 0.975
170 0.000 230 0.160 270 0.992
180 0.003 235 0.220 280 0.996
190 0.007 240 0.320 290 0.997
200 0.013 245 0.485 300 0.997
210 0.021 250 0.670 400 0.996
215 0.031 255 0.830 500 0.996
220 0.045 260 0.920 – –

1.000
0.900
0.800
0.700
Efficiency (-)

0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 100 200 300 400 500
Temperature (°C)

Fig. 4.32 HC conversion efficiency

250 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 4.27 Heat transfer Temperature (°C) Heat-Up Proportion of Exhaust

Gas/Cat data Gas Energy (%)
–30 41
210 39
270 65
500 64
600 64
1000 64

70
Heat-Up Proportion of Exhaust

65
Gas Energy (%)

60

55

50

45

40

35
-50 150 350 550 750 950
Temperature (°C)

Fig. 4.33 Heat transfer Gas/Cat

Currently, the output in the online monitor is only available in the form of tables.
More than one monitor component can be used in a AVL CRUISE model. In this
case, more than one instance of the online monitor is activated during calculation.
Click on the description of Data Bus tab and open the following dialog. To select
a Data Bus channel, click to access the available list. Enter the text for the
description and then click on to select the unit (Fig. 4.34).

4.1.2 Automatic FWD Model

This chapter describes how to create and run the model of an automatic front wheel
drive vehicle. To place a component in the working area, click on the component
group with the left mouse button, move the mouse over the required component and
then click and drag the component into the vehicle model area. Put the component
with release of the mouse button on the desired place.
Place the following components in the working area: Vehicle (1), IC Engine (2),
Torque Converter (3), Gearbox (4), Final Drive (5), Vehicle Front Right (6),
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 251

Fig. 4.34 Monitor description of Data Bus

Vehicle Rear Right (7), Vehicle Front Left (8), Vehicle Rear Left (9), Front Disk
Brake (10), Rear Drum Brake (11), Front Disk Brake (12), Rear Drum Brake (13),
Differential (14), Cockpit (15), Gearbox control (16), Gearbox program (17), ASC
Anti-Slip Control (18), Catalyst (19) and Monitor (20).
Arrange the components as shown in Fig. 4.35 and connect the components as
specified in the diagram.
The electric connections for energy transfer are splinted as a function of energy
that is transferred into mechanical, for exhaust gases and electrical connections. The
links between elements are specified in red, green, or blue, depending on their type.
All the connections in the Data Bus for this model are described in Table 4.28
[1]. Validation of the connections marked in bold are required for functioning of the
model.
The Vehicle (1) is one of the main objects in a model. This component contains
general data of the vehicle, such as nominal dimensions and weights. Only one
vehicle component is required in a model.
Road resistances and dynamic wheel loads are calculated for road and dyna-
mometer runs based on the dimensions and the load state. The wheel loads are
252 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 4.35 Complete model automatic FWD

calculated considering motion. The aerodynamic, rolling, climbing, acceleration,

and total resistance are calculated [2].
To define component input data (Table 4.29) double click on the icon and select
edit to open the following window (Fig. 4.36).
IC Engine (2) component contains a model for a combustion engine. The
characteristic curves for the full load, the fuel consumption, and others can be freely
defined by the user [2].
To define component input data (Table 4.30) double click on the icon and select
edit to open the following window (Fig. 4.37).
To load IC Engine characteristic click on the Full Load Characteristic tab
(Table 4.31 and Fig. 4.38). Select a—speed (1/min) and b—power (kW) by
pull-down menu and enter the following data.
The Motoring Curve (Table 4.32 and Fig. 4.39) will be defined similar to the
Full Load Characteristic as power versus engine speed [1].
Fuel Consumption Map (Table 4.33 and Fig. 4.40) shows the actual fuel con-
sumption for stationary operation (a—speed (1/min), b—BMEP (bar), c—volume
flow (l/h)).
In the emission maps the emissions for the different exhaust gases are listed
dependent on the mean pressure with the engine speed as parameter (a—speed
(1/min), b—BMEP (bar), c—mass flow (kg/h), namely NOx emission map in
Fig. 4.41 and Table 4.34, CO emission map in Fig. 4.42 and Table 4.35, HC
emission map in Fig. 4.43 and Table 4.36 [1].
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 253

Table 4.28 All the Data Bus connection

Component Input Information Component Output
Requires Delivering Information
ASC Load Signal Cockpit Load Signal
Slip Front Left Wheel Front Left Slip Signal
Slip Front Right Wheel Front Right Slip Signal
Brake Front Disk Brake Pressure Cockpit Brake Pressure
Brake Rear Drum Brake Pressure Cockpit Brake Pressure
Brake Front Disk Brake Pressure Cockpit Brake Pressure
Brake Rear Drum Brake Pressure Cockpit Brake Pressure
Cockpit Gear Indicator Gear Box Current Gear
Operation Control 0 IC Engine Operation Control
Speed Engine Speed Speed
Differential – – –
IC Engine Load Signal ASC Load Signal
Start Switch Cockpit Start Switch
Gearbox Desired Gear Gearbox Control Desired Gear
Gearbox Control Current Gear Gearbox Current Gear
Desired Gear Cockpit Desired Gear
Cockpit
Desired Gear GB Gearbox Program Desired Gear
Gear Downshifting Cockpit Gear
Downshifting
Gear Upshifting Cockpit Gear Upshifting
Operation Control Cockpit Operation Control
Reference Speed Torque Converter Turbine Speed
Velocity Cockpit Velocity
Gearbox Program Current Gear Gearbox Current Gear
Load Signal Cockpit Load Signal
Speed Gearbox Output Speed
Monitor Vehicle Acceleration Vehicle Automatic Acceleration
Vehicle Velocity Vehicle Automatic Velocity
Vehicle Distance Vehicle Automatic Distance
Engine Load Signal IC Engine Actual Load
Signal
Engine Speed IC Engine Engine Speed

Torque Converter (3) employs the force represented by a moving fluid to

transmit engine torque (Fig. 4.44). As these devices compensate for differences in
the rotating speeds of engine and drivetrain, they are ideal for effecting the tran-
sition from stationary to mobile operation [2].
To define component input data (Table 4.37) double click on the icon and select
edit to open the following window. The torque on the converter input and output
depends on the speed ration between pump and turbine as well as on the absolute
254 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 4.29 Vehicle component input data

Name Value Unit
Gas Tank Volume 0.070 m3
Distance from Hitch to Front Axle 3200.0 mm
Height of Support Point at Bench Test 100.0 mm
Wheel Base 2500.0 mm
Distance of Gravity Center 1200.0/1210.0/1220.0 mm
empty/half/full
Height of Gravity Center 550.0/540.0/530.0 mm
empty/half/full
Height of Hitch empty/half/full 400.0/380.0/360.0 mm
Tire Inflation Pressure Front Axle 2.200 bar
Tire Inflation Pressure Rear Axle 2.200 bar
Curb Weight 1450.0 kg
Gross Weight 1890.0 kg
Frontal Area 2.000 m2
Drag Coefficient 0.400 –

Fig. 4.36 Vehicle input data specifications window

4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 255

Table 4.30 IC Engine component input data

Name Value Unit
Engine Displacement 1998.0 cm3
Engine Working Temperature 80.00 °C
Number of Cylinders 4.000 –
Number of Strokes 4.000 –
Idle Speed 800.0 1/min
Maximum Speed 6000.0 1/min
Inertia Moment 0.150 kg m2
Response Time 0.100 s
Heating Value for Gasoline 44500.0 kJ/kg
Fuel Density 0.737 kg/l
Idle Consumption 1.500 l/h
Idle Emission NOx 0.030 kg/h
Idle Emission CO 0.150 kg/h
Idle Emission HC 0.015 kg/h
Residual Fuel Consumption 0.000 l/h
Lower Speed for Fuel Shut-Off 1000.0 1/min
Upper Speed for Fuel Shut-Off 1200.0 1/min

Fig. 4.37 IC Engine input data specifications window

angular velocity of the pump (a—speed ratio (–), b—torque ratio (–), c—pump
torque (–), Fig. 4.45 and Table 4.38).
Gearbox (4) transmissions featuring several fixed ratios can maintain a corre-
spondence between the respective performance curves for engine and vehicle
256 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 4.31 Full Load Characteristic data

Speed (1/min) Power (kW) Speed (1/min) Power (kW)
800 9 3900 95
1300 25 4300 104
1800 37 4800 117
2100 46 5200 124
2500 57 5600 127
3000 69 5800 126
3250 76 6000 125
3500 84 – –

129

109
Power [kW]

89

69

49

29

9
800 1800 2800 3800 4800 5800
Speed [1/min]

Fig. 4.38 Full Load Characteristic

Table 4.32 Motoring Curve data

Speed (1/min) Power (kW) Speed (1/min) Power (kW)
800 0.0 3900 −11.0
1400 −3.0 4500 −12.0
2000 −5.5 5200 −13.0
2600 −7.5 6000 −14.0
3300 −9.5 3900 −11.0
800 0.0 4500 −12.0
1400 −3.0 – –

(Fig. 4.46). The correspondence with the hyperbola for maximum engine output
will be acceptable or indeed quite good, depending on a multiplicity of factors
including the number of available gears, the spacing of the individual ratios within
the required conversion range, and the engines’ full-load torque curve [2].
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 257

-2

Power [kW] -4

-6

-8

-10

-12

-14
800 1800 2800 3800 4800 5800
Speed [1/min]

Fig. 4.39 Motoring Curve

Table 4.33 Fuel Consumption Map data

(a)
700 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 1.60 3.16 4.55 5.95 7.32 8.63 9.30
(c) 1.60 1.61 1.65 1.88 2.13 2.50 2.96 3.55 4.19 4.79
1200 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 0.35 1.82 3.32 6.17 7.59 8.90 10.9
(c) 1.75 1.76 1.80 1.93 2.35 2.78 4.25 4.97 5.87 6.72
1700 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 0.42 2.06 3.54 6.33 9.48 10.9 12.3
(c) 1.95 1.96 2.00 2.16 2.85 3.72 5.53 7.70 9.43 10.6
2550 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 0.73 2.30 3.80 6.71 9.55 12.4 14.3
(c) 2.25 2.30 2.45 2.98 4.20 5.69 8.30 10.9 15.1 17.6
3000 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 0.71 2.42 3.97 6.97 8.41 11.3 14.8
(c) 2.73 2.84 3.00 3.55 5.21 6.85 10.0 11.5 14.8 20.9
3600 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 0.72 2.41 3.97 7.04 10.3 14.7 15.1
(c) 3.22 3.34 3.67 4.44 6.40 8.47 12.2 16.6 24.8 25.4
4150 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 0.70 2.31 3.82 5.34 8.53 13.1 15.1
(c) 4.15 4.27 4.64 5.41 7.66 9.96 12.2 17.0 26.8 33.0
5050 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 1.99 3.62 5.10 8.12 11.2 12.5 14.5
(c) 5.25 5.60 6.00 9.43 12.3 14.9 20.7 28.4 33.5 41.8
6000 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 1.21 2.76 4.18 6.94 9.72 12.1 13.1
(c) 6.60 7.25 8.00 10.4 13.9 17.1 23.9 34.0 44.7 49.0

The component Gearbox contains a model for a gear box with different gear
steps. The user can define as many gears as needed. When it is used as an automatic
gearbox, the gear shifting process will be controlled by the control module gearbox
control and program. To define component input data for Gear Ratio Table double
click on the icon and select edit to open the following window [1].
258 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

50 Engine
45 Speed
(1/min)
40
Volume Flow (l/h) 700
35
1200
30 1700
25 2550
20 3000
15 3600
10 4150
5 5050
6000
0
-4 1 6 11 16
BMEP (bar)

Fig. 4.40 Fuel Consumption Map

1.80
Engine
1.60 Speed
(1/min)
1.40
700
Mass Flow (kg/h)

1.20 1200
1.00 1700
0.80 2550
3000
0.60
3600
0.40
4150
0.20 5050
0.00 6000
-5.00 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00
BMEP (bar)

Fig. 4.41 NOx emission map

The efficiency and torque loss correction can be defined as function of the gear
efficiency (Fig. 4.47).
Final Drive (5) is a gear step with fixed ratio (Fig. 4.48). It can be used as a
transmission step of the differential (final drive unit). A drive torque will be
transferred to a power take-off torque of the transmission step by considering the
transmission, the mass moments of inertia and the moment of loss [2].
To define component input data double click on the final drive icon and enter the
following data (Table 4.39).
The Wheels and Tires link the vehicle to the road. The wheel component
considers many influencing variables and their effect on the rolling state.
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 259

Table 4.34 NOx emission map data

(a)
700 (b) −5.0 −0.6 0.00 0.90 1.76 3.48 5.01 6.55 8.05 10.2
(c) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.16
1200 (b) −5.0 −0.4 0.00 0.21 0.66 2.00 3.65 6.79 9.79 11.9
(c) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.06 0.15 0.19 0.24
1700 (b) −5.0 −0.4 0.00 0.25 0.90 2.27 3.89 6.96 10.4 13.5
(c) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.12 0.25 0.32 0.37
2550 (b) −5.0 −0.5 0.00 0.41 2.00 5.78 7.38 10.5 13.6 15.7
(c) 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.09 0.27 0.34 0.47 0.49 0.50
3000 (b) −5.0 −1.0 −0.4 0.00 0.41 2.66 6.04 9.25 10.8 15.8
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.14 0.42 0.60 0.66 0.71
3600 (b) −5.0 −0.4 0.00 0.36 2.65 4.37 7.74 9.45 12.8 16.9
(c) 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.25 0.42 0.69 0.77 0.88 0.91
4150 (b) −5.0 −1.0 −0.4 0.00 0.79 2.54 7.59 10.9 14.4 16.6
(c) 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.11 0.27 0.75 0.99 1.14 1.32
5050 (b) −5.0 −1.3 −0.5 0.00 2.19 3.98 5.61 8.93 12.9 16.2
(c) 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.28 0.50 0.70 1.11 1.41 1.75
6000 (b) −5.0 −1.3 −0.4 0.00 1.33 3.04 4.60 7.63 10.7 14.4
(c) 0.14 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.41 0.71 0.96 1.23 1.41 1.62

20
Engine
18 Speed
(1/min)
16
700
14
1200
Mass Flow (kg/h)

12 1700
10 2550

8 3000
3600
6
4150
4
5050
2 6000
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20
BMEP (bar)

Fig. 4.42 CO emission map

260 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 4.35 CO emission map data

(a)
700 (b) −5.0 −0.8 0.00 1.76 3.48 5.01 6.55 8.05 10.2 –
(c) 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.17 0.21 0.27 1.60 –
1200 (b) −5.0 −0.6 0.00 0.22 3.82 5.44 7.10 8.69 10.2 12.5
(c) 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.07 0.17 0.21 0.31 0.87 2.44 3.23
1700 (b) −5.0 −0.6 0.00 0.50 4.25 5.87 7.60 9.40 11.4 14.8
(c) 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.24 0.33 0.39 1.12 2.41 3.26
2550 (b) −5.0 −0.6 0.00 0.88 3.60 6.30 8.05 11.5 14.9 17.2
(c) 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.19 0.39 0.69 0.83 3.15 3.73 4.31
3000 (b) −5.0 −0.5 0.00 0.78 2.66 6.04 9.29 10.8 12.6 16.2
(c) 0.15 0.15 0.18 0.23 0.39 0.95 1.53 2.75 4.89 7.14
3600 (b) −5.0 −0.5 0.00 0.76 4.17 7.39 11.3 13.1 15.4 15.9
(c) 0.17 0.17 0.19 0.26 0.63 0.97 3.76 6.06 10.3 10.9
4150 (b) −5.0 −0.6 0.00 0.77 5.93 9.67 11.1 12.6 14.5 16.8
(c) 0.22 0.22 0.25 0.33 0.97 2.24 4.07 6.92 9.89 11.9
5050 (b) −5.0 −0.7 0.00 1.23 3.98 5.61 10.5 12.3 13.8 15.9
(c) 0.25 0.25 0.28 0.41 1.00 1.23 4.12 10.6 13.3 15.5
6000 (b) −5.0 −0.5 0.00 1.33 6.08 7.63 10.7 11.9 13.3 14.4
(c) 0.43 0.43 0.46 0.55 2.65 4.38 11.7 15.4 18.2 21.3

0.6 Engine
Speed
(1/min)
0.5
700
0.4 1200
Mass Flow (kg/h)

1700
0.3 2550
3000
0.2
3600
4150
0.1
5050
6000
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20
BMEP (bar)

Fig. 4.43 HC emission map

4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 261

Table 4.36 HC emission map data

(a)
700 (b) −5.0 −0.9 0.00 0.66 1.74 3.44 6.49 7.98 10.1 –
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.06 –
1200 (b) −5.0 −0.6 0.00 0.21 2.04 3.72 5.30 6.91 9.97 12.2
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.11
1700 (b) −5.0 −0.6 0.00 0.47 2.29 5.43 7.03 10.5 14.3 –
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.08 0.16 0.33 –
2550 (b) −5.0 −0.6 0.00 0.33 2.58 5.88 7.52 10.7 13.9 16.0
(c) 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.09 0.10 0.20 0.33 0.50
3000 (b) −5.0 −0.5 0.00 0.80 2.73 4.49 7.88 11.1 12.8 16.6
(c) 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.10 0.16 0.22 0.40
3600 (b) −5.0 −0.6 0.00 0.30 2.65 4.37 7.74 11.3 12.8 16.2
(c) 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.23 0.30 0.51
4150 (b) −5.0 −0.6 0.00 0.30 2.54 5.87 7.59 10.9 14.2 16.3
(c) 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.07 0.12 0.14 0.22 0.42 0.54
5050 (b) −5.0 −0.4 0.00 0.57 2.24 5.93 7.76 9.32 12.6 15.9
(c) 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.14 0.15 0.19 0.36 0.56
6000 (b) −5.0 −0.8 0.00 0.52 1.36 3.09 7.77 10.9 12.2 14.6
(c) 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.09 0.18 0.31 0.40 0.59

Fig. 4.44 Torque Converter input data specifications window

Information data for the four wheels are the same (Vehicle Rear Right (6),
Vehicle Front Right (7), Vehicle Rear Left (8), and Vehicle Front Left (9)).
Double click on the wheel (Fig. 4.49) and enter the following data (Table 4.40).
Select Properties menu and define the appropriate wheel location for each wheel
(Vehicle: Front Right, Rear Right, Front Left, and Rear Left).
The static rolling radius is the distance between the center of the wheel and the
road surface for the loaded, not moving vehicle.
262 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 4.37 Torque Converter input data

Name Value Unit
Inertia Moment of Pump with Oil 0.015 kg m2
Max. Torque lock-up Clutch 1.000 Nm
Inertia Moment of Turbine with Oil 0.015 kg m2
Input Mode Torque Conversion –

2.5 1200
2
800
1.5

Pump Torque (Nm)

1
400
0.5
Torque Ratio (-)

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
-0.5
-400
-1
-1.5
-800
-2
-2.5 -1200
Speed Ratio (-)

Fig. 4.45 Torque conversion curve

Table 4.38 Torque conversion curve data

Speed Torque Pump Speed Torque Pump
Ratio (–) Ratio (–) Torque (–) Ratio (–) Ratio (–) Torque (–)
0.000 2.430 0.920 1.000 1.021 1.000
0.100 2.220 0.940 1.000 1.027 1.000
0.200 2.110 0.950 1.000 1.032 1.000
0.300 1.930 0.960 1.000 1.043 1.000
0.400 1.770 0.965 1.000 1.065 1.000
0.500 1.600 0.970 1.000 1.088 1.000
0.600 1.440 0.975 1.000 1.112 1.000
0.700 1.290 0.980 1.000 1.252 1.000
0.800 1.120 0.985 1.000 1.431 1.000
0.848 1.060 0.989 1.000 1.669 1.000
0.850 1.020 1.000 1.000 2.004 1.000
0.900 1.000 1.019 1.000 2.506 1.000
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 263

Fig. 4.46 Gearbox input data specifications window

0.96

0.955
Efficiency (-)

0.95

0.945

0.94
0 1 2 3 4 5
Gear (-)

Fig. 4.47 Efficiency and torque loss correction

The dynamic rolling radius can be defined as function of the velocity (Fig. 4.50
and Table 4.41). This characteristic is active when dynamic rolling radius is set
from characteristic (a—velocity (km/h), b—rolling resistance factors (%)).
The slip at maximum traction (Fig. 4.51) is, together with the specific traction at
infinite slip (Fig. 4.52), the characteristic values for the slip correction factor. The
slip correction factor depends on the friction coefficient of the road [1].
The Brake component is described by brake data and dimensions (Fig. 4.53). It
is possible to define drum brakes as well as disk brakes.
Input data for the two front brakes is the same and also the data for the two rear
brakes is the same (Rear Drum Brake Right (10), Front Disk Brake Right (11), Rear
Drum Brake Left (12) and Front Disk Brake Left (13)). Double click on the brake
icon and enter the following data (Table 4.42).
264 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 4.48 Final Drive input data specifications window

Table 4.39 Final Drive data

Name Value Unit
Transmission Ratio 3.000 –
Inertia Moment In 0.010 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out 0.015 kg m2
Efficiency 0.950 –

Fig. 4.49 Wheels input data specifications window

Differential (14) unit compensates for discrepancies in the respective rotation

rates of the drive wheels. To define component input data double click on the
differential icon and enter the following data (Table 4.43, Fig. 4.54).
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 265

Table 4.40 Wheels input data

Name Value Unit
Wheel Inertia Moment 0.500 kg m2
Friction Coefficient of Tire 0.950 –
Reference Wheel Load 2200.0 N
Wheel Load Correction Coefficient 0.020 –
Static Rolling Radius 300.0 mm
Circumference 1884.96 mm
Dynamic Rolling Radius 310.0 mm
Circumference 1947.79 mm

2.3
2.2
Rolling Resistence Factor (%)

2.1
2
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280
Velocity (km/h)

Fig. 4.50 Rolling resistance factor

The Kinematic Chain Browser can be launched in the pop-up menu of a selected
component (Fig. 4.55).
The Cockpit (15) links the driver and the vehicle (Fig. 4.56). In this component
connections are only made via the Data Bus. The pedal positions are transferred to
corresponding indicators via the pedal characteristics (Table 4.44) [2].
To define the input data click on the acceleration pedal characteristic (a—
acceleration pedal travel (%), b—load signal (%)) and brake pedal characteristic (a
—specific brake pedal force (%), b—brake pressure (bar)) tabs and enter the fol-
lowing data (Fig. 4.57).
The Gearbox Control (16) is required to define an automatic gearbox
(Fig. 4.58). In the gearbox control, the gear shifting process can be defined auto-
matically without any influence of the driver.
The gearbox control shifts the gears dependent on a speed or velocity. In the
calculation tasks it is decided which of the two shifting strategies is used. The speed
or velocity can be defined via the Data Bus. It is possible to define the engine speed
and the wheel speed as Ref. [2].
266 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 4.41 Rolling resistance factor data

Velocity (km/h) Rolling Resistance Velocity (km/h) Rolling Resistance
Factor (%) Factor (%)
0 1.35 180 1.65
20 1.36 200 1.75
50 1.37 230 1.95
100 1.38 250 2.10
120 1.39 280 2.30
150 1.50 180 1.65

15
Slip at Maximum Traction (%)

14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Friction Coefficient of Road (-)

Fig. 4.51 Maximum in the slip characteristic

90
Specific Traction at Infinite Slip

88
86
84
82
(%)

80
78
76
74
72
70
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Friction Coefficient of Road (-)

Fig. 4.52 Asymptote of slip characteristic

4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 267

Fig. 4.53 Brake input data specifications window

Table 4.42 Brakes input data

Name Value Value Value Value Unit
Brake Front Rear Front Rear –
Right Right Left Left
Piston Surface 1800.0 1500.0 1800.0 1500.0 mm2
Specific Factor 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 –
Efficiency 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 –
Inertia Moment 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 kg m2
Friction Coefficient 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 –
Friction Radius 120.0 100.0 120.0 100.0 mm

Therefore, it is necessary to define the upshifting and downshifting velocities

always only for one gear less than are available in the gearbox.
To define component input data double click on the gearbox control icon and
enter the following data (Table 4.45) [3].
The gearbox control is also the connection between the gearbox program and
the gearbox.
The velocities for upshifting and downshifting can be checked in the following
way: the upshifting velocity of the 2nd gear means that at this velocity the gearbox
control is upshifting from the 2nd into the 3rd gear. The downshifting velocity for
the 2nd gear means that at this velocity the gearbox control is downshifting from
the 3rd into the 2nd gear.
The Gearbox Program (17) is used for automatic gearboxes in combination
with the gearbox control (Fig. 4.59). The gearbox program allows for a more
complicated gear shifting process than the gearbox control, as the load signal of the
engine is considered. The gearbox program shifts the gears according to given
268 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 4.43 Differential input data

Name Value Unit
Differential Lock Unlocked –
Torque Split Factor 1.00 –
Inertia Moment In 0.02 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out1 0.02 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out2 0.02 kg m2

Fig. 4.54 Differential input data specifications window

Fig. 4.55 Kinematic Chain Browser

4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 269

Fig. 4.56 Cockpit input data specifications window

Table 4.44 Cockpit input data

Name Value Unit
Shift Mode Automatic –
Number of Gears Forward 5.00 –
Number of Gears Back 1.00 –
Maximum Brake Force 100.0 N
Brake Light Switch Threshold 1.00 %
Number of Retarder Steps 0.00 –

100
90
80
Load Signal (%)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Acceleration Pedal Travel (%)

Fig. 4.57 Pedal characteristic

curves. The curves are given as a function of the load signal and the engine speed.
The target gear determined by the program is transmitted to the gearbox control that
transmits it to the gearbox.
270 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 4.58 Gearbox control input data specifications window

Table 4.45 Gearbox control Shifting According to Velocity

input data
a—Gear (–) b—Upshifting (km/h) c—Downshifting (km/h)
1 25 20
2 50 40
3 75 60
4 100 80
Shifting According to Speed
a—Gear (–) b—Upshifting (1/min) c—Downshifting (1/min)
1 3000 1500
2 3000 1500
3 3000 1500
4 3000 1500
Shifting According to Speed in next Gear
a—Gear (–) b—Upshifting (1/min) c—Downshifting (1/min)
1 2000 2500
2 2000 2500
3 2000 2500
4 2000 2500

Furthermore, the curves could be optimized using iSIGHT interface module.

These optimized curves (optimized shifting program) could also be used as input
curves for the gearbox program [2].
The gear shifting process is done similar to the gearbox control. The only
difference is the dependence on the load signal of the engine. If the shifting program
should be defined not by speed but by velocity, the Data Bus input velocity must be
connected.
The units of the shifting program and the optimized shifting program influence
each other. This means that if one of these programs is loaded with a different unit,
the other program also gets this new unit.
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 271

Fig. 4.59 Gearbox program input data specifications window

With the properties switches shifting program 2–5 up to four additional shifting
programs can be defined (a—gear (–), b—load signal (%), c—speed upshifting
(1/min) and d—speed downshifting (1/min)).
With the Data Bus input shifting program selector (which provides a double
value), interpolations between the defined shifting programs can be done
(Fig. 4.60a, b and Tables 4.46, 4.47) [3].
The speeds for upshifting and downshifting can be checked in the following
way: the upshifting speed of the 2nd gear with the special load signal means that at
this speed with this load signal the gearbox control is upshifting from the 2nd into
the 3rd gear. The downshifting speed for the 2nd gear with the special load signal
means that at this speed with this load signal the gearbox control is downshifting
from the 3rd into the 2nd gear.
The ASC Anti-Slip Control (18) checks the force transmission factor of all
connected wheels (Fig. 4.61).
The ASC is only active when a model is calculated quasi-stationary in combi-
nation with special drivetrain configurations and does not require data entry.
If the ASC is used for calculations in simulation mode this switch can be
activated. In this case the parameters for the PID controller can be set proportional
(–), differential (s), and integral parameter (1/s).
Catalyst (19) or exhaust systems consider the effects of the catalytic converter
and soot filler on the raw emissions of the engine (Fig. 4.62).
To define component input data double click on the catalyst icon and enter the
following data (Table 4.48).
Conversion efficiencies of the different emissions (NOx, CO, HC, and Soot) can
be defined dependent on the actual temperature of the catalytic converter.
Conversion efficiencies curve can be defined as function of a—temperature (°C)
and efficiency (–) (Fig. 4.63 and Table 4.49—NOx conversion efficiencies,
Fig. 4.64 and Table 4.50—CO conversion efficiencies, Fig. 4.65 and Table 4.51—
HC conversion efficiencies).
The heat transfer Gas/Cat (Table 4.52 and Fig. 4.66) are the proportion of the
exhaust gas which is transferred to the exhaust system and can be defined as a
function of a—temperature (°C) and b—heat-up proportion of exhaust gas energy
(%) [1].
272 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

(a) 100
Gear
90 (-)
1 2 3 4
80 1
70 2
Load Signal (%)

60 3

50 4

40
30
20
10
0
500 1500 2500 3500 4500 5500
Speed Upshifting (1/min)

(b) 100
Gear
90 (-)
1 2 3 4
80 1
Load Signal (%)

70 2
60 3
50 4

40
30
20
10
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Speed Downshifting (1/min)

Fig. 4.60 Shifting programs standard. a speed upshifting. b speed downshifting

Table 4.46 Upshifting program data

(a)
1 (b) 0 20 30 40 60 65 72 80 100
(c) 770 770 770 770 1200 1290 1420 1550 1550
2 (b) 0 20 30 40 60 65 72 80 100
(c) 1250 1250 1250 1250 1950 2125 2370 2650 2650
3 (b) 0 20 30 40 60 65 72 80 100
(c) 1820 1820 1820 2350 3300 3550 3900 3900 3900
4 (b) 0 20 30 40 60 65 72 80 100
(c) 2500 2500 3100 3800 5100 5460 5460 5460 5460
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 273

Table 4.47 Downshifting program data

(a)
1 (b) 0 20 30 40 60 65 72 80 100
(c) 510 510 510 510 780 848 942 1050 1050
2 (b) 0 20 30 40 60 65 72 80 100
(c) 890 890 890 890 1285 1384 1522 1680 1680
3 (b) 0 20 30 40 60 65 72 80 100
(c) 1380 1380 1380 1700 2250 2392 2590 2590 2590
4 (b) 0 20 30 40 60 65 72 80 100
(c) 2000 2000 2400 2800 3500 3700 3700 3700 3700

Fig. 4.61 ASC input data specifications window

Fig. 4.62 Catalyst input data specifications window

The Monitor component (20) can be introduced, if the calculation run must be
detected. It is possible to show some results of the calculation while the calculation
is running.
274 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 4.48 Catalyst input data

Name Value Unit
Heat Loss Coefficient 0.950 –
Weight of Catalyst 12.00 kg
Specific Heat Capacity of Catalyst 220.0 J/kg K
Reference Area Cat/Air 0.300 m2
Heat Transfer Coefficient Cat/Air 25.00 W/m2 K
Operating Temperature Catalyst 500.0 °C

1.000
0.900
0.800
0.700
Efficiency (-)

0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 100 200 300 400 500
Temperature (°C)

Fig. 4.63 NOx conversion efficiencies

Table 4.49 NOx conversion efficiencies data

Temperature Efficiency Temperature Efficiency Temperature Efficiency
(°C) (–) (°C) (–) (°C) (–)
0 0.000 225 0.100 265 0.975
170 0.000 230 0.160 270 0.992
180 0.003 235 0.220 280 0.996
190 0.007 240 0.320 290 0.997
200 0.013 245 0.485 300 0.997
210 0.021 250 0.670 400 0.996
215 0.031 255 0.830 500 0.996
220 0.045 260 0.920 – –

Click on the description of Data Bus tab and open the following dialog. To select
a Data Bus channel, click to access at the available list. Enter the text for the
description and then click on to select the unit (Fig. 4.67).
4.1 Classical Vehicle Model 275

1.000
0.900
0.800
Efficiency (-) 0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 100 200 300 400 500
Temperature (°C)

Fig. 4.64 CO conversion efficiencies

Table 4.50 CO conversion efficiencies data

Temperature Efficiency Temperature Efficiency Temperature Efficiency
(°C) (–) (°C) (–) (°C) (–)
0 0.000 225 0.100 265 0.975
170 0.000 230 0.160 270 0.992
180 0.003 235 0.220 280 0.996
190 0.007 240 0.320 290 0.997
200 0.013 245 0.485 300 0.997
210 0.021 250 0.670 400 0.996
215 0.031 255 0.830 500 0.996
220 0.045 260 0.920 – –

1.000
0.900
0.800
0.700
Efficiency (-)

0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 100 200 300 400 500
Temperature (°C)

Fig. 4.65 HC conversion efficiencies

276 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 4.51 HC conversion efficiencies data

Temperature Efficiency Temperature Efficiency Temperature Efficiency
(°C) (–) (°C) (–) (°C) (–)
0 0.000 225 0.100 265 0.975
170 0.000 230 0.160 270 0.992
180 0.003 235 0.220 280 0.996
190 0.007 240 0.320 290 0.997
200 0.013 245 0.485 300 0.997
210 0.021 250 0.670 400 0.996
215 0.031 255 0.830 500 0.996
220 0.045 260 0.920 – –

Table 4.52 Heat transfer Temperature (°C) Heat-Up Proportion of Exhaust

Gas/Cat data Gas Energy (%)
−30 41
210 39
270 65
500 64
600 64
1000 64

70
Heat-Up Proportion of Exhaust Gas Energy (%)

65

60

55

50

45

40

35
-50 150 350 550 750 950
Temperature (°C)

Fig. 4.66 Heat transfer Gas/Cat

4.2 Run Simulation 277

Fig. 4.67 Monitor description of Data Bus

4.2 Run Simulation

4.2.1 Result Manager

To run a simulation for each model, there are five different options for calculation
[2]:
• Single Calculation is a regular calculation with the input data supplied in the
components. The output of the result defines which components result will be
written and available in the Result Manager.
• Matrix Calculation is used for multiple calculations and to evaluate the effect of
varying the values of input parameters on vehicle performance, consumption
and emissions. The results can be viewed for each varied calculation.
• Component Variation is used for multiple calculations and the calculation
consists of sub-calculations in which components are replaced by components
of the same type. The results can be viewed in the Result Manager.
• System Variation is used for multiple calculations from a list of all the model
systems. The results can be viewed similar to Component Variation.
• Batch Calculation is used for calculations series of different projects, either
Single Calculation, Matrix Calculation with DoE option and Component
Variation with DoE option.
278 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 4.68 Start calculation

To run the calculation in the Desk Area click on Calculation Center or click on
AVL blue button in the upper right corner (Fig. 4.68). Click on to “Start
Calculation” button to run the simulation.
After the completion of the simulation click on the Result Manager in the
Navigation Frame (Fig. 4.69) and expand the task of which the results should be
viewed. The selected objects are shown in the right section of the window.
Project information can be viewed in the main window by selecting info in the
tree structure or by double clicking info in the right window. The window shows
general information: project name, author, vehicle model, drivetrain model, date,
and state (regarding errors), then the tree structure of the folder with defined
Calculation Tasks (different status for run or not run is shown using blue/gray
color). The picture of the Vehicle Model is also displayed.
One output file is produced for each component in the Vehicle Model and each
Calculation Task. Data for diagrams are extracted from these files and are shown as
Energy Flow Graphics, presentation diagrams for current tasks and standard dia-
grams for used components.
In the tree structure of the Result Manager all defined Calculation Task folders
are shown separately for each task. The folders with results are shown in color;
tasks which are not simulated are gray. Files for each Calculation Task are located
inside the respective folder. In Result Manager, all components are listed where
results have been written in pages mode or data sources mode (Fig. 4.70).
The result output for components is selected with output in the properties
window of the respective component [4].
4.2 Run Simulation 279

Fig. 4.69 Result Manager window

Select as defined in module for output of results in the folder of the corre-
sponding calculation task. There are two types of result outputs available with the
Result Manager: standard diagrams and presentation diagrams.
Standard diagrams (Fig. 4.71) are created separately for each component and
only contain results of the individual component and represent time histories of the
single components.
Standard diagrams have a predefined representation page, which can only be
changed in some parts. Standard diagrams are opened by selecting the respective
calculation task in the tree structure of Result Manager and then selecting the
corresponding component.
The pages mode sidebar is divided into a list of predefined standard diagram
pages for the respective component and TeimView Assistant with a tree structure of
components with all available curves and the current parameter for current diagram
of respective component with the list of all used curves. TeimView has two tabs:
pages and data sources. Pages are used to view results as curves in standard diagram
and data sources in tables as numerical data for the respective component for
analyzing and extracting [2].
The data sources mode sidebar (Fig. 4.72) has a tree structure where the data
source, data file, and table are shown. In data sources view there is a list of all curve
data that can be shown.
280 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 4.70 Result Manager pages mode

Fig. 4.71 Standard diagrams

The Energy Flow Graphics feature can be selected in the Result Manager
(Fig. 4.73). An animation shows the flow between the drivetrain components over
time of the following parameters: Current (A), Energy Stored (kJ), Energy (kJ),
Power (kW), Speed (1/min), Velocity (km/h), Torque (Nm), Force (N), Voltage
(V).
4.2 Run Simulation 281

Fig. 4.72 Result Manager data sources mode

The animation can be controlled by using the play, pause, stepwise, stop, repeat,
velocity switches. A time-bar, showing the actual simulation time, can be moved to
a certain time-step with the mouse.
Below the flow graphics a monitor is shown which displays the result curves of
the selected components. With the zoom-option, the horizontal can be scaled so that
long cycles can also be viewed properly.
In addition to the graphical representation, the associated values can also be
viewed in the monitor as well as in the drivetrain flow graphics.
The values of the Energy Flow Graphics can also be displayed in a pie chart.
Clicking the button EFG pie chart opens an area where the segments can be added
or removed with the buttons “+” and “−”.
The association between a segment and a component parameter can be done by
adding the segment in the segment list and then a left mouse-click on a connector of
the component (Fig. 4.74). Several connectors can be chosen for one segment. In
that case, the segment represents the sum of all associated values. The segment list
consists of the absolute segment values as well as of the values in terms of per-
centages [2].
The task of the mode trimap is to construct a 3D surface and describe it by
isolines. The input data (3D points) are projected into the x-y-surface and are
triangulated (in 2D). The isolines are created by an intersection list (Fig. 4.75) [2].
282 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 4.73 Energy Flow Graphics

4.2.2 Standard Diagrams

To evaluate the fuel economy characteristics of the IC Engine motored bus a typical
NEDC cycle was simulated (Fig. 4.76).
The total distance of this cycle is 1.0931 m, the total time is 1180 s, idle standing
time is 267 s, average speed including stops is 33.35 km/h, average driving speed
excluding stops is 43.10 km/h, average acceleration is 0.506 m/s2 and maximum
acceleration is 1.042 m/s2.
The statistical percentages of IC Engine operating region are found in conden-
sation map and it is show in Fig. 4.77.
Driving time distribution in consumption map is show in Fig. 4.78, the engine
speed for IC Engine is show in Fig. 4.79, the engine torque for IC Engine is show in
Fig. 4.80, engine power for IC Engine is show in Fig. 4.81 and the mean effective
pressure for IC Engine is show in Fig. 4.82.
4.2 Run Simulation 283

Fig. 4.74 EFG pie chart

Fig. 4.75 Trimap diagram

284 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 4.76 Typical NEDC cycle

Fig. 4.77 Statistical percentages of engine operating region

4.2 Run Simulation 285

Fig. 4.78 Driving time distribution in consumption map

Fig. 4.79 Engine speed for IC Engine

286 4 Classical Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 4.80 Engine torque for IC Engine

Fig. 4.81 Engine power for IC Engine

References 287

Fig. 4.82 Mean effective pressure for IC Engine

References

1. AVL Cruise (2011) Primer. AVL List GmbH, Graz, Austria, Document no. 04.0103.2011,
Edition 06.2011
2. AVL Cruise (2011) Users Guide. AVL List GmbH, Graz, Austria, Document no. 04.0104.2011,
Edition 06.2011
3. AVL Cruise (2011) Gear Shifting Program (GSP). AVL List GmbH, Graz, Austria, Document
no. 04.0114.2011, Edition 06.2011
4. AVL Cruise (2011) Notes. AVL List GmbH, Graz, Austria, Document no. 04.0102.2011,
Edition 06.2011
Chapter 5
Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model
and Simulation

5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation

5.1.1 Hybrid CVT Model

This chapter describes how to create and run the model of a hybrid CVT
front-wheel drive. To place a component in the working area, click on the com-
ponent group with the left mouse button, move the mouse over the required
component, and then click and drag the component into the vehicle model area.
Arrange the components as shown in the following figure (Fig. 5.1) and connect the
components as specified in the diagram. All the connections in the Data Bus for this
model are described in Table 5.1 [1].
Place the following components in the working area: Vehicle (1), IC Engine (2),
Clutch (3), CVT Continuously Variable Transmission (4), Final Drive (5), Vehicle
Front Right (6), Vehicle Front Left (7), Vehicle Rear Right (8), Vehicle Rear Left
(9), Rear Drum Brake (10), Front Disk Brake (11), Front Disk Brake (12), Rear
Drum Brake (13), E-Machine (14), Differential (15), Cockpit (16), CVT control
(17), Battery H (18), MATLAB® DLL (19), Delta Torque CE (20), Delta Torque
Brake (21), Total Torque (22), and Monitor (23).
The Vehicle (1) is one of the main objects in a model. This component contains
general data of the vehicle, such as nominal dimensions and weights. Only one
vehicle component is required in a model. Road resistances and dynamic wheel
loads are calculated for road and dynamometer runs based on the dimensions and
the load state. The wheel loads are calculated considering motion. The aerody-
namic, rolling, climbing, acceleration, and total resistance are calculated [2].
To define component input data (Table 5.2) double click on the icon or click on
it with the right mouse button and select edit to open the following window
(Fig. 5.2).
The properties window is accessed through properties button in the input data
window, or from the pop-up menu by selecting “properties.” Selected parameters

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 289

B.O. Varga et al., Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles,
Green Energy and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-18639-9_5
290 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.1 Complete CVT hybrid model

have influence on needed component data input for calculation (Fig. 5.3). With
these settings, it is also possible to run a calculation with minimal input data, as the
input fields of the unavailable data can be switched off.
IC Engine (2) component contains a model for an internal combustion engine.
The characteristic curves for the full load, the fuel consumption, and others can be
freely defined by the user [2]. It is possible to define a gasoline engine as well as a
diesel engine. In this component a temperature model is included to consider the
influence of the temperature on the fuel consumption and emissions while the
engine is cold. The engine will be modelled by a structure of characteristic maps.
To define component input data (Table 5.3) double click on the icon or click on
it the right mouse button and select edit to open the following window (Fig. 5.4).
The properties window is accessed through properties button in input data
window, or from pop-up menu (Fig. 5.5).
To load IC Engine characteristic click on the Full Load Characteristic tab
(Fig. 5.6). Add rows by clicking on and enter the following data (Table 5.4) [1].
The Motoring Curve (Fig. 5.7) will be defined similar to the Full Load
Characteristic either as power dependent on the engine speeds (Table 5.5).
At the Fuel Consumption Map (Table 5.6 and Fig. 5.8) the actual fuel con-
sumption for stationary operation is listed depending on the brake mean pressure
with the engine speed (a—speed (1/min), b—BMEP (bar), c—volume flow (l/h)).
In the emission maps the emissions for the different exhaust gases are listed
dependent on the mean pressure with the engine speed as parameter (a—speed
(1/min), b—BMEP (bar), c—mass flow (kg/h), namely NOx emission map in
Table 5.1 Data Bus connections
Component Requires Input Information Component Delivering Output Information
Battery H Ambient Temperature Cockpit Course Ambient
Brake Rear Drum Brake Pressure Delta Torque Brake Brake Pressure
Brake Front Disk Brake Pressure Delta Torque Brake Brake Pressure
Brake Rear Drum Brake Pressure Delta Torque Brake Brake Pressure
Brake Front Disk Brake Pressure Delta Torque Brake Brake Pressure
Clutch Desire Clutch Release Cockpit Desire Clutch Release
Cockpit Gear Indicator CVT Current Gear
Operation Control 0 IC Engine Operation Control
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation

Speed IC Engine IC Engine Speed

CVT Desired Transmission CVT Control Desired Transmission
Temperature E-Machine Temperature
CVT Control Current Transmission CVT Current Transmission
Load Signal Delta Torque CE Load Signal
Speed IC Engine IC Engine Speed
Torque Total Torque Torque
Velocity Cockpit Velocity
E-Machine Ambient Temperature Cockpit Course Ambient
Load Signal MATLAB® DLL Load Signal
IC Engine Load Signal Delta Torque CE Load Signal
Start Switch MATLAB® DLL Start Switch
Delta Torque CE Load Signal Cockpit Cockpit Load Signal
Load Signal EMS MATLAB® DLL Load Signal EMS
Delta Torque B Brake Pressure Cockpit Brake Pressure
Brake Pressure EMS MATLAB® DLL Brake Pressure EMS
(continued)
291
Table 5.1 (continued)
292

Component Requires Input Information Component Delivering Output Information

Total Torque Torque E-Machine Torque
Torque Flywheel IC Engine Torque Flywheel
MATLAB® DLL IC Engine Speed IC Engine IC Engine Speed
Torque Flywheel IC Engine Torque Flywheel
Load Signal Cockpit Load Signal
Brake Pressure Cockpit Brake Pressure
Velocity Vehicle Velocity
Battery Charge Battery H Battery Charge
5

Start Switch Cockpit Start Switch

Current Ratio CVT Current Ratio
Clutch Release Clutch Clutch Release
Current Battery H Current
Monitor Vehicle Acceleration Vehicle Hybrid Acceleration
Vehicle Velocity Vehicle Hybrid Velocity
Vehicle Distance Vehicle Hybrid Distance
IC Engine Load Signal IC Engine Actual Load Signal
IC Engine Speed IC Engine IC Engine Speed
Single Ratio Temperature Cockpit Course Ambient
Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 293

Table 5.2 Vehicle components input data

Name Value Unit
Gas Tank Volume 0.050 m3
Distance from Hitch to Front Axle 3200.0 mm
Height of Support Point at Bench Test 100.0 mm
Wheel Base 2690.0 mm
Distance of Gravity Center empty/half/full 1080.0/1090.0/1100.0 mm
Height of Gravity Center empty/half/full 560.0/550.0/540.0 mm
Height of Hitch empty/half/full 390.0/380.0/370.0 mm
Tire Inflation Pressure Front Axle 2.200 bar
Tire Inflation Pressure Rear Axle 2.200 bar
Curb Weight 1300.0 kg
Gross Weight 1600.0 kg
Frontal Area 2.000 m2
Drag Coefficient 0.300 –

Fig. 5.2 Vehicle input data specifications window

Fig. 5.9 and Table 5.7, CO emission map in Fig. 5.10 and Table 5.8, HC emission
map in Fig. 5.11 and Table 5.9) [1].
The Clutch (3) makes stationary idle possible, transition to motion, and inter-
ruption of the power flow (Fig. 5.12). The clutch slips to compensate for the
294 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.3 Properties of Vehicle

Table 5.3 IC Engine Name Value Unit

components input data
Engine Displacement 1460.0 cm3
Engine Working Temperature 90.00 °C
Number of Cylinders/Strokes 4/4 –
Idle/Maximum Speed 790.0/5600.0 1/min
Inertia Moment 0.190 kg m2
Response Time 0.040 s
Heating Value for Gasoline 42700.0 kJ/kg
Fuel Density 0.720 kg/l
Idle Consumption 0.500 l/h
Idle Emission NOx/CO/HC 0.0015/0.075/0.050 kg/h

difference in the rotational speeds of engine and drive train when the vehicle is set
in motion. When a change in operation conditions makes it necessary to change
gears, the clutch disengages the engine from the drivetrain for the duration of the
procedure [2].
The clutch can be used together with a CVT gearbox and it is only necessary for
starting. In this case, the clutch is controlled by the control module CVT control.
To define component input data (Table 5.10) double click on the icon and select
edit to open the following window (Fig. 5.13).
The pressure force is the axial force when the frictional surfaces are pressed
together. This pressure force depends on the clutch release. With the pressure force
the transmitted torque can be calculated by considering the dimensions (a—clutch
release (%), b—pressure force (N)).
CVT (4) can convert every point on the engine operating curve to an operating
curve of its own, and every engine operating curve into an operating range within
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 295

Fig. 5.4 IC Engine input data specifications window

Fig. 5.5 Properties of IC Engine

296 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

135
130
125
Torque (Nm)

120
115
110
105
100
95
90
750 1750 2750 3750
Speed (1/min)

Fig. 5.6 Full Load Characteristic

Table 5.4 Full Load Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm) Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm)
Characteristic data
800 90 2500 120
1000 100 3000 125
1500 108 3500 130
2000 115 5000 120

-1

-2
Torque (Nm)

-3

-4

-5

-6

-7
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Speed (1/min)

Fig. 5.7 Motoring Curve

5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 297

Table 5.5 Motoring Curve data

Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm)
0 0.00
300 −3.00
600 −4.00
800 −4.25
1500 −4.25
2000 −4.50
2500 −5.00
3500 −7.00

Table 5.6 Fuel Consumption Map data

(a)
850 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 1.60 3.16 4.55 5.95 7.32 8.63 9.30
(c) 0.60 0.62 0.71 1.02 1.32 1.64 1.95 2.34 2.76 3.15
1250 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 0.19 1.82 3.32 4.73 7.59 8.90 10.9
(c) 0.73 0.82 0.90 0.96 1.42 1.88 2.37 3.35 3.96 4.54
1700 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 2.06 3.54 4.89 6.33 7.83 10.9 12.3
(c) 1.00 1.05 1.14 1.86 2.48 3.07 3.69 4.34 6.29 7.08
2300 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 2.30 3.07 5.25 6.71 9.63 12.3 14.3
(c) 1.45 1.50 1.56 2.83 3.34 4.61 5.47 7.34 9.51 11.6
2900 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 0.71 3.97 5.49 8.41 9.81 11.3 14.8
(c) 1.70 1.78 1.93 2.40 4.63 5.68 7.77 8.87 10.0 14.1
3500 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0 2.41 3.97 7.04 8.59 10.3 13.4 15.1
(c) 2.10 2.15 2.40 4.26 5.65 8.12 9.54 11.1 14.5 16.9
4200 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0 2.31 3.82 5.34 8.53 9.99 13.1 15.1
(c) 2.65 2.75 2.92 5.04 6.56 8.02 11.2 12.8 17.6 21.7
5100 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0 3.62 5.10 8.12 9.77 11.2 12.5 14.5
(c) 3.65 3.78 3.99 8.30 10.0 14.0 16.7 19.2 22.6 28.2
6000 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0 2.76 4.18 5.53 8.39 9.72 10.9 13.1
(c) 4.80 4.95 5.17 9.24 11.4 13.5 19.0 22.7 26.1 32.7

the field of potential driving conditions (Fig. 5.14). With the model of the CVT
gearbox it is possible to change the transmission between two user-defined
threshold values. The adjusting speed between different transmissions is internal
fixed at a constant value [2].
To define component input data (Table 5.11) double click on the icon and select
edit to open the following window. The efficiency fixed curve can be defined as
function of the transmission ratio (Fig. 5.15).
Final Drive (5) or Single Ratio Transmission is a gear step with fixed ratio. It
can be used as a transmission step of the differential (Fig. 5.16).
298 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

35
Engine
Speed
30 (1/min)
850
Volume Flow (l/h)

25
1250
20 1700
2300
15
2900
10 3500
4200
5
5100
0 6000
-4 0 4 8 12 16
BMEP (bar)

Fig. 5.8 Fuel Consumption Map

1.2
Engine
Speed
1 (1/min)
850
Mass Flow (kg/h)

0.8 1250
1700
0.6 2300
2900
0.4 3500
4200
0.2
5100
6000
0
-4 1 6 11 16
BMEP (bar)

Fig. 5.9 NOx emission map

To define component input data double click on the final drive icon and enter
the following data (Table 5.12).
The Wheels and Tires link the vehicle to the road. The wheel component
considers many influencing variables and their effect on the rolling state (Fig. 5.17).
Information data for the four wheels is the same (Vehicle Front Right (6),
Vehicle Front Left (7), Vehicle Rear Right (8), and Vehicle Rear Left (9)). Double
click on the wheel and enter the following data (Table 5.13) [1].
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 299

Table 5.7 NOx emission map data

(a)
850 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 1.61 3.16 4.55 5.95 7.32 8.62 9.30
(c) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.11
1250 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 1.82 3.32 4.73 6.17 8.90 10.2 10.9
(c) 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.13 0.15 0.16
1700 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 0.42 2.08 4.89 7.83 9.48 10.1 12.3
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.13 0.20 0.22 0.23 0.25
2300 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 0.73 2.20 5.24 8.21 9.55 12.4 14.3
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.07 0.19 0.29 0.32 0.33 0.34
2900 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 0.70 2.41 5.47 8.41 9.81 12.0 15.2
(c) 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.11 0.27 0.40 0.44 0.49 0.58
3500 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 0.68 2.41 7.05 8.59 11.6 14.3 15.1
(c) 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.17 0.44 0.51 0.59 0.62 0.64
4200 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 0.75 2.31 5.41 8.53 9.99 12.6 15.1
(c) 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.18 0.39 0.58 0.65 0.75 0.87
5100 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 1.97 3.62 6.65 9.77 11.5 12.8 14.7
(c) 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.19 0.34 0.61 0.81 0.89 0.96 1.14
6000 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.00 1.21 2.76 5.68 9.43 12.3 13.5 14.2
(c) 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.27 0.48 0.73 0.95 1.11 1.18 1.23

14 Engine
Speed
(1/min)
12
850
10
1250
Mass Flow (kg/h)

8 1700
2300
6 2900
3500
4
4200
2 5100
6000
0
-4 1 6 11 16

Fig. 5.10 CO emission map

300 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 5.8 CO emission map data

(a)
850 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 1.60 3.16 4.55 5.95 7.32 9.18 9.66
(c) 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.13 0.17 0.21 0.52 0.62
1250 (b) −4.0 −1.7 0.00 1.82 4.73 6.16 7.59 9.89 10.6 11.1
(c) 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.15 0.21 0.25 0.97 1.28 1.55
1700 (b) −4.0 −1.7 0.00 2.06 4.89 6.37 7.83 9.82 11.0 12.3
(c) 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.25 0.24 0.41 1.17 1.76 2.46
2300 (b) −4.0 −1.7 0.00 0.73 2.30 5.22 8.21 10.6 12.4 14.3
(c) 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.12 0.21 0.38 0.67 1.72 2.74 3.17
2900 (b) −4.0 −1.7 0.00 0.85 2.42 5.52 8.42 9.62 11.7 14.8
(c) 0.10 0.10 0.12 0.15 0.27 0.52 0.83 1.35 3.52 4.88
3500 (b) −4.0 −1.7 0.00 0.72 2.41 7.04 10.2 11.9 12.3 15.1
(c) 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.16 0.32 0.68 2.28 4.62 5.21 7.60
4200 (b) −4.0 −1.7 0.00 0.72 3.82 6.88 9.48 10.1 13.1 15.1
(c) 0.15 0.15 0.17 0.22 0.57 1.10 2.05 2.85 7.24 8.69
5100 (b) −4.0 −1.7 0.00 1.00 3.62 6.55 8.86 9.48 11.3 12.5
(c) 0.18 0.19 0.21 0.31 0.68 1.24 2.03 2.69 7.14 9.11
6000 (b) −4.0 −1.7 0.00 1.21 4.18 6.35 7.77 9.72 12.1 13.1
(c) 0.24 0.25 0.29 0.38 1.08 1.79 3.63 7.78 12.2 14.2

0.4
Engine
Speed
0.35 (1/min)

0.3 850
Mass Flow (kg/h)

1250
0.25
1700
0.2 2300

0.15 2900
3500
0.1
4200
0.05 5100
6000
0
-4 1 6 11 16

Fig. 5.11 HC emission map

5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 301

Table 5.9 HC emission map data

(a)
850 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 1.60 3.16 4.55 5.95 7.32 8.63 9.30
(c) 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04
1250 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 1.82 3.32 4.73 6.17 7.60 8.90 10.9
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07
1700 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 3.54 4.89 6.33 7.83 9.72 11.9 12.8
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.11 0.14
2300 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 0.73 2.30 5.25 6.71 9.89 12.6 14.8
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.09 0.15 0.18
2900 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 0.79 2.45 5.60 6.97 9.85 11.4 14.8
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.06 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.20
3500 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 0.74 2.49 7.06 8.59 10.5 11.7 15.0
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.08 0.10 0.13 0.18 0.32
4200 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 2.43 3.89 5.38 6.91 9.85 13.0 14.6
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.13 0.26 0.33
5100 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 3.64 5.10 6.63 8.06 11.2 12.5 14.6
(c) 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.11 0.22 0.29 0.35
6000 (b) −4.0 −1.6 0.00 2.76 4.18 5.53 6.94 10.9 12.1 13.1
(c) 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.09 0.10 0.12 0.26 0.33 0.39

Fig. 5.12 Clutch input data specifications window

The Brake component is described by brake data and dimensions (Fig. 5.18). It
is possible to define drum brakes as well as disk brakes.
Input data for the two front brakes is the same and also the data for the two rear
brakes is the same (Rear Drum Brake Right (10), Front Disk Brake Right (11), Rear
302 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 5.10 Clutch input data Name Value Unit

Inertia Moment In 0.001 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out 0.001 kg m2
Clutch Release 0.000 %
Pressure Force 6000 N
Clutch Release 100 %
Pressure Force 0.000 N
Maximum transferable Torque 300 Nm

6000

5000
Pressure Force (N)

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Clutch Release (%)

Fig. 5.13 Pressure force

Fig. 5.14 CVT input data specifications window

5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 303

Table 5.11 CVT input data Name Value Unit

Inertia Moment In 0.035 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out 0.045 kg m2
Adjustment Time 2.500 s
Minimum Ratio 0.500 –
Switching Threshold 0.040 –
Maximum Ratio 2.873 –

0.895
Efficiency (-)

0.893
0.891
0.889
0.887
0.885
0.883
0.881
0.879
0.877
0.875
0.45 0.95 1.45 1.95 2.45
Transmission Ratio (-)

Fig. 5.15 Efficiency fixed

Fig. 5.16 Final Drive input data specifications window

304 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 5.12 Final Drive input Name Value Unit

data
Inertia Moment In 0.01 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out 0.02 kg m2
Transmission Ratio 5.50 –
Efficiency 0.90 –

Fig. 5.17 Wheels input data specifications window

Table 5.13 Wheels input Name Value Unit

data
Wheel Inertia Moment 1.000 kg m2
Friction Coefficient of Tire 0.950 –
Reference Wheel Load 3200.0 N
Wheel Load Correction Coefficient 0.000 –
Static Rolling Radius 290.0 mm
Circumference 1822.12 mm
Dynamic Rolling Radius 310.0 mm
Circumference 1947.79 mm

Drum Brake Left (12), and Front Disk Brake Left (13)). Double click on the brake
icon and enter the following data (Table 5.14).
Using E-Machine component (14) together with the battery H, the user can
simulate hybrid systems. The model of the electric machine contains two compo-
nents, the inverter and the electric motor. For this type of model a characteristic map
for the efficiency is used to calculate the loss of power. The thermic model takes the
warm up of the electric machine into account regarding the occurring losses. The
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 305

Fig. 5.18 Brake input data specifications window

Table 5.14 Brakes input data

Name Value Value Value Value Unit
Brake Front Right Rear Right Front Left Rear –
Left
Piston Surface 1700.0 500.0 1700.0 500.0 mm2
Specific Factor 1.000 2.500 1.000 2.500 –
Efficiency 0.950 0.950 0.950 0.950 –
Inertia Moment 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 kg m2
Friction Coefficient 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200 –
Friction Radius 100.0 90.00 100.0 90.00 mm

warm up of the environment with respect to the cooling system due to the electric
machine is not considered in the electric machine component.
The maximal power should be restricted to avoid exceeding the given limit for
the temperature due to the occurring losses. Therefore, the permissible losses are
dependent on the actual temperature of the motor and the maximal moment of
inertia is determined according to these values [2].
Double click on the e-machine icon and enter the following data (Fig. 5.19).
The value of the voltage level should be entered at which the following char-
acteristic maps of the machine have been measured. In addition to the U1 level
(Fig. 5.20 and Table 5.15) the U2 level (Fig. 5.21 and Table 5.16) will be activated
in the property window.
For each level the corresponding voltage value must be defined and the corre-
sponding characteristic maps (voltage for U1 = 80 V, voltage for U1 = 280 V). The
maximum mechanical (power) torque is defined as a function of the machine speed
(a—speed (1/min), b—torque (Nm)) [1].
306 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.19 E-Machine input data specifications window

70

60
Torque (Nm)

50

40

30

20

10
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Speed (1/min)

Fig. 5.20 Maximum mechanical torque variation U1

Table 5.15 Maximum Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm) Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm)
mechanical torque
variation U1 0 65 4500 28
2000 65 5500 23
2500 50 6500 19
3500 36 8500 15
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 307

70

60
Torque (Nm)

50

40

30

20

10
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Speed (1/min)

Fig. 5.21 Maximum mechanical torque variation U2

Table 5.16 Maximum Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm) Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm)
mechanical torque variation
U2 0 65 4500 28
2000 65 5500 23
2500 50 6500 19
3500 36 8500 15

The efficiency curve can be defined as function of the maximum mechanical

torque (Fig. 5.22 and Table 5.17) [1].
The Differential (15) is a particular type of simple planetary gear train that has
the property that the angular velocity of its carrier is the average of the angular
velocities of its sun and annular gears (Fig. 5.23). To define component input data
double click on the differential icon and enter the following data (Table 5.18).
The Kinematic Chain Browser can be launched in the pop-up menu of a selected
component. All mechanical connections starting from the selected component are
shown in a tree structure in the left side of the window (Fig. 5.24—Electric
Machine, Fig. 5.25—Gasoline Engine).
The Cockpit (16) links the driver and the vehicle (Fig. 5.26). In this component
connections are only made via the Data Bus. The pedal positions are transferred
into corresponding indicators via the pedal characteristics (Table 5.19).
To define the input data click on the acceleration pedal characteristic
(a—acceleration pedal travel (%), b—load signal (%)), clutch pedal characteristic
308 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

98
Engine
93 Speed
(1/min)
88
500
83
Efficiency (%)

1000
78 1500
2000
73 2500
68 3500
4500
63 5500
58 6500
8500
53

48
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Torque (Nm)

Fig. 5.22 Efficiency curves

Table 5.17 Efficiency curve data

(a)
500 (b) 5 10 20 23 26 30 34 39 44 48 52 58 65
(c) 90 87 83 82 80 79 78 76 69 65 61 56 51
1000 (b) 5 10 20 23 26 30 34 39 44 48 52 58 65
(c) 88 89 90 89 88 87 87 86 84 81 74 66 59
1500 (b) 5 10 20 23 26 30 34 39 44 48 52 58 65
(c) 90 91 91 91 90 90 90 90 88 85 80 73 65
2000 (b) 5 10 20 23 26 30 34 39 44 48 52 58 65
(c) 92 92 92 92 92 92 92 91 90 90 84 77 71
2500 (b) 5 10 20 23 26 30 34 39 – – – – –
(c) 91 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 – – – – –
3500 (b) 5 10 20 23 26 – – – – – – – –
(c) 92 94 95 95 95 – – – – – – – –
4500 (b) 5 10 20 23 – – – – – – – – –
(c) 92 95 97 97 – – – – – – – – –
5500 (b) 5 10 20 – – – – – – – – – –
(c) 90 94 96 – – – – – – – – – –
6500 (b) 5 10 – – – – – – – – – – –
(c) 88 94 – – – – – – – – – – –
8500 (b) 5 10 – – – – – – – – – – –
(c) 85 92 – – – – – – – – – – –
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 309

Fig. 5.23 Differential input data specifications window

Table 5.18 Differential input Name Value Unit

data
Differential Lock Unlocked –
Torque Split Factor 1.000 –
Inertia Moment In 0.020 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out1 0.020 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out2 0.020 kg m2

Fig. 5.24 Kinematic Chain Browser e-machine component

(a—clutch pedal travel (%), b—clutch release (%)), and brake pedal characteristic
(a—specific brake pedal force (%), b—brake pressure (bar)) tabs and enter the
following data for all (Fig. 5.27).
The CVT Control (17) is an easy way to provide target transmission consid-
ering the velocity and the engine load (Fig. 5.28). In addition it is possible to
control a clutch. To define component input data double click on the CVT control
icon and enter the following data (Table 5.20).
310 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.25 Kinematic Chain Browser IC Engine component

Fig. 5.26 Cockpit input data specifications window

Table 5.19 Cockpit input Name Value Unit

data
Shift Mode Manual –
Number of Gears Forward 1.000 –
Number of Gears Back 1.000 –
Maximum Brake Force 100.0 N
Brake Light Switch Threshold 1.000 %
Number of Retarder Steps 0.000 –
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 311

100

Clutch Release (%) 90

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Pedal Travel (%)

Fig. 5.27 Pedal characteristic

Fig. 5.28 CVT control input data specifications window

Table 5.20 CVT control Name Value Unit

input data
Load Signal Time Constant 3.0 s
Velocity Time Constant 1.0 s

The desired transmission ratio (Fig. 5.29 and Table 5.21) can be defined as a
function of a—velocity (m/s), b—load signal (%), and c—transmission ratio (−).
The desired clutch release (Fig. 5.30 and Table 5.22) of the starting clutch can be
defined as a function of a—speed (1/min), b—load signal (%), and c—clutch
release (%) [3].
The Battery H (18) component is used for simulating hybrid and electric
vehicles. The basic model consists of a voltage source and an ohmic resistance
(Fig. 5.31) [2].
312 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

2.9 Velocity
(m/s)
0
2.4 3
Transmission Ratio (-)

6
8
14
1.9 17
19
22
1.4 25
28
31
0.9 33
36
39
42
0.4
44
0 20 40 60 80 100
47
Load Signal (%)

Fig. 5.29 Desired transmission ratio

Table 5.21 Desired transmission ratio data

(a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c)
0 0 2.9 6 0 1.8 11 0 1.2 17 0 0.8 22 0 0.6
0 25 2.9 6 25 2.1 11 25 1.0 17 25 0.9 22 25 0.7
0 50 2.9 6 50 2.4 11 50 1.1 17 50 1.0 22 50 0.8
0 75 2.9 6 75 2.7 11 75 1.3 17 75 1.1 22 75 0.8
0 100 2.9 6 100 2.9 11 100 1.7 17 100 1.2 22 100 0.9
3 0 2.4 8 0 1.2 14 0 1.0 19 0 0.7 25 0 0.5
3 25 2.9 8 25 1.5 14 25 1.1 19 25 0.8 25 25 0.6
3 50 2.9 8 50 1.7 14 50 1.2 19 50 0.9 25 50 0.7
3 75 2.9 8 75 2.0 14 75 1.3 19 75 1.0 25 75 0.7
3 100 2.9 8 100 2.2 14 100 1.4 19 100 1.0 25 100 0.8
(a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c)
28 0 0.6 33 0 0.5 39 0 0.5 44 0 0.5
28 25 0.6 33 25 0.5 39 25 0.5 44 25 0.5
28 50 0.7 33 50 0.6 39 50 0.6 44 50 0.5
28 75 0.7 33 75 0.6 39 75 0.6 44 75 0.5
28 100 0.7 33 100 0.7 39 100 0.6 44 100 0.5
31 0 0.6 36 0 0.5 42 0 0.5 47 0 0.5
31 25 0.6 36 25 0.5 42 25 0.5 47 25 0.5
31 50 0.6 36 50 0.6 42 50 0.5 47 50 0.5
31 75 0.6 36 75 0.6 42 75 0.5 47 75 0.5
31 100 0.7 36 100 0.7 42 100 0.6 47 100 0.5
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 313

100
Velocity
90 (km/h)
80
Clutch Release (%)

70 0
10
60
20
50
30
40 40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Load Signal (%)

Fig. 5.30 Desired clutch release

Table 5.22 Desired clutch release data

(a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c)
0 0 100 20 0 0 40 0 0 100 0 0 150 0 0
0 25 75 20 25 5 40 100 0 100 100 0 150 100 0
0 50 60 20 50 10 50 0 0 110 0 0 160 0 0
0 75 40 20 75 20 50 100 0 110 100 0 160 100 0
0 100 25 20 100 25 60 0 0 120 0 0 170 0 0
10 0 0 30 0 0 60 100 0 120 100 0 170 100 0
10 25 20 30 25 0 80 0 0 130 0 0 – – –
10 50 40 30 50 0 80 100 0 130 100 0 – – –
10 75 60 30 75 2.5 90 0 0 140 0 0 – – –
10 100 80 30 100 7.5 90 100 0 140 100 0 – – –

Double click on the battery H icon and enter the following data (Table 5.23).
The resistance is constructed in a way that a big part of the complex processes
within the battery are taken into consideration. 2 RC elements which describe the
concentration overvoltage and the transfer overvoltage can be added optionally.
The thermal behavior of the battery H is described by a thermal substitution
model. The warming caused by the losses inside the battery H and the cooling
caused by convection is taken into consideration.
Single cells can be modelled as well as any combination of cells. Therefore, the
user can construct any desired model.
The idle voltage—charge (b) is the idle voltage of one cell in charge mode.
There is no electrical consumer; it is a function of the State of Charge SOC (a)
(Fig. 5.32 and Table 5.24).
314 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.31 Battery H input data specifications window

Table 5.23 Battery H input Name Value Unit

data
Maximum Charge 25,000 As
Nominal Voltage 160.00 V
Maximum Voltage 175.00 V
Initial Charge 92.00 %
Minimum Voltage 145.0 V
Number of Cells per Cell-Row 1.000 –
Number of Cell-Row 1.000 –
Operating Temperature 25.00 °C
Mass of a Cell 0.200 kg
Specific Heat Transition 250.0 W/K
Specific Heat Capacity 1000 J/kg K
Internal Resistance 0.600 Ω

The Idle voltage—discharge (b) of one cell is the voltage without an electrical
consumer, there is no flow of current, and it is a function of the State of Charge
SOC (a) (Fig. 5.33 and Table 5.25).
MATLAB® DLL (19) Engineering Measurement System (EMS) interface
allows to integrate controllers and/or mechanical elements, such as special drives,
which have been created using MATLAB®/Simulink™, into the computational
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 315

Fig. 5.32 Idle voltage charge 170

165

160

Voltage (V)
155

150

145
0 20 40 60 80 100
State of Charge (%)

Table 5.24 Idle voltage—charge data

State of Charge (%) Voltage (V) State of Charge (%) Voltage (V)
0 145 80 157
20 150 90 159
40 153 95 163
60 155 100 170

Fig. 5.33 Idle voltage 170

discharge
165
Voltage (V)

160

155

150

145
0 20 40 60 80 100
State of Charge (%)

model of AVL CRUISE. If an element is created and parameterized under

Simulink™, it will be compiled to a so-called Dynamic Link Library (DLL) under
Windows. These files will be integrated into AVL CRUISE. The advantage of this
316 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 5.25 Idle voltage—discharge data

State of Charge (%) Voltage (V) State of Charge (%) Voltage (V)
0 145 80 157
20 150 90 159
40 153 95 163
60 155 100 170

procedure is that AVL CRUISE itself does not need to be compiled again if
MATLAB®/Simulink™ modules are to be integrated (Fig. 5.34) [2].
The input and output variables will be transferred by means of in-ports and out-
ports. These ports create the interface to the MATLAB® module and are available at
the AVL CRUISE Data Bus.
The compiled DLL file will be loaded from folder: project/version/userdata/
_CRUISE_R121_ctrl_3_DLL.dll.
The input values are transferred to the MATLAB® function. From the module,
the results are received and input to the output channels (Table 5.26).
The Delta Torque Combustion Engine (20) component is a function used to
calculate with user-defined functions, in this case the adaption of the acceleration
pedal for the IC Engine with Integrated Starter Generator (ISG).
The Integrated Starter Generator (ISG) merges both the conventional starter and
generator of an automobile in a single electric device. The ISG produces electric
power when the vehicle is running, which is used to supply electric devices and to
charge the battery.
The ISG can help to decelerate the vehicle by generating electric power, which is
called regenerative braking. The electric power generated charges the battery,
reducing fuel consumption. If a clutch disconnects the ISG and the compressor
from the engine during the idle stop, the ISG can drive the air-conditioning com-
pressor via a belt [2].

Fig. 5.34 MATLAB® DLL input data specifications window

5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 317

Table 5.26 Description of Data Bus

Data Bus Channel Description Unit Connection Decouple
Inport 0 Engine Speed rad/s Optional 0
Inport 1 Torque behind Flywheel Nm Optional 0
Inport 2 Load Signal – Optional 0
Inport 3 Brake Pressure Pa Optional 0
Inport 4 Velocity m/s Optional 0
Inport 5 Battery Charge As Optional 0
Inport 6 Start Switch – Optional 0
Inport 7 Current Transmission Ratio – Optional 0
Inport 8 Actual Clutch Release – Optional 0
Inport 9 Current A Optional 0
Outport 0 Start Switch – Optional 0
Outport 1 Load Signal—EMS – Optional 0
Outport 2 Load Signal – Optional 0
Outport 3 Brake Pressure—EMS Pa Optional 0

To define component input data double click on the delta torque combustion
engine icon and enter the following data for function (Fig. 5.35), and for description
of Data Bus (Table 5.27).
The Delta Torque Brake (21) component is a function used to calculate (with
user-defined functions), the adaption brake pedal for mechanical brake with ISG.

Fig. 5.35 Delta torque combustion engine input data specifications window
318 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 5.27 Description of Data Bus

Data Bus Channel Description Unit Connection Decouple
a[0] Load Signal—Cockpit – Optional 0
a[1] Load Signal—EMS – Optional 0
y[0] Load Signal – Optional 0

To define component input data double click on the delta torque brake icon and
enter the following data for function (Fig. 5.36), and for description of Data Bus
(Table 5.28).
The Total Torque (22) component is a function used to calculate with
user-defined functions, the summation of torque from IC Engine and ISG. To define
component input data double click on the total torque icon and enter the following
data for function (Fig. 5.37), and for description of Data Bus (Table 5.29).

Fig. 5.36 Delta torque brake input data specifications window

Table 5.28 Description of Data Bus

Data Bus Channel Description Unit Connection Decouple
a[0] Brake Pressure—Cockpit Pa Optional 0
a[1] Brake Pressure—EMS Pa Optional 0
y[0] Brake Pressure Pa Optional 0
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 319

Fig. 5.37 Total torque input data specifications window

Table 5.29 Description of Data Bus

Data Bus Channel Description Unit Connection Decouple
a[0] Torque Nm Optional 0
a[1] Torque behind Flywheel Nm Optional 0
y[0] Torque Nm Optional 0

The Monitor component (23) can be introduced, if the calculation run must be
detected.
It is possible to show some results of the calculation while the calculation is
running. This is done via the online monitor. It is possible to connect up to ten input
channels of the monitor to output channels of different components that are
available at the AVL CRUISE—Data Bus [2].
Click on the description of Data Bus tab and open the following dialog. To select
a Data Bus channel, click to access at the available list. Enter the text for the
description and then click on to select the unit (Table 5.30).

Table 5.30 Description of Data Bus Channel Description Unit

Data Bus
Input 0 Vehicle Acceleration m/s2
Input 1 Vehicle Velocity km/h
Input 2 Vehicle Distance m
Input 3 Engine Load Signal –
Input 4 Engine Speed 1/min
320 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

5.1.2 Hybrid Planetary Gearbox Model

This chapter describes how to create and run the simulation for a hybrid FWD
model with planetary gearbox.
To place a component in the working area, click on the component group with
the left mouse button, move the mouse over the required component, and then click
and drag the component into the vehicle model area. Put the component with
release of the mouse button on the desired place.
Place the following components in the working area: Vehicle (1), IC Engine (2),
Final Drive (3), Vehicle Front Left (4), Vehicle Front Right (5), Vehicle Rear Left
(6), Vehicle Rear Right (7), Front Disk Brake (8), Rear Drum Brake (9), Rear Drum
Brake (10), Front Disk Brake (11), E-Machine (12), Generator (13), Differential
(14), Planetary Gearbox (15), Cockpit (16), ASC (17), Battery H (18), MATLAB®
DLL (19), and Monitor (20).
Arrange the components as shown in the following figure (Fig. 5.38) and con-
nect the components as specified in the diagram [1].
All the connections in the data bus for this model are described in Table 5.31.
The Vehicle (1) is one of the main objects in a model. This component contains
general data of the vehicle, such as nominal dimensions and weights.
To define component input data (Table 5.32) double click on the icon and select
edit to open the following window (Fig. 5.39).
IC Engine (2) component contains a model for an internal combustion engine.
To define component input data (Table 5.33) double click on the icon and select
edit to open the following window (Fig. 5.40).

Fig. 5.38 Complete hybrid FWD model with planetary gearbox

5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 321

Table 5.31 Data Bus connections

Component Requires Input Information Component Delivering Output Information
ASC Load Signal Cockpit Load Signal
Slip Signal Front Left Wheel Front Left Slip Signal
Slip Signal Front Right Wheel Front Right Slip Signal
Brake Front Disk Brake Pressure MATLAB® DLL Brake Pressure
Brake Rear Drum Brake Pressure MATLAB® DLL Brake Pressure
Brake Rear Drum Brake Pressure MATLAB® DLL Brake Pressure
Brake Front Disk Brake Pressure MATLAB® DLL Brake Pressure
Cockpit Gear Indicator E-Machine Operation Control
Operation Control 0 IC Engine Operation Control
Operation Control 1 E-Machine Operation Control
Operation Control 2 Generator Operation Control
Speed Single Ratio Input Speed
E-Machine Load Signal MATLAB® DLL Load Signal
Switch MATLAB® DLL Start Switch
Generator Load Signal MATLAB® DLL Load Signal
Switch MATLAB® DLL Start Switch
IC Engine Load Signal MATLAB® DLL Load Signal
Start Switch MATLAB® DLL Start Switch
MATLAB® DLL Signal Acceleration Cockpit Load Signal
Vehicle Velocity Cockpit Velocity
Battery Status Charge Battery H Battery Charge
IC Engine Torque IC Engine Torque Flywheel
Generator Torque Generator Torque
Generator Speed Generator Speed
E-Machine Speed E-Machine Speed
Brake Pressure Cockpit Brake Pressure
E-Machine Torque E-Machine Torque
IC Engine Speed IC Engine IC Engine Speed
Monitor Vehicle Acceleration Vehicle Acceleration
Vehicle Velocity Vehicle Velocity
Vehicle Distance Vehicle Distance
IC Engine Load Signal IC Engine Actual Load Signal
IC Engine Speed IC Engine IC Engine Speed

To load IC Engine characteristic click on the Full Load Characteristic tab

(Fig. 5.41). Select (kW) unit from the b column by pull-down menu. Add rows by
clicking on and enter the following data (Table 5.34).
322 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 5.32 Vehicle component input data

Name Value Unit
Gas Tank Volume 0.050 m3
Distance from Hitch to Front Axle 3000.0 mm
Height of Support Point at Bench Test 100.0 mm
Wheel Base 2500.0 mm
Distance of Gravity Center 980.0/990.0/1000.0 mm
empty/half/full
Height of Gravity Center 570.0/560.0/550.0 mm
empty/half/full
Height of Hitch empty/half/full 400.0/390.0/380.0 mm
Tire Inflation Pressure Front Axle 2.000 bar
Tire Inflation Pressure Rear Axle 2.200 bar
Curb Weight 1200.0 kg
Gross Weight 1600.0 kg
Frontal Area 1.750 m2
Drag Coefficient 0.300 –

Fig. 5.39 Vehicle input data specifications window

The Motoring Curve (Fig. 5.42) will be defined similar to the Full Load
Characteristic either as power dependent on the engine speeds (Table 5.35) [1].
At the Fuel Consumption Map (Fig. 5.43 and Table 5.36) the actual fuel con-
sumption for stationary operation is listed depending on the brake mean pressure
with the engine speed as parameter (a—speed (1/min), b—BMEP (bar), c—volume
flow (l/h)) [1].
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 323

Table 5.33 IC Engine Name Value Unit

component input data
Engine Type Gasoline –
Engine Charger Without –
Engine Displacement 1490.0 cm3
Engine Working Temperature 100.0 °C
Number of Cylinders 4.000 –
Number of Strokes 4.000 –
Idle Speed 900.0 1/min
Maximum Speed 4900.0 1/min
Inertia Moment 0.150 kg m2
Response Time 0.200 s
Heating Value for Gasoline 43500.0 kJ/kg
Fuel Density 0.750 kg/l
Specific Carbon Content 0.860 –

Fig. 5.40 IC Engine input data specifications window

Final Drive (3) or Single Ratio Transmission is a gear step with fixed ratio
(Fig. 5.44). It can be used as a transmission step of the differential [2].
To define component input data double click on the final drive icon and enter the
following data (Table 5.37).
The Wheels are: Vehicle Front Left (4), Vehicle Front Right (5), Vehicle Rear
Left (6), and Vehicle Rear Right (7) with the data defined in Table 5.38 and
Fig. 5.45.
324 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.41 Full Load 115

Characteristic
110

105

Torque (Nm)
100

95

90

85

80
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Speed (1/min)

Table 5.34 Full Load Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm) Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm)
Characteristic data
1000 80 3500 113
1500 90 4000 115
2000 98 4200 115
2500 104 4500 112
3000 109 4700 110

Fig. 5.42 Motoring Curve -5

-10

-15
Torque (Nm)

-20

-25

-30

-35

-40
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Speed (1/min)

Table 5.35 Motoring Curve Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm) Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm)
data
1000 −8.00 4500 −40.00

The Brake component is described by brake data and dimensions (Fig. 5.46 and
Table 5.39). It is possible to define drum brakes as well as disk brakes (Front Disk
Brake Right (8), Rear Drum Brake Left (9), Rear Drum Brake Right (10), and Front
Disk Brake Left (11)).
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 325

10.00 Engine
Speed
9.00 (1/min)

8.00
1000
Volume Flow (l/h)

7.00 1250
1500
6.00
1750
5.00 2000
2250
4.00
2500
3.00 2750
3000
2.00
3250
1.00 3500
4000
0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00
BMEP (bar)

Fig. 5.43 Fuel Consumption Map

Table 5.36 Fuel Consumption Map data

(a)
1000 (b) 0.72 1.42 2.86 3.56 4.28 5.70 6.42 7.14 7.84 8.56
(c) 0.54 0.71 1.05 1.22 1.39 1.73 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90
1500 (b) 0.72 1.42 2.86 3.56 4.28 5.70 6.42 7.14 7.84 8.56
(c) 0.77 1.03 1.53 1.79 2.04 2.55 2.81 2.93 2.93 2.93
1750 (b) 0.72 1.42 2.86 3.56 4.28 5.70 6.42 7.14 7.84 8.56
(c) 0.88 1.18 1.77 2.07 2.37 2.96 3.25 3.48 3.48 3.48
2000 (b) 0.72 1.42 2.86 3.56 4.28 5.70 6.42 7.14 7.84 8.56
(c) 0.99 1.33 2.01 2.35 2.69 3.37 3.70 4.04 4.04 4.04
2500 (b) 0.72 1.42 2.86 3.56 4.28 5.70 6.42 7.14 7.84 8.56
(c) 1.23 1.65 2.50 2.92 3.34 4.19 4.62 5.04 5.25 5.25
2750 (b) 0.72 1.42 2.86 3.56 4.28 5.70 6.42 7.14 7.84 8.56
(c) 1.36 1.82 2.76 3.22 3.69 4.62 5.09 5.55 5.90 5.90
3000 (b) 0.72 1.42 2.86 3.56 4.28 5.70 6.42 7.14 7.84 8.56
(c) 1.51 2.02 3.04 3.55 4.05 5.07 5.58 6.09 6.60 6.60
3500 (b) 0.72 1.42 2.86 3.56 4.28 5.70 6.42 7.14 7.84 8.56
(c) 1.90 2.50 3.68 4.28 4.87 6.06 6.65 7.24 7.84 8.13
4000 (b) 0.72 1.42 2.86 3.56 4.28 5.70 6.42 7.14 7.84 8.56
(c) 2.44 3.12 4.48 5.16 5.83 7.19 7.87 8.54 9.22 9.90
326 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.44 Final Drive input data specifications window

Table 5.37 Final Drive input Name Value Unit

data
Transmission Ratio 4.0000 –
Inertia Moment In 0.0015 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out 0.0015 kg m2

Table 5.38 Wheels input Name Value Unit

data
Wheel Inertia Moment 0.850 kg m2
Friction Coefficient of Tire 0.950 –
Reference Wheel Load 2500 N
Wheel Load Correction Coefficient 0.020 –
Static Rolling Radius 290.00 mm
Circumference 1822.12 mm
Dynamic Rolling Radius 295.00 mm
Circumference 1853.54 mm
Friction Coefficient of Road 1.050 –
Slip at Maximum Traction 12.50 %
Specific Traction at Infinite Slip 78.00 %
Rolling Resistance Factor 0.900 %

E-Machine (12) characteristic map for the efficiency is used to calculate the loss
of power. Double click on the e-machine icon and enter the following data
(Fig. 5.47 and Table 5.40).
The value of the voltage level should be entered at which the following char-
acteristic maps of the machine have been measured (U1 = 280 V).
The maximum mechanical (power) torque (Table 5.41 and Fig. 5.48) is defined
as a function of the machine speed (a—speed (1/min), b—torque (Nm)).
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 327

Fig. 5.45 Wheels input data specifications window

Fig. 5.46 Brake input data specifications window

Table 5.39 Brakes input data

Name Value Value Value Value Unit
Brake Front Right Rear Right Front Left Rear –
Left
Piston Surface 2500.0 900.0 2500.0 900.0 mm2
Specific Factor 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 –
Efficiency 0.990 0.990 0.990 0.990 –
Inertia Moment 0.020 0.015 0.020 0.015 kg m2
Friction Coefficient 0.250 0.250 0.250 0.250 –
Friction Radius 100 120 100 120 mm
328 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.47 E-Machine input data specifications window

Table 5.40 E-Machine input data

Name Value Unit
Type of Machine PSM –
Characteristic Maps and Curves Motor-related –
Nominal Voltage 280.0 V
Inertia Moment 0.025 kg m2
Maximum Current—Motor 120.0 A
Mass of Machine 50.00 kg
Initial Temperature 70.00 °C
Specific Heat Transition 2200 W/K
Layout Temperature 70.00 °C
Maximum Speed 6000 1/min
Drag Torque at Maximum Speed −10.00 Nm
Maximum Current—Generator 300.0 A
Thermal Time Constant of Max Speed 1.000 s
Maximum Temperature 90.00 °C
Specific Heat Capacity 430.0 J/kg K
Temperature Coefficient of Remanence Induction −0.002 1/K
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 329

Table 5.41 Maximum Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm)

mechanical torque data
0 305
500 305
1000 280
1500 192
2000 144
2500 115
3000 96
3500 82
4000 72
4500 65
6000 48

Fig. 5.48 Maximum 320

mechanical torque
280

240
Torque (Nm)

200

160

120

80

40
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (1/min)

The efficiency map (Fig. 5.49 and Table 5.42) is defined dependent on a—speed
(1/min), b—power (kW), and c—efficiency (%) [1].
The Generator (13) must supply the vehicle electrical system with a sufficient
current under all operating conditions in order to ensure that the state of charge in
the engine storage device is consistently maintained at an adequate level [2].
Double click on the generator icon and enter the following data (Fig. 5.50 and
Table 5.43).
The maximum mechanical (power) torque (Fig. 5.51 and Table 5.44) is defined
as a function of the machine speed (a—speed (1/min), b—torque (Nm)).
The alternator systems are designed to supply charge voltages of 14 V (with
28 V for heavy utility vehicles) in order to maintain an adequate charge in 12 V (or
24 V) batteries.
The current delivered by the generator results from a map dependent on the
speed and the main voltage. By considering the internal resistance, the
330 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

100
Engine
95 Speed
(1/min)
90
500
Efficiency (Nm)

85 1000
80 1500
2000
75
2500
70 3000
65 3500
4000
60
4500
55

50
0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00
Power (kW)

Fig. 5.49 Efficiency map

Table 5.42 Efficiency map data

(a)
500 (b) 0.26 1.83 3.40 4.97 6.54 9.69 12.8 14.4 15.9
(c) 82.7 85.5 80.6 76.0 72.2 64.6 58.9 56.1 53.2
1000 (b) 0.52 3.67 6.81 9.95 13.1 16.2 19.4 25.7 31.9
(c) 80.7 89.3 86.5 84.6 81.7 78.9 76.9 72.2 68.4
1500 (b) 0.79 5.50 10.2 14.9 19.6 24.4 29.1 38.5 47.9
(c) 78.9 89.3 88.4 87.4 85.5 83.6 81.7 72.2 68.4
2000 (b) 1.05 7.33 13.6 19.9 26.2 32.5 45.0 57.6 63.9
(c) 77.9 90.3 90.3 88.4 87.4 83.6 74.1 70.3 68.4
2500 (b) 1.31 9.16 17.0 24.9 32.7 48.4 56.3 64.1 79.9
(c) 76.9 90.3 90.3 89.3 87.4 81.7 74.1 72.2 68.4
3000 (b) 1.57 11.0 20.42 39.27 48.7 58.1 76.9 86.4 95.8
(c) 76.9 90.3 91.2 87.4 83.6 81.7 72.2 70.3 68.4
3500 (b) 1.83 12.83 23.8 45.8 56.8 78.8 89.8 100 111
(c) 76.0 90.3 91.2 87.4 83.6 74.1 72.2 70.3 68.4
4000 (b) 2.09 14.7 27.3 52.4 64.9 77.5 102 115 128
(c) 76.0 90.2 90.3 87.4 83.6 81.7 72.2 70.3 68.4
4500 (b) 2.36 16.5 30.6 58.9 73.0 87.2 115 129 144
(c) 75.1 90.3 90.3 87.4 83.6 81.7 72.2 70.3 68.4
6000 (b) 3.14 21.9 40.8 78.5 97.4 116 154 173 191
(c) 75.1 90.3 90.3 87.4 83.6 81.7 72.2 70.3 68.4
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 331

Fig. 5.50 Generator input data specifications window

Table 5.43 Generator input Name Value Unit

data
Nominal Voltage 280.0 V
Inertia Moment 0.025 kg m2
Maximum Current—Motor 120.0 A
Mass of Machine 30.00 kg
Initial Temperature 70.00 °C
Specific Heat Transition 2200 W/K
Layout Temperature 70.00 °C
Maximum Speed 8000 1/min
Drag Torque at Maximum Speed 0.000 Nm
Maximum Current—Generator 300.0 A
Thermal Time Constant of Max Speed 1.000 s
Maximum Temperature 95.00 °C
Specific Heat Capacity 430.0 J/kg K
Coefficient of Remanence Induction −0.002 1/K

instantaneous current consumption helps to acquire the torque absorbed by the

generator with the corresponding moments of loss [2].
The efficiency map (Fig. 5.52 and Table 5.45) is defined dependent on a—speed
(1/min), b—power (kW) and efficiency (%).
The Differential (14) is a particular type of simple planetary gear train that has
the property that the angular velocity of its carrier is the average of the angular
332 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

60

40

20
Torque (Nm)

0
-7000 -5250 -3500 -1750 0 1750 3500 5250 7000

-20

-40

-60
Speed (1/min)

Fig. 5.51 Maximum mechanical torque

Table 5.44 Maximum mechanical torque data

Speed Torque Speed Torque Speed Torque Speed Torque
(1/min) (Nm) (1/min) (Nm) (1/min) (Nm) (1/min) (Nm)
0 55 0 −55 −7000 −20 −7000 20
500 55 500 −55 −5500 −26 −5500 26
1000 55 1000 −55 −4000 −36 −4000 36
1500 55 1500 −55 −3500 −41 −3500 41
2000 55 2000 −55 −3000 −48 −3000 48
2500 55 2500 −55 −2500 −55 −2500 55
3000 48 3000 −48 −2000 −55 −2000 55
3500 41 3500 −41 −1500 −55 −1500 55
4000 36 4000 −36 −1000 −55 −1000 55
5500 26 5500 −26 −500 −55 −500 55
7000 20 7000 −20 0 −55 0 55

velocities of its sun and annular gears. To define component input data double click
on the differential icon and enter the following data (Fig. 5.53 and Table 5.46).
The Kinematic Chain Browser can be launched in the pop-up menu of a selected
component (Fig. 5.54—E-Machine, Fig. 5.55—IC Engine).
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 333

90
Speed
(1/min)
85 -4000
-3500
-3000
80
-2500
Efficiency (%)

-2000
75 -1500
-1000
-500
70 500
1000
1500
65
2000
2500
60 3000
3500
4000
55 5500
-32 -24 -16 -8 0 8 16 24 32
Power (kW)

Fig. 5.52 Efficiency map

The Cockpit (16) links the driver and the vehicle. In this component connections
are only made via the Data Bus. The pedal positions are transferred into corre-
sponding indicators via the pedal characteristics (Table 5.47).
To define the input data click on the acceleration pedal characteristic (a—
acceleration pedal travel (%), b—load signal (%)) and brake pedal characteristic (a
—specific brake pedal force (%), b—brake pressure (bar)) tabs and enter the fol-
lowing data for all (Fig. 5.56).
The ASC Anti-Slip Control (17) checks the force transmission factor of all
connected wheels (Fig. 5.57). The Anti-Slip Control is only active when a model is
calculated quasi-stationary in combination with special drive train configurations
and does not require data entry [2].
If the Anti-Slip Control should be used for calculations in simulation mode, this
switch can be activated. In this case the parameters for the PID controller can be set
(proportional—1 (−), differential—0 (s), and integral parameter—1 (1/s)).
The Battery H (18) component is used to simulate hybrid vehicles (Fig. 5.58).
Double click on the battery H icon and enter the following data (Table 5.48).
The idle voltage—charge (b) is a function of the State of Charge SOC
(a) (Fig. 5.59 and Table 5.49), and the idle voltage—discharge (b) is a function of
the SOC (a) (Fig. 5.60 and Table 5.50).
334 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 5.45 Efficiency map data

(a)
−4000 (b) 2 6 11 19 23 −23 −19 −11 −6 −2
(c) 75 85 87 84 83 83 84 87 85 75
−3500 (b) 2 6 9 16 20 −20 −16 −9 −6 −2
(c) 76 85 86 83 82 82 83 86 85 76
−3000 (b) 2 5 8 14 17 −17 −14 −8 −5 −2
(c) 77 86 85 82 80 80 82 85 86 77
−2500 (b) 1 4 7 11 14 −14 −11 −7 −4 −1
(c) 78 85 84 81 79 79 81 84 85 78
−2000 (b) 1 3 7 9 11 −11 −9 −7 −3 −1
(c) 77 84 81 78 76 76 78 81 84 77
−1500 (b) 1 2 4 6 9 −9 −6 −4 −2 −1
(c) 78 82 80 77 72 72 77 80 82 78
−1000 (b) 1 2 3 4 6 −6 −4 −3 −2 −1
(c) 77 80 76 72 64 64 72 76 80 77
−500 (b) 0 1 2 2 3 −3 −2 −2 −1 0
(c) 76 65 59 54 49 49 54 59 65 76
500 (b) 0 1 2 2 3 −3 −2 2 −1 0
(c) 76 66 60 54 50 50 54 60 66 76
1000 (b) 1 2 3 4 5 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
(c) 77 80 76 72 68 68 72 76 80 77
1500 (b) 1 2 4 7 8 −8 −7 −4 −2 −1
(c) 78 83 81 75 72 72 75 81 83 78
2000 (b) 1 3 5 9 11 −11 −9 −5 −3 −1
(c) 78 85 83 81 76 76 81 83 85 78
2500 (b) 1 4 7 11 14 −14 −11 −7 −4 −1
(c) 77 85 84 80 78 78 80 84 85 77
3000 (b) 2 5 8 14 17 −17 −14 −8 −5 −2
(c) 76 86 85 82 80 80 82 85 86 76
3500 (b) 5 9 13 16 20 −20 −16 −13 −9 −5
(c) 85 86 86 83 82 82 83 86 86 85
4000 (b) 6 10 15 19 23 −23 −19 −15 −10 −6
(c) 86 87 85 84 83 83 84 85 87 86
5500 (b) 9 15 20 24 31 −31 −24 −20 −15 −9
(c) 85 87 86 84 83 83 84 86 87 85

MATLAB® DLL (19) interface allows to integrate controllers or also

mechanical elements, such as special drives, which have been created using
MATLAB®/Simulink™ into the computational model of AVL CRUISE (Fig. 5.61).
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 335

Fig. 5.53 Differential input data specifications window

Table 5.46 Differential input Name Value Unit

data
Differential Lock Unlocked –
Torque Split Factor 1.000 –
Inertia Moment In 3.0e−4 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out1 3.0e−4 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out2 3.0e−4 kg m2

Fig. 5.54 Kinematic Chain Browser E-Machine

The compiled DLL file will be loaded from folder: project/version/userdata/

_MatLab_Controller.dll. The input values are transferred to the MATLAB® func-
tion [2]. The results are received and input to the output channels (Table 5.51).
The Monitor (20) can be introduced, if the calculation run must be detected
(Fig. 5.62). It is possible to show some results of the calculation while the calcu-
lation is running. This is done via the online monitor. It is possible to connect up to
336 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.55 Kinematic Chain Browser IC Engine

Table 5.47 Cockpit input Name Value Unit

data
Shift Mode Automatic –
Number of Gears Forward 1.00 –
Number of Gears Back 0.00 –
Maximum Brake Force 100.0 N
Brake Light Switch Threshold 1.0.0 %
Number of Retarder Steps 0.00 –

100
90
80
Load Signal (%)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Acceleration Pedal Travel (%)

Fig. 5.56 Pedal characteristic

5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 337

Fig. 5.57 ASC Anti-Slip Control input data specifications window

Fig. 5.58 Battery H input data specifications window

ten input channels of the monitor to output channels of different components that
are available at the AVL CRUISE—Data Bus [2].
Click on the description of Data Bus tab and open the following dialog. To select
a Data Bus channel, click to access at the available list. Enter the text for the
description and then click on to select the unit (Table 5.52).
338 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 5.48 Battery H input data

Name Value Unit
Maximum Charge 6.5 Ah
Nominal Voltage 7.2 V
Maximum Voltage 9.0 V
Initial Charge 65 %
Minimum Voltage 6 V
Number of Cells per Cell-Row 40 –
Number of Cell-Row 1 –
Operating Temperature 25 °C
Mass of a Cell 1 kg
Specific Heat Transition 0.7 W/K
Specific Heat Capacity 800 J/kg K
Internal Resistance 0.02 Ω

Fig. 5.59 Idle voltage charge 8.40

8.20
Voltage (V)

8.00

7.80

7.60

7.40

7.20
0 20 40 60 80 100
State of Charge (%)

Table 5.49 Idle voltage—charge data

State of Charge (%) Voltage (V) State of Charge (%) Voltage (V)
0 7.23 60 7.73
10 7.40 70 7.77
20 7.51 80 7.81
30 7.59 90 7.91
40 7.65 100 8.36
50 7.69 – –
5.1 Hybrid Vehicle Model Creation 339

8.40

8.20

Voltage (V) 8.00

7.80

7.60

7.40

7.20
0 20 40 60 80 100
State of Discharge (%)

Fig. 5.60 Idle voltage discharge

Table 5.50 Idle voltage—discharge data

State of Charge (%) Voltage (V) State of Charge (%) Voltage (V)
0 7.23 60 7.73
10 7.40 70 7.77
20 7.51 80 7.81
30 7.59 90 7.91
40 7.65 100 8.36
50 7.69 – –

Fig. 5.61 MATLAB® DLL

340 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 5.51 Description of Data Bus

Data Bus Channel Description Unit Connection Decouple
Inport 0 Load Signal (Acceleration) – Optional 0
Inport 1 Vehicle Velocity m/s Optional 0
Inport 2 Battery State of Charge (SOC) As Optional 0
Inport 3 IC Engine Torque Nm Optional 0
Inport 4 Generator Torque Nm Optional 0
Inport 5 Generator Speed rad/s Optional 0
Inport 6 Electric Motor Speed rad/s Optional 0
Inport 7 Brake Pressure bar Optional 0
Inport 8 Electric Motor Torque Nm Optional 0
Inport 9 IC Engine Speed rad/s Optional 0
Inport 10 Electric Motor Current A Optional 0
Inport 11 Electric Motor Voltage V Optional 0
Inport 12 Alternator Current A Optional 0
Inport 13 Alternator Voltage V Optional 0
Inport 14 Battery Current A Optional 0
Inport 0 Load Signal (Acceleration) – Optional 0
Inport 1 Vehicle Velocity m/s Optional 0
Inport 2 Battery State of Charge (SOC) As Optional 0
Inport 3 IC Engine Torque Nm Optional 0
Inport 4 Generator Torque Nm Optional 0
Inport 5 Generator Speed rad/s Optional 0
Inport 6 Electric Motor Speed rad/s Optional 0
Inport 7 Brake Pressure bar Optional 0
Inport 0 Load Signal (Acceleration) – Optional 0

Fig. 5.62 Monitor

Table 5.52 Description of Data Bus Channel Description Unit

Data Bus
Input 0 Vehicle Acceleration m/s2
Input 1 Vehicle Velocity km/h
Input 2 Vehicle Distance m
Input 3 Engine Load Signal –
Input 4 Engine Speed 1/min
5.2 Run Simulation 341

5.2 Run Simulation

5.2.1 Result Manager

To run a simulation for each model, there are five different options for calculation
[2]:
• Single Calculation is a regular calculation with the input data supplied in the
components. Output of result defines which components result will be written
and available in the Result Manager.
• Matrix Calculation is used for multiple calculations and to evaluate the effect of
varying the values of input parameters on vehicle performance, consumption,
and emissions. The results can be viewed for each varied calculation.
• Component Variation is used for multiple calculations and the calculation
consists of sub-calculations in which components are replaced by components
of the same type. The results can be viewed in the Result Manager.
• System Variation is used for multiple calculations from a list of all the model’s
systems. The results can be viewed similar to Component Variation.
• Batch Calculation is used for calculations of series of different projects, either
Single Calculation, Matrix Calculation with DoE option and Component
Variation with DoE option.
To run the calculation in the Desk Area click on Calculation Center or click on
AVL blue button in the upper right corner (Fig. 5.63). Click on to “Start
Calculation” button to run the simulation.
After the simulations are complete click on the Result Manager in the Navigation
Frame (Fig. 5.64) and expand the task of which the results should be viewed. The
selected object is shown in the right section of the window.
Project information can be viewed in the main window by selecting info in the
tree structure or by double clicking info in the right window. The window shows
general information: project name, author, vehicle model, drivetrain model, date
and state (regarding errors), then the tree structure of the folder with defined
Calculation Tasks (different status for run or not run is shown using blue/gray
color). The picture of the Vehicle Model is also displayed.
One output file is produced for each component in the Vehicle Model and each
Calculation Task. Data for diagrams are extracted from these files and are shown as
Energy Flow Graphics, presentation diagrams for belonging task and standard
diagrams for used components.
In the tree structure of the Result Manager all defined Calculation Task folders
are shown separately for each task. Those folders with results are shown in color;
tasks which are not run are gray. Files of the each Calculation Task are located
inside the respective folder. In Result Manager, all components are listed where
results have been written in pages mode or data sources mode (Fig. 5.65).
The result output for components is selected with output in the properties
window of the respective component. Select as defined in module for output of
342 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.63 Start calculation

Fig. 5.64 Result Manager window

5.2 Run Simulation 343

Fig. 5.65 Result Manager pages mode

results in the folder of the corresponding calculation task. There are two types of
result outputs available with the Result Manager: standard diagrams and
presentation diagrams.
Standard diagrams (Fig. 5.66) are created separately for each component and
only contain results of the individual component and represent time histories of the
single components.
They have a predefined representation page, which can only be changed in some
parts. Standard diagrams are opened by selecting the respective calculation task in
the tree structure of Result Manager and then selecting the corresponding
component.
The pages mode sidebar is divided into a list of predefined standard diagram
pages for the respective component and TeimView Assistant with a tree structure of
components with all available curves and the current parameter for current diagram
of respective component with the list of all used curves. TeimView has two mode
tabs: pages and data sources. Pages are used to view results as curves in standard
diagram and data sources in tables as numerical data for the respective component
for analyzing and extracting [2].
The data sources mode sidebar (Fig. 5.67) has a tree structure where the data
source, data file, and table are shown. In data source view is a list of all curve data
that can be shown.
Energy Flow Graphics feature can be selected in the Result Manager (Fig. 5.68).
An animation shows the flow between the drivetrain components over time of the
344 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.66 Standard diagrams

Fig. 5.67 Result Manager data sources mode

5.2 Run Simulation 345

Fig. 5.68 Energy Flow Graphics

following parameters: Current (A), Energy Stored (kJ), Energy (kJ), Power (kW),
Speed (1/min), Velocity (km/h), Torque (Nm), Force (N), Voltage (V).
The animation can be controlled by appropriate switches (play, pause, stepwise,
stop, repeat, velocity). A time bar, showing the actual simulation time, can be
moved to a certain time step with the mouse.
Below the Energy Flow Graphics a monitor is shown which displays the result
curves of selected components. With a zoom option, the horizontal direction can be
scaled so that long cycles can also be viewed properly.
In addition to the graphical representation, the associated values can also be
displayed in the monitor as well as in the drivetrain flow graphics.
The values of the Energy Flow Graphics can also be displayed in a pie chart.
Clicking the button EFG pie chart opens an area where the segments can be
added or removed with the buttons “+” and “−”.
The association between a segment and a component parameter can be done by
marking the segment in the segment list and then doing a left mouse click on a
346 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.69 EFG pie chart

so-called connector of the component (Fig. 5.69). Several connectors can be chosen
for one segment. In that case, the segment represents the sum of all associated
values. The segment list consists of the absolute segment values as well as of the
values in terms of percentages [2].
The task of the mode trimap is to construct a 3D surface and describe it by
iso-lines. The input data which is data of 3D points is projected into the x-y-surface
and are triangulated (in 2D). The iso-lines are created by an intersection list
(Fig. 5.70).

5.2.2 Standard Diagrams

To evaluate the fuel economy characteristics of the IC Engine motored bus was
running a typical NEDC cycle (Fig. 5.71). The total distance of this cycle is
10.931 m, the total time is 1180 s, idle standing time is 267 s, average speed
including stops is 33.35 km/h, average driving speed excluding stops is 43.10 km/h,
average acceleration is 0.506 m/s2, and maximum acceleration is 1.042 m/s2.
The statistical percentages of IC Engine operating region are found in conden-
sation map and are show in Fig. 5.72. Driving time distribution in consumption map
is show in Fig. 5.73.
The fuel consumption of all engines can be evaluated overall, and at idle speed,
acceleration, constant ad deceleration as shown in Fig. 5.74, the electrical power,
maximum power out and maximum power input are shown in Fig. 5.75 and for the
5.2 Run Simulation 347

Fig. 5.70 Trimap diagram

Fig. 5.71 NEDC typical cycle

hybrid version also the charge, voltage, current, and State of Charge (SOC) are
important to monitor (Fig. 5.76).
During the test cycle, the electrical power and power loss are also monitored
(Fig. 5.77), and in Fig. 5.78 the total output and total input energy variation can be
seen. The clutch and brake travel are shown in Fig. 5.79, and in Fig. 5.80 the brake
pedal travel is correlated to the power of all brakes, also for the braking, in
348 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.72 Statistical percentages of engine operating region

Fig. 5.81, the braking torque and braking power are shown with the vehicle speed.
The raw emissions are shown in Fig. 5.82, while the speed input and output are
shown in Fig. 5.83.
5.2 Run Simulation 349

Fig. 5.73 Driving time distribution in consumption map

Fig. 5.74 All engine fuel consumptions

Rotational acceleration input and output (Fig. 5.84), clutch torque and maximum
torque (Fig. 5.85); acceleration, velocity, and distance (Fig. 5.86), load signal, brake
pressure, and clutch release (Fig. 5.87); operation control and speed (Fig. 5.88);
desired gear and current gear (Fig. 5.89) are all automatically generated graphs.
350 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.75 Electrical power, maximum power output, and maximum power input evaluation

Fig. 5.76 Charge, voltage, current, and State of Charge (SOC) monitoring

The real time, current gear, and velocity are shown in Fig. 5.90; speed input and
output in Fig. 5.91, torque input, output, and loss in Fig. 5.92, torque loss and
efficiency in Fig. 5.93, desired transmission ratio and transmission ratio in Fig. 5.94,
input and output speeds in Fig. 5.95, torque inputs and outputs in Fig. 5.96, torque,
5.2 Run Simulation 351

Fig. 5.77 Electrical power and power loss

Fig. 5.78 Total output and total input energy variation

speed, and mechanical power in Fig. 5.97, load signal, desired torque, and start
switch in Fig. 5.98.
From the electric motor, the voltage and current (Fig. 5.99) can be extracted, but
also: status overvoltage, operating mode, and operation control (Fig. 5.100), speed
352 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.79 Clutch and brake travel

Fig. 5.80 Brake pedal travel and power of all brakes

and rotational acceleration (Fig. 5.101), torque, maximum torque generator, and
maximum torque motor (Fig. 5.102), efficiency, electrical power, and power loss
(Fig. 5.103), total input and output energy (Fig. 5.104), engine torque, power, and
speed (Fig. 5.105), engine torque and mean effective pressure (Fig. 5.106), engine
5.2 Run Simulation 353

Fig. 5.81 Braking torque, braking power, and speed

Fig. 5.82 Raw NOx, CO, HC, and Soot emissions

activation, mean effective pressure, and fuel consumption (Fig. 5.107), engine
temperature and load signal (Fig. 5.108), HC, NOx, CO, and Soot emissions
(Fig. 5.109), engine rotational acceleration (Fig. 5.110), cold start factor and fuel
consumption (Fig. 5.111), power correction factor and engine torque (Fig. 5.112),
load signal, operator control and start switch (Fig. 5.113).
354 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.83 Speed input and output

Fig. 5.84 Rotational acceleration input and output

For all inputs and outputs, a specific graph can be made: brake pressure—
cockpit (Fig. 5.114), brake pressure—EMS (Fig. 5.115), brake pressure—output
(Fig. 5.116), load signal—cockpit (Fig. 5.117), load signal—EMS (Fig. 5.118),
load signal—output (Fig. 5.119), torque—input (Fig. 5.120), torque behind fly-
wheel (Fig. 5.121), velocity (Fig. 5.122), battery charge (Fig. 5.123).
5.2 Run Simulation 355

Fig. 5.85 Clutch torque and maximum torque

Fig. 5.86 Acceleration, velocity, and distance

Further inputs and outputs can generate the following graphs: current trans-
mission ratio (Fig. 5.124), actual clutch release (Fig. 5.125), current—input
(Fig. 5.126), load signal—EMS—output (Fig. 5.127), load signal—output
(Fig. 5.128), vehicle distance—input (Fig. 5.129), engine load signal—input
(Fig. 5.130), speed input and output (Fig. 5.131), efficiency and torque loss
356 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.87 Load signal, brake pressure, and clutch release

Fig. 5.88 Operation control and speed

(Fig. 5.132), air resistance force, resistance force, and traction force (Fig. 5.133),
wheel loads front (Fig. 5.134), wheel loads rear (Fig. 5.135), axle loads
(Fig. 5.136), speed and rotational acceleration (Fig. 5.137), friction coefficient and
friction coefficient exploit (Fig. 5.138), longitudinal force and slip (Fig. 5.139),
5.2 Run Simulation 357

Fig. 5.89 Desired gear and current gear

Fig. 5.90 The real time, current gear, and velocity

clutch pedal travel and acceleration pedal travel (Fig. 5.140), brake pedal travel and
acceleration pedal travel (Fig. 5.141), distance, velocity, and acceleration of the
vehicle (Fig. 5.142), electrical consumption and fuel consumption (Fig. 5.143), load
signal and vehicle acceleration (Fig. 5.144).
358 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.91 Speed input and output

Fig. 5.92 Torque input, output, and loss

5.2 Run Simulation 359

Fig. 5.93 Torque loss and efficiency

Fig. 5.94 Desired transmission ratio and transmission ratio

360 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.95 Input and output speeds

Fig. 5.96 Torque inputs and outputs

5.2 Run Simulation 361

Fig. 5.97 Torque, speed, and mechanical power

Fig. 5.98 Load signal, desired torque, and start switch

362 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.99 Motor voltage and current

Fig. 5.100 Status overvoltage, operating mode, and operation control

5.2 Run Simulation 363

Fig. 5.101 Speed and rotational acceleration

Fig. 5.102 Torque, maximum torque generator, and maximum torque motor
364 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.103 Efficiency, electrical power, and power loss

Fig. 5.104 Total input and output energy

5.2 Run Simulation 365

Fig. 5.105 Engine torque, power, and speed

Fig. 5.106 Engine torque and mean effective pressure

366 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.107 Engine activation, mean effective pressure, and fuel consumption

Fig. 5.108 Engine temperature and load signal

5.2 Run Simulation 367

Fig. 5.109 HC, NOx, CO, and Soot emissions

Fig. 5.110 Engine rotational acceleration

368 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.111 Cold start factor and fuel consumption

Fig. 5.112 Power correction factor and engine torque

5.2 Run Simulation 369

Fig. 5.113 Load signal, operator control, and start switch

Fig. 5.114 Brake pressure–cockpit

370 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.115 Brake pressure–EMS

Fig. 5.116 Brake pressure––output

5.2 Run Simulation 371

Fig. 5.117 Load signal–cockpit

Fig. 5.118 Load signal–EMS

372 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.119 Load signal––output

Fig. 5.120 Torque––input

5.2 Run Simulation 373

Fig. 5.121 Torque behind flywheel

Fig. 5.122 Velocity

374 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.123 Battery charge

Fig. 5.124 Current transmission ratio

5.2 Run Simulation 375

Fig. 5.125 Actual clutch release

Fig. 5.126 Current—input

376 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.127 Load signal–EMS––output

Fig. 5.128 Load signal––output

5.2 Run Simulation 377

Fig. 5.129 Vehicle distance––input

Fig. 5.130 Engine load signal––input

378 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.131 Speed input and output

Fig. 5.132 Efficiency and torque loss

5.2 Run Simulation 379

Fig. 5.133 Air resistance force, resistance force, and traction force

Fig. 5.134 Wheel loads front

380 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.135 Wheel loads rear

Fig. 5.136 Axle loads

5.2 Run Simulation 381

Fig. 5.137 Speed and rotational acceleration

Fig. 5.138 Friction coefficient and friction coefficient exploit

382 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.139 Longitudinal force and slip

Fig. 5.140 Clutch pedal travel and acceleration pedal travel

5.2 Run Simulation 383

Fig. 5.141 Brake pedal travel and acceleration pedal travel

Fig. 5.142 Distance, velocity, and acceleration of the vehicle

384 5 Hybrid Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 5.143 Electrical consumption and fuel consumption

Fig. 5.144 Load signal and vehicle acceleration

References 385

References

1. AVL Cruise (2011) Primer. AVL List GmbH, Graz, Austria, Document no. 04.0103.2011,
Edition 06.2011
2. AVL Cruise (2011) Users guide. AVL List GmbH, Graz, Austria, Document no. 04.0104.2011,
Edition 06.2011
3. AVL Cruise (2011) Gear shifting program (GSP). AVL List GmbH, Graz, Austria, Document
no. 04.0114.2011, Edition 06.2011
Chapter 6
Electric Powertrain Configuration Model
and Simulation

6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation

6.1.1 Electric FWD Model

This chapter describes how to create and run the model of an electric front-wheel
drive. To place a component in the working area, click on the component group
with the left mouse button, move the mouse over the required component, and then
click and drag the component into the Vehicle Model area. The components must
be arranged as shown in the following figure (Fig. 6.1) and connected as specified
in the diagram. All the connections in the Data Bus for this model are described in
Table 6.1 [2].
Place the following components in the working area: Vehicle (1), Final Drive
(2), Vehicle Rear Left (3), Vehicle Front Left (4), Vehicle Rear Right (5), Vehicle
Front Right (6), Rear Disk Brake (7), Front Disk Brake (8), Rear Disk Brake (9),
Front Disk Brake (10), E-Machine (11), Differential (12), Cockpit (13), ASC (14),
Electrical Consumer (15), Battery H (16), E-Drive Function (17), E-Brake &
M-Brake Function (18), Monitor (19), and Constants (20).
The Vehicle (1) is the main object in a model. This component contains general
data of the vehicle, such as nominal dimensions and weights. The aerodynamic,
rolling, climbing, acceleration, and total resistance are calculated [1].
To define component input data (Table 6.2), double click on the icon or click on
it by using the right mouse button and select edit (Fig. 6.2).
In the properties window the parameters which have influence on the needed
component data input for calculation are selected (Fig. 6.3).
Final Drive or Single Ratio Transmission (2) is a gear step with fixed ratio
(Fig. 6.4). It can be used as a transmission step of the differential. To define
component input data, double click on the final drive icon and enter the following
data (Table 6.3).

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 387

B.O. Varga et al., Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles,
Green Energy and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-18639-9_6
388 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.1 Complete electric FWD model

The Wheel component considers many influencing variables and their effect on
the rolling state (Fig. 6.5). The wheels and tires link the vehicle to the road.
Information data for the four wheels is the same (Vehicle Rear Left (3), Vehicle
Front Left (4), Vehicle Rear Right (5), and Vehicle Front Left (6)). Double click on
the wheel and enter the following data (Table 6.4) [2].
The Brake component is described by brake data and dimensions (Fig. 6.6).
Input data for the two front brakes are the same and also the data for the two rear
brakes are the same (Rear Disk Brake Left (7), Front Disk Brake Left (8), Rear Disk
Brake Right (9), and Front Disk Brake Right (10)). Double click on the brake icon
and enter the following data (Table 6.5).
The E-Machine (11) component can be used either as an electric motor or as a
generator. There are separate characteristic maps for each mode. Together with the
battery H, the user can simulate an electric system. For this model, a characteristic
map for the efficiency is used to calculate the loss of power [1]. Double click on the
e-machine icon and enter the following data (Table 6.6 and Fig. 6.7).
The value of the voltage level has been measured and should be entered in the
following characteristic maps of the machine. For each level, the corresponding
voltage value must be defined and the corresponding characteristic maps (voltage
for U1 = 100 V, voltage for U1 = 320 V). The maximum mechanical (power)
torque (Table 6.7 and Fig. 6.8) is defined as a function of the machines speed (a—
speed (1/min), b—torque (Nm)) [2]. Efficiency map is dependent on speed and
power (or torque) and is shown in Table 6.8 and Fig. 6.9.
The Differential (12) is a particular type of simple planetary gear train that has
the property that the angular velocity of its carrier is the average of the angular
6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 389

Table 6.1 Data Bus connections

Component requires Input information Component delivering Output information
ASC Clutch Release Cockpit Course Ambient
Load Signal Cockpit Load Signal
Slip Signal Front Left Wheel Front Right Slip Signal
Slip Signal Front Right Wheel Front Left Slip Signal
Slip Signal Rear Left Wheel Front Right Slip Signal
Slip Signal Rear Right Wheel Front Left Slip Signal
Battery H Ambient Temperature Cockpit Course Ambient
Temperature External Cockpit Course Ambient
Brake Rear Disk Brake Pressure E-Brake & M-Brake BRK_dp_Recup
Brake Front Disk Brake Pressure E-Brake & M-Brake BRK_dp_Recup
Brake Rear Disk Brake Pressure E-Brake & M-Brake BRK_dp_Recup
Brake Front Disk Brake Pressure E-Brake & M-Brake BRK_dp_Recup
Cockpit Gear Indicator E-Machine Operating Mode
Operation Control 0 E-Machine Operation Control
Speed E-Machine Speed
E-Machine Ambient Temperature Cockpit Course Ambient
Load Signal E-Drive Mod Load Signal
Temperature External Cockpit Course Ambient
Electric Consumer Set Value X Battery H Net Voltage
Function E-Drive Vehicle Velocity Cockpit Velocity
Vehicle Acceleration Cockpit Acceleration
Load Signal Cockpit Load Signal
Brake Pressure Cockpit Brake Pressure
Maxim Brake Pressure Constants Maxim Brake Pressure
Bremsfactor Constants Brake Factor
E-Brake M-Brake eDrive_Torque E-Machine Torque
iFD Constants iFD
iTR Constants iTR
Brake_Factor_Front Constants Brake_Factor_Front
Brake_Factor_Rear Constants Brake_Factor_Rear
Brake_Pressure_Driver Cockpit Brake Pressure
Monitor LoadSignal_Cockpit Cockpit Load Signal
Velocity Cockpit Velocity
Torque eDrive E-Machine Torque

velocities of its sun and annular gears (Fig. 6.10). To define component input data,
double click on the differential icon and enter the following data (Table 6.9).
The Kinematic Chain Browser can be launched in the pop-up menu of a selected
component. All mechanical connections starting from the selected component are
shown in a tree-structure in the left side of the window (Fig. 6.11).
390 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 6.2 Vehicle Name Value Unit

component input data
Distance from Hitch to Front Axle 2400 mm
Height of Support Point at Bench Test 500 mm
Wheel Base 2400 mm
Distance of Gravity Center empty 1200 mm
Distance of Gravity Center half 1180 mm
Distance of Gravity Center full 1160 mm
Height of Gravity Center empty 500 mm
Height of Gravity Center half 490 mm
Height of Gravity Center full 480 mm
Height of Hitch empty 500 mm
Height of Hitch half 490 mm
Height of Hitch full 480 mm
Tire Pressure Front/Rear Axle 2.40/2.20 bar
Curb/Gross Weight 1200/1500 kg
Frontal Area 2.00 m2

Fig. 6.2 Vehicle input data specifications window

The Cockpit (13) links the driver and the vehicle. The pedal positions are
transferred into corresponding indicators via the pedal characteristics (Table 6.10).
In this component, connections are only made via the Data Bus (Fig. 6.12).
To define the input data, click on the acceleration pedal characteristic
(a—acceleration pedal travel (%), b—load signal (%)), clutch pedal characteristic
6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 391

Fig. 6.3 Properties of Vehicle

Fig. 6.4 Final Drive input data specifications window

Table 6.3 Final Drive input Name Value Unit

data
Transmission Ratio 6.000 –
Inertia Moment In 0.015 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out 0.015 kg m2
Efficiency 0.950 –

(a—clutch pedal travel (%), b—clutch release (%)) and brake pedal characteristic
(a—specific brake pedal force (%), b—brake pressure (bar)) tabs and enter the
following data for all (Fig. 6.13) [2].
The ASC Anti-Slip Control (14) checks the force transmission factor of all
connected wheels (Fig. 6.14). The Anti-Slip Control is only active when a model is
392 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.5 Wheel input data specifications window

Table 6.4 Wheels input data Name Value Unit

Wheel Inertia Moment 0.150 kg m2
Friction Coefficient of Tire 1.000 –
Reference Wheel Load 3200.0 N
Wheel Load Correction Coefficient 0.000 –
Static Rolling Radius 300.0 mm
Circumference 1884.96 mm
Dynamic Rolling Radius 310.0 mm
Circumference 1947.79 mm

Fig. 6.6 Brake input data specifications window

6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 393

Table 6.5 Brakes input data

Name Value Value Value Value Unit
Brake Front Right Rear Right Front Left Rear Left –
Piston Surface 1800.0 1500.0 1800.0 1500.0 mm2
Specific Factor 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 –
Efficiency 0.990 0.990 0.990 0.990 –
Inertia Moment 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 kg m2
Friction Coefficient 0.250 0.250 0.250 0.250 –
Friction Radius 120.0 100.0 120.0 100.0 mm

Table 6.6 E-Machine input Name Value Unit

data
Type of Machine ASM –
Characteristic Maps and Curves Overall –
Nominal Voltage 320.0 V
Inertia Moment 1.0e−4 kg m2
Maximum Speed 10000 1/min
Drag Torque at Maximum Speed 0.000 Nm
Initial Temperature 20.00 °C
U1 Voltage 100.0 V
U2 Voltage 320.0 V

Fig. 6.7 E-Machine input data specifications window

394 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 6.7 Maximum Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm) Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm)
mechanical torque data
0 240 7000 105
500 240 7500 95
1000 240 0 −229
1500 240 750 −229
2000 240 1500 −236
2500 240 2250 −238
3000 240 3000 −239
3500 205 3750 −191
4000 180 4500 −159
4500 160 5250 −136
5000 140 6000 −119
5500 130 6750 −106
6000 120 7500 −95
6500 110 – –

250
200
150
100
Torque (Nm)

50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
0 1500 3000 4500 6000 7500
Speed (1/min)

Fig. 6.8 Maximum mechanical torque

calculated quasi-stationary in combination with special drivetrain configurations

and does not require data entry [1].
The Electrical Consumer (15) is represented as an ohmic resistor in the onboard
network (Fig. 6.15). They represent an electric current loss. The number of resistors
that can be defined is user dependent [1].
The resistors parameter can be fixed by a constant value or by means of charac-
teristic curves. It is possible to define resistors as a function of any external input value.
Double click on the electrical consumer icon and enter the data (Table 6.11). The
electrical consumer can be described as resistance depending on input value a—
voltage (V) and b—resistance (Ω) in resistance table (Fig. 6.16 and Table 6.12).
6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 395

Table 6.8 Efficiency map data

(a)
500 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 – – – – –
(c) 65 76 76 75 75 73 – – – – –
1000 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
(c) 65 82 82 83 83 83 81 80 79 77 76
1500 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
(c) 65 82 86 86 86 86 86 85 84 83 82
2000 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
(c) 65 82 87 88 89 89 88 88 87 86 85
2500 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
(c) 65 82 87 89 90 90 91 90 89 88 88
3000 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
(c) 65 82 88 91 91 91 91 91 90 90 90
3500 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
(c) 65 82 88 91 91 91 92 92 91 91 91
4500 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
(c) 65 80 88 91 91 92 93 93 93 93 93
5500 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 – – – – –
(c) 65 80 88 91 91 93 – – – – –
6000 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 −95 −80 −65 −45 −35 −15
(c) 65 80 88 91 91 93 93 92 91 86 75
6500 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 −95 −80 −65 −45 −35 −15
(c) 65 82 87 90 91 93 93 91 88 82 73
7000 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 −95 −80 −65 −45 −35 −15
(c) 65 82 86 89 91 93 91 89 86 80 69

The Battery H (16) component is used for simulating of electrical vehicles

(Fig. 6.17). Double click on the battery H icon and enter the input data (Table 6.13).
The idle voltage—charge (b) is the idle voltage of one cell in charge mode.
When there is no electrical consumer; it is a function of the State of Charge SOC
(a) (Fig. 6.18 and Table 6.14). The idle voltage—discharge (b) of one cell is the
voltage without an electrical consumer, there is no flow of current, and it is a
function of the SOC (a) (Fig. 6.19 and Table 6.15) [1].
E-Drive (17) component is a function that can be used to calculate the transition
from the electrical machine driving to electrical machine braking (Fig. 6.20).
To define component input data double click on the C code icon and enter the
following data for function (Fig. 6.21), and for description of Data Bus (Table 6.16)
[1].
E-Brake & M-Brake (18) component is a function that can be used for
calculating the converting brake torque into pressure for all brakes (Fig. 6.21).
396 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

95 Engine
Speed
90 (1/min)
500
1000
85 1500
2000
Efficiency (Nm)

2250
80 2500
3000
75 3500
3750
4000
70 4500
5000
5250
65 5500
6000
6500
60 6750
-240 -200 -160 -120 -80 -40 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 7000
Torque (Nm) 7500

Fig. 6.9 Efficiency map

Fig. 6.10 Differential input data specifications window

To define component input data, double click on the C code icon and enter the
following data for function (Fig. 6.22), and for description of Data Bus (Table 6.17)
[1] (Fig. 6.23).
The Monitor component (19) can be introduced, if the calculation run must be
detected (Fig. 6.24). Click on the description of Data Bus tab and open the
6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 397

Table 6.9 Differential input Name Value Unit

data
Differential Lock Unlocked –
Torque Split Factor 1.000 –
Inertia Moment In 0.015 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out1 0.015 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out2 0.015 kg m2

Fig. 6.11 Kinematic Chain Browser

Table 6.10 Cockpit input Name Value Unit

data
Shift Mode Manual –
Number of Gears Forward 1.000 –
Number of Gears Back 1.000 –
Maximum Brake Force 100.0 N
Brake Light Switch Threshold 1.000 %
Number of Retarder Steps 0.000 –

following dialog. To select a Data Bus channel, click to access at the available list.
Enter the text for the description and then click on to select the unit (Table 6.18).
Constants (20) component enables the user to define up to 99 constant values
which can be used by other components through the Data Bus. The values can be of
type integer, double or string (Table 6.19) [1].

6.1.2 Electric FWD RE Model

This chapter describes how to create and run the model of an electric front wheel
drive with range extender. To place a component in the working area, click on the
398 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.12 Cockpit input data specifications window

100
90
80
Load Signal (%)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Acceleration Pedal Travel (%)

Fig. 6.13 Pedal characteristic

component group with the left mouse button, move the mouse over the required
component and then click and drag the component into the vehicle model area. Put
the component with release of the mouse button on the desired place.
Place the following components in the working area: Vehicle (1), IC Engine (2),
Final Drive (3), Vehicle Rear Left (4), Vehicle Front Left (5), Vehicle Rear Right
(6), Vehicle Front Right (7), Rear Disk Brake (8), Front Disk Brake (9), Rear Disk
Brake (10), Front Disk Brake (11), E-Machine (12), Generator (13), Differential
(14), Cockpit (15), ASC (16), Electrical Consumer (17), Battery H (18), E-Drive
Function (19), E-Brake & M-Brake Function (20), Range Extender Function (21),
Monitor (22), PID Control (23), and Constants (24).
6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 399

Fig. 6.14 ASC Anti-Slip Control input data specifications window

Fig. 6.15 Electrical Consumer input data specifications window

Table 6.11 Electrical Name Value Unit

Consumer input data
Nominal Voltage 320.0 V
Direction Positive –
Exceeding Value Range Admissible –
Threshold Value 0.500 –
Reference Absolute –

Arrange the components as shown in the following figure (Fig. 6.25) and con-
nect the components as specified in the diagram [2]. All the connections in the data
bus for this model are described in Table 6.20.
The Vehicle (1) contains general data of the vehicle (Fig. 6.26), such as nominal
dimensions and weights (Table 6.21).
IC Engine (2) component contains a model for an internal combustion engine.
To define component input data (Table 6.22), double click on the icon or click on it
with the right mouse button and select edit to open the following window
(Fig. 6.27) [1].
400 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

600
550
500
Resistance ( )

450
400
350
300
250
200
150
220 270 320 370 420
Voltage (V)

Fig. 6.16 Resistance Table

Table 6.12 Resistance Table Voltage (V) Resistance (Ω) Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm)
data
220 160 340 385
240 190 360 430
260 225 380 480
280 260 400 530
300 300 420 590
320 340 – –

Fig. 6.17 Battery H input data specifications window

6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 401

Table 6.13 Battery H input Name Value Unit

data
Maximum Charge 10.00 Ah
Nominal Voltage 320.0 V
Maximum Voltage 420.0 V
Initial Charge 95.00 %
Minimum Voltage 220.0 V
Number of Cells per Cell-Row 1.000 –
Number of Cell-Row 5.000 –
Operating Temperature 25.00 °C
Internal Resistance 0.800 Ω

350
345
340
Voltage (V)

335
330
325
320
315
310
20 40 60 80 100
State of Charge (%)

Fig. 6.18 Idle voltage charge

Table 6.14 Idle voltage—charge data

State of Charge (%) Voltage (V) State of Charge (%) Voltage (V)
20 310 70 335
30 315 80 340
40 320 90 345
50 325 100 350
60 330 – –

The properties window is accessed through properties button in the input data
window, or from the pop up menu (Fig. 6.28).
To load engine characteristic click on the Full Load Characteristic tab (Fig. 6.29
and Table 6.23).
The Motoring Curve (Fig. 6.30) will be defined similar to the Full Load
Characteristic either as power dependent on the engine speeds [2].
402 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

350
345
340
Voltage (V)

335
330
325
320
315
310
20 40 60 80 100
State of Charge (%)

Fig. 6.19 Idle voltage discharge

Table 6.15 Idle voltage—discharge data

State of Charge (%) Voltage (V) State of Charge (%) Voltage (V)
20 310 70 335
30 315 80 340
40 320 90 345
50 325 100 350
60 330 – –

Fig. 6.20 E-Drive input data specifications window

In the Fuel Consumption Map (Fig. 6.31 and Table 6.24), the actual fuel con-
sumption for stationary operation is listed depending on the brake mean pressure
with the engine speed as parameter (a—speed (1/min), b—BMEP (bar), c—volume
6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 403

Fig. 6.21 C code function

Table 6.16 Description of Data Bus

Data Bus Channel Description Unit Connection Decouple
a[0] Vehicle Velocity km/h Optional 0
a[1] Vehicle Acceleration m/s2 Optional 0
a[2] Load Signal – Optional 0
a[3] Brake Pressure bar Optional 0
a[4] Maximum Brake Pressure bar Optional 0
a[5] Brems factor – Optional 0
a[6] a[6] – Optional 0
y[0] Mod Load Signal – Optional 0

flow (l/h)). In the emission maps, the emissions for the different exhaust gases are
listed dependent on the mean pressure with the engine speed as parameter (NOx
emission map—Fig. 6.32 and Table 6.25, CO emission map—Fig. 6.33 and
Table 6.26, HC emission map—Fig. 6.34 and Table 6.27) [2].
Final Drive (3) or Single Ratio Transmission is a gear step with fixed ratio
(Fig. 6.35). To define component input data, double click on the final drive icon
(Table 6.28).
The Wheel component considers many influencing variables and their effect on
the rolling state (Fig. 6.36). Information data for the four wheels is the same
(Vehicle Rear Left (4), Vehicle Front Left (5), Vehicle Rear Right (6), and Vehicle
Front Left (7)) [2].
Double click on the wheel and enter the following data (Table 6.29).
404 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.22 E-Drive input data specifications window

Table 6.17 Description of Data Bus

Data Bus Channel Description Unit Connection Decouple
a[0] eDrive_Torque Nm Optional 0
a[1] iFD (Ratio of Final Drive) – Optional 0
a[2] iTR (Ratio of Final Transmission) – Optional 0
a[3] Brake_Factor_Front – Optional 0
a[4] Brake_Factor_Rear – Optional 0
a[5] Brake Pressure_Driver Pa Optional 0
y[0] BRK_dp_Recup Pa Optional 0

The Brake component is described by brake data and dimensions (Fig. 6.37).
Input data for the two front brakes is the same and also the data for the two rear
brakes is the same (Rear Disk Brake Left (8), Front Disk Brake Left (9), Rear Disk
Brake Right (10), and Front Disk Brake Right (11)).
Double click on the brake icon and enter the following data (Table 6.30).
Electric Machine (12) together with the battery H the user can simulate an
electric system. For this type of model, a characteristic map for the efficiency is
used to calculate the loss of power [1]. Double click on the electric machine icon
and enter the following data (Fig. 6.38 and Table 6.31).
The value of the voltage level should be entered at which the following char-
acteristic maps of the machine have been measured. For each level, the corre-
sponding voltage value must be defined and the corresponding characteristic maps
(voltage for U1 = 100 V, voltage for U1 = 320 V).
The maximum mechanical (power) torque (Fig. 6.39 and Table 6.32) is defined
as a function of the machines speed (a—speed (1/min), b—torque (Nm)) [2].
Efficiency map is defined dependent on speed and power (or torque) and is shown
in Fig. 6.40 and Table 6.33.
6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 405

Fig. 6.23 C code function

Fig. 6.24 Monitor

Table 6.18 Description of Data Bus Channel Description Unit

Data Bus
Input 0 LoadSignal_Cockpit –
Input 1 Velocity km/h
Input 2 Torque_eDrive Nm
406 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 6.19 Description of Data Bus

Data Bus Channel Description Value Unit Data Type
Constant 0 Brake_Factor_Front 0.00012 – Double
Constant 1 Brake_Factor_Rear 0.00008 – Double
Constant 2 iFD (Ratio of Final Drive) 3.650 – Double
Constant 3 iTR (Ratio of Final Transmission) 1.000 – Double
Constant 4 Maximum Brake Pressure 50.00 bar Double
Constant 5 Brake Factor 1.000 – Double

Fig. 6.25 Complete model electric FWD RE

The Generator (13) must supply the vehicles electrical system with a sufficient
current under all operating conditions in order to ensure that the State of Charge in
the engine storage device is consistently maintained at an adequate level [1].
Double click on the generator icon and enter the following data (Fig. 6.41).
The maximum mechanical (power) torque (Fig. 6.42 and Table 6.34) is defined
as a function of the machines speed (a—speed (1/min), b—torque (Nm)) [2]. The
efficiency map (Fig. 6.43 and Table 6.35) is defined dependent on a—speed
(1/min), b—power (kW) and efficiency (%).
Differential (14) unit compensates for discrepancies in the respective rotation
rates of the drive wheels (Fig. 6.44). To define component input data, double click
on the differential icon and enter the following data (Table 6.36).
The Kinematic Chain Browser can be launched in the pop-up menu of a selected
component. All mechanical connections starting from the selected component are
shown in a tree-structure in the left side of the window (Fig. 6.45) [1].
6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 407

Table 6.20 Data Bus connection

Component Input information Component Output information
requires delivering
ASC Clutch Release Cockpit Clutch Release
Load Signal Cockpit Load Signal
Slip Signal Front Left Wheel Front Right Slip Signal
Slip Signal Front Right Wheel Front Left Slip Signal
Slip Signal Rear Left Wheel Front Right Slip Signal
Slip Signal Rear Right Wheel Front Left Slip Signal
Battery H Ambient Temperature Cockpit Course Ambient
Temperature Cockpit Course Ambient
External
Brake Rear Disk Brake Pressure E-Brake & M-Brake BRK_dp_Recup
Brake Front Disk Brake Pressure E-Brake & M-Brake BRK_dp_Recup
Brake Rear Disk Brake Pressure E-Brake & M-Brake BRK_dp_Recup
Brake Front Disk Brake Pressure E-Brake & M-Brake BRK_dp_Recup
Cockpit Gear Indicator E-Machine Operating Mode
Operation Control 0 E-Machine Operation Control
Speed E-Machine Speed
E-Machine Ambient Temperature Cockpit Course Ambient
Load Signal E-Drive Mod Load Signal
Temperature Cockpit Course Ambient
External
Generator Load Signal Range Extender Load_Signal_Gen
Switch Range Extender Start_Switch_Gen
Temperature Cockpit Course Ambient
External
Electric Consumer Set Value X Battery H Net Voltage
IC Engine Load Signal Range Extender Load_Signal_Engine
Start Switch Range Extender Start_Switch_Engine
Function E-Drive Vehicle Velocity Cockpit Velocity
Vehicle Acceleration Cockpit Acceleration
Load Signal Cockpit Load Signal
Brake Pressure Cockpit Brake Pressure
Maxim Brake Pressure Constants Maxim Brake
Pressure
Bremsfactor Constants Brake Factor
E-Brake M-Brake eDrive_Torque E-Machine Torque
iFD Constants iFD
iTR Constants iTR
Brake_Factor_Front Constants Brake_Factor_Front
Brake_Factor_Rear Constants Brake_Factor_Rear
Brake_Pressure_Driver Cockpit Brake Pressure
(continued)
408 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 6.20 (continued)

Component Input information Component Output information
requires delivering
Range Extender SOC_Act Battery H State of Charge
SOC_Min Constants SOC_Min
SOC_Max Constants SOC_Max
Start_Switch_CP Cockpit Start Switch
Engine_Speed IC Engine Engine Speed
Load_Signal_Engine PID Control Output Value
Desired_Engine Speed_Constants Desired Engine
Monitor LoadSignal_Cockpit Cockpit Load Signal
Velocity Cockpit Velocity
Torque eDrive E-Machine Torque
SOC Battery H Start of Charge
Engine_Speed IC Engine Engine Speed
PID Control Actual Value IC Engine Engine Speed
Desired Value Constants Desired Engine Speed

Fig. 6.26 Vehicle input data specifications window

6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 409

Table 6.21 Vehicle component input data

Name Value Unit
Distance from Hitch to Front Axle 2400.0 mm
Height of Support Point at Bench Test 500.00 mm
Wheel Base 2400.0 mm
Distance of Gravity Center empty/half/full 1200.0/1150.0/1100.0 mm
Height of Gravity Center empty/half/full 500.0/490.0/480.0 mm
Height of Hitch empty/half/full 500.0/490.0/480.0 mm
Tire Inflation Pressure Front Axle 2.200 bar
Tire Inflation Pressure Rear Axle 2.400 bar
Curb Weight 1200.0 kg
Constant Part Resistance Function 143.0 N
Square Part Resistance Function 0.034 N/(km/h)2
Gross Weight 1600.0 kg
Frontal Area 2.000 m2

Table 6.22 IC Engine Name Value Unit

component input data
Engine Displacement 2000.0 cm3
Engine Working Temperature 90.00 °C
Number of Cylinders 4.000 –
Number of Strokes 4.000 –
Idle Speed 800.0 1/min
Maximum Speed 6000.0 1/min
Inertia Moment 0.150 kg m2
Response Time 0.100 s
Engine Type Gasoline –
Heating Value for Gasoline 44200.0 kJ/kg
Fuel Density 0.760 kg/l

The Cockpit (15) links the driver and the vehicle. In this component, connec-
tions are only made via the Data Bus (Fig. 6.46). The pedal positions are transferred
into corresponding indicators via the pedal characteristics (Table 6.37).
To define the input data, click on the acceleration pedal characteristic (a—
acceleration pedal travel (%), b—load signal (%)), clutch pedal characteristic (a—
clutch pedal travel (%), b—clutch release (%)), and brake pedal characteristic (a—
specific brake pedal force (%), b—brake pressure (bar)) tabs and enter the following
data for all (Fig. 6.47) [2].
The ASC Anti-Slip Control (16) checks the force transmission factor of all
connected wheels (Fig. 6.48). The Anti-Slip Control is only active when a model is
calculated quasi-stationary in combination with special drivetrain configurations
and does not require data entry.
410 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.27 IC Engine input data specifications window

Fig. 6.28 Properties of IC Engine

The Electrical Consumer (17) is represented as ohmic resistors in the onboard

network (Fig. 6.49). They represent an electric current loss. Double click on the
electrical consumer icon and enter the data (Table 6.38).
The electrical consumer can be described as resistance depending on input value
a—voltage (V) and b—resistance (Ω) in Resistance Table (Fig. 6.50).
6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 411

105
95
85
75
Torque (Nm)

65
55
45
35
25
15
5
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (1/min)

Fig. 6.29 Full Load Characteristic

Table 6.23 Full Load Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm) Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm)
Characteristic data
800 7 3900 77
1350 20 4250 85
1800 30 4750 94
2100 37 5200 100
2500 45 5500 103
3000 57 5780 103
3300 63 6000 102
3550 69 – –

-2
Power (kW)

-4

-6

-8

-10

-12
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (1/min)

Fig. 6.30 Motoring Curve

412 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

45
Engine
40 Speed
(1/min)
35 700
Volume Flow (l/h)

30 1200
25 1700
2550
20
3000
15
3600
10 4150
5 5050
0 6000
-4 0 4 8 12 16
BMEP (bar)

Fig. 6.31 Fuel Consumption Map

Table 6.24 Fuel Consumption Map data

(a)
700 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 1.60 3.16 4.55 5.95 7.32 8.63 9.3
(c) 1.29 1.30 1.33 1.52 1.72 2.01 2.39 2.87 3.38 3.86
1200 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 1.82 3.32 4.73 6.17 7.59 8.90 10.9
(c) 1.41 1.42 1.45 1.90 2.24 2.84 3.43 4.01 4.74 5.42
1700 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 2.06 3.54 4.89 7.83 9.48 10.9 12.3
(c) 1.57 1.58 1.61 2.30 3.00 3.72 5.26 6.22 7.61 8.57
2550 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 2.30 3.80 5.25 8.21 9.55 12.4 14.3
(c) 1.82 1.86 1.97 3.39 4.59 5.65 7.93 8.87 12.1 14.2
3000 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 2.42 3.97 5.49 8.41 9.81 11.3 14.7
(c) 2.20 2.29 2.42 4.20 5.53 6.78 9.28 10.6 11.9 16.8
3600 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 2.41 3.97 8.59 10.3 11.6 14.7 15.1
(c) 2.60 2.69 2.96 5.16 6.83 11.5 13.4 15.0 20.0 20.5
4150 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 2.31 3.82 5.34 8.53 9.99 13.1 15.2
(c) 3.35 3.44 3.74 6.18 8.04 9.83 13.7 15.7 21.6 26.6
5050 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 3.62 5.10 6.63 9.77 11.2 12.5 14.5
(c) 4.24 4.52 4.84 9.93 11.0 14.4 19.9 22.8 27.0 33.7
6000 (b) −4.0 −0.5 0.0 2.76 4.18 5.53 9.72 10.9 12.1 13.0
(c) 5.33 5.85 6.45 11.2 13.7 16.3 27.4 31.6 36.0 39.6

The Battery H (18) component is used for simulating electrical vehicles

(Fig. 6.51). Double click on the battery H icon and enter the following data
(Table 6.39) [2].
6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 413

1.400 Engine
Speed
1.200 (1/min)
700
1.000
1200
Mass Flow (kg/h)

0.800 1700
2550
0.600 3000
3600
0.400
4150
0.200 5050
6000
0.000
-5 0 5 10 15 20
BMEP (bar)

Fig. 6.32 NOx emission map

Table 6.25 NOx emission map data

(a)
700 (b) −5 −1 0 1 2 3 5 7 8 10
(c) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.13
1200 (b) −5 0 0 0 1 2 4 7 10 12
(c) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.12 0.16 0.19
1700 (b) −5 0 0 0 1 2 4 7 10 14
(c) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.10 0.21 0.26 0.30
2550 (b) −5 0 0 0 2 6 7 11 14 16
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.08 0.22 0.28 0.38 0.39 0.41
3000 (b) −5 −1 0 0 0 3 6 9 11 16
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.11 0.34 0.48 0.54 0.57
3600 (b) −5 0 0 1 3 4 8 9 13 17
(c) 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.20 0.34 0.55 0.62 0.71 0.74
4150 (b) −5 −1 0 1 3 4 8 11 14 17
(c) 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.09 0.22 0.36 0.61 0.80 0.92 1.06
5050 (b) −5 −1 0 0 2 4 6 9 13 16
(c) 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.23 0.40 0.57 0.90 1.14 1.41
6000 (b) −5 −1 0 0 1 3 5 8 11 14
(c) 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.18 0.33 0.58 0.77 0.99 1.14 1.31
414 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

18.000
Engine
16.000 Speed
(1/min)
14.000 700

12.000 1200
Mass Flow (kg/h)

1700
10.000
2550
8.000
3000
6.000 3600
4.000 4150

2.000 5050
6000
0.000
-5 0 5 10 15 20
BMEP (bar)

Fig. 6.33 CO emission map

Table 6.26 CO emission map data

(a)
700 (b) −5 −1 0 2 3 5 7 8 10 −
(c) 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.14 0.17 0.22 1.30 −
1200 (b) −5 −1 0 2 4 5 7 9 10 13
(c) 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.08 0.13 0.17 0.25 0.70 1.97 2.61
1700 (b) −5 −1 0 1 2 6 8 9 11 15
(c) 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.13 0.27 0.32 0.90 1.94 2.63
2550 (b) −5 −1 0 1 3 6 8 11 15 17
(c) 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.15 0.23 0.56 0.67 2.54 3.01 3.50
3000 (b) −5 0 1 3 4 6 9 11 13 16
(c) 0.12 0.15 0.19 0.32 0.49 0.77 1.23 2.22 3.95 5.76
3600 (b) −5 −1 0 1 3 7 11 13 15 16
(c) 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.21 0.37 0.79 3.03 4.89 8.30 8.82
4150 (b) −5 −1 0 1 6 10 11 13 14 17
(c) 0.17 0.18 0.20 0.26 0.78 1.81 3.29 5.59 7.98 9.58
5050 (b) −5 −1 0 1 4 9 11 12 14 16
(c) 0.20 0.20 0.23 0.33 0.81 1.60 3.33 8.58 10.8 12.5
6000 (b) −5 −1 0 1 6 8 11 12 13 14
(c) 0.35 0.35 0.37 0.44 2.14 3.53 9.42 12.5 14.7 17.2
6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 415

0.500 Engine
Speed
0.450 (1/min)
0.400 700
0.350 1200
Mass Flow (kg/h)

0.300 1700

0.250 2550

0.200 3000

0.150 3600
4150
0.100
5050
0.050
6000
0.000
-5 0 5 10 15 20
BMEP (bar)

Fig. 6.34 HC emission map

Table 6.27 HC emission map data

(a)
700 (b) −5 −1 0 1 2 3 6 8 10 −
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.05
1200 (b) −5 −1 0 0 2 4 5 7 10 12
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.09
1700 (b) −5 −1 0 0 2 5 7 11 14 −
(c) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.13 0.27 −
2550 (b) −5 −1 0 1 3 6 8 11 14 16
(c) 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.08 0.16 0.27 0.40
3000 (b) −5 0 0 1 3 4 8 11 13 17
(c) 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.13 0.18 0.32
3600 (b) −5 −1 0 1 3 4 8 11 13 16
(c) 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.19 0.24 0.41
4150 (b) −5 −1 0 1 3 6 8 11 14 16
(c) 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.10 0.11 0.17 0.34 0.44
5050 (b) −5 0 1 2 6 8 9 11 13 16
(c) 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.11 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.29 0.46
6000 (b) −5 −1 0 1 3 6 8 11 12 15
(c) 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.08 0.13 0.14 0.25 0.33 0.48
416 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.35 Final Drive input data specifications window

Table 6.28 Final Drive input Name Value Unit

data
Transmission Ratio 6.000 –
Inertia Moment In/Out 0.015/0.015 kg m2
Efficiency 0.950 –

Fig. 6.36 Wheels input data specifications window

The idle voltage—charge (b) is the idle voltage of one cell in charge mode.
There is no electrical consumer; it is a function of the State of Charge SOC
(a) (Fig. 6.52 and Table 6.40). The idle voltage—discharge (b) of one cell is the
voltage without an electrical consumer, there is no flow of current, and it is a
function of the SOC (a) (Fig. 6.53 and Table 6.41) [1].
6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 417

Table 6.29 Wheels input Name Value Unit

data
Wheel Inertia Moment 0.150 kg m2
Friction Coefficient of Tire 1.000 –
Reference Wheel Load 3300.00 N
Wheel Load Correction Coefficient 0.000 –
Static Rolling Radius 290.0 mm
Circumference 1822.12 mm
Dynamic Rolling Radius 300.0 mm
Circumference 1884.96 mm
Friction Coefficient of Road 1.050 –
Slip at Maximum Traction 7.000 %

Fig. 6.37 Brake input data specifications window

Table 6.30 Brakes input data

Name Value Value Value Value Unit
Brake Front Right Rear Right Front Left Rear Left –
Piston Surface 1800.0 1500.0 1800.0 1500.0 mm2
Specific Factor 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 –
Efficiency 0.990 0.990 0.990 0.990 –
Inertia Moment 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 kg m2
Friction Coefficient 0.250 0.250 0.250 0.250 –
Friction Radius 120.0 100.0 120.0 100.0 mm

E-Drive (19) component is a function that can be used for calculations (with
user-defined functions) (Fig. 6.54). To define component input data, double click on
the C code icon and enter the following data for function (Fig. 6.55), and for
description of Data Bus (Table 6.42) [1].
418 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.38 E-Machine input data specifications window

Table 6.31 E-Machine input Name Value Unit

data
Type of Machine ASM –
Characteristic Maps and Curves Overall –
Nominal Voltage 320 V
Inertia Moment 1.0e−4 kg m2
Maximum Speed 10000 1/min
Drag Torque at Maximum Speed 0 Nm
Initial Temperature 20 °C
U1 Voltage 100 V
U2 Voltage 320 V

250
200

150

100
Torque (Nm)

50

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
-50

-100

-150

-200

-250
Speed (1/min)

Fig. 6.39 Maximum mechanical torque

6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 419

Table 6.32 Maximum mechanical torque data

Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm) Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm) Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm)
0 240 4500 160 1500 −236
500 240 5000 140 2250 −238
1000 240 5500 130 3000 −239
1500 240 6000 120 3750 −191
2000 240 6500 110 4500 −159
2500 240 7000 105 5250 −136
3000 240 7500 95 6000 −119
3500 205 1 −229 6750 −106
4000 180 750 −229 7500 −95

95 Engine
Speed
90 (1/min)
500
1000
85 1500
Efficiency (%)

2000
2250
80 2500
3000
75 3500
3750
4000
70 4500
5000
5250
65 5500
6000
6500
60 6750
-240 -180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180 240 7000
Torque (Nm) 7500

Fig. 6.40 Efficiency map

E-Brake & M-Brake (20) component is a function can be used for calculating
with user-defined functions used to conversion of e-drive torque to brake pressure
(Fig. 6.56). To define component input data, double click on the C code icon and
enter the data for function (Fig. 6.57), and for Data Bus (Table 6.43) [1].
Range Extender (21) component is a function can be used for calculating with
user-defined functions used to range extender control (Fig. 6.58). To define com-
ponent input data, double click on the C code icon and enter the following data for
function (Fig. 6.59), and for Data Bus (Table 6.44) [1].
The Monitor element (22) can be introduced, if the calculation run must be
detected (Fig. 6.60). Click on the description of Data Bus tab and open the fol-
lowing dialog. To select a Data Bus channel, click to access at the available list [1].
Enter the text for the description and then click on to select the unit (Table 6.45).
420 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 6.33 Efficiency curve data

(a)
500 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 – – – – –
(c) 65 76 76 75 72 73 – – – – –
1000 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
(c) 65 82 82 83 83 83 81 80 79 77 76
1500 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
(c) 65 82 86 86 86 86 86 85 84 83 82
2000 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
(c) 65 82 87 88 89 89 88 88 87 86 85
2500 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
(c) 65 82 87 89 90 90 91 90 89 88 88
3000 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
(c) 65 82 88 91 91 91 91 91 90 90 90
3500 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 –
(c) 65 82 88 91 91 91 92 92 91 91 –
4000 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 – –
(c) 65 80 88 91 91 91 93 93 93 – –
4500 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
(c) 65 80 88 91 91 92 93 93 93 93 93
5000 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 – – – –
(c) 65 80 88 91 91 93 93 – – – –
5500 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 – – – – –
(c) 65 80 88 91 91 93 – – – – –
6000 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 125 – – – – –
(c) 65 80 88 91 91 92 – – – – –
6500 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 – – – – – –
(c) 65 82 87 90 91 – – – – – –
7500 (b) 0 25 50 75 100 – – – – – –
(c) 65 82 86 89 91 – – – – – –

Fig. 6.41 Generator input data specifications window

6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 421

250

200

150

100
Torque (Nm)

50

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
-50

-100

-150

-200

-250
Speed (1/min)

Fig. 6.42 Maximum mechanical torque

Table 6.34 Maximum Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm) Speed (1/min) Torque (Nm)
mechanical torque data
1 240 1 −230
500 240 750 −230
1000 240 1500 −235
1500 240 2250 −237
2000 240 3000 −239
2500 240 3750 −190
3000 240 4500 −160
3500 205 5250 −135
4000 180 6000 −120
4500 160 6750 −105
5000 140 7500 −95
5500 130 – –
6000 120 – –
6500 110 – –
7000 105 – –
7500 95 – –

PID Control (23) may be used to build up more powerful control subsystems in
AVL CRUISE, combined with other signal processing components (Fig. 6.61).
Double click on the PID control icon and enter the data (Table 6.46).
422 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

95 Engine
Speed
90 (1/min)
85 500
1000
Efficiency (%)

80 1500
2000
75 2250
2500
70 3000
3500
65 3750
4000
60 4500
55 5000
5250
-250 -150 -50 50 150 250 5500
Torque (Nm) 6000

Fig. 6.43 Efficiency map

Table 6.35 Efficiency curve data

(a)
500 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
65 76 76 75 75 73 – – – – –
1000 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
65 82 82 83 83 83 81 80 79 77 76
1500 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
65 82 86 86 86 86 86 85 84 83 –
2000 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
65 82 87 88 89 89 88 88 87 86 86
2500 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
65 82 87 89 90 90 91 90 89 88 88
3000 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
65 82 88 91 91 91 91 91 90 90 90
3500 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
65 82 88 91 91 91 92 92 91 91 –
4000 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
65 80 88 91 95 91 93 93 93 – –
4500 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
65 80 88 91 91 92 93 93 – – –
5000 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
65 80 88 91 91 93 93 – – – –
5500 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
65 80 88 91 91 93 93 – – – –
6000 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 240
65 80 88 91 91 – – – – – –
6.1 Electric Vehicle Model Creation 423

Fig. 6.44 Differential input data specifications window

Table 6.36 Differential input Name Value Unit

data
Differential Lock Unlocked –
Torque Split Factor 1.000 –
Inertia Moment In 0.015 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out1 0.015 kg m2
Inertia Moment Out2 0.015 kg m2
Stationary Efficiency 0.950 –

Fig. 6.45 Kinematic Chain Browser

Constants (24) component enables the user to define up to 99 constant values

which can be used by other components through the Data Bus (Fig. 6.62). The
values can be of type integer, double or string (Table 6.47) [1].
424 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.46 Cockpit input data specifications window

Table 6.37 Cockpit input Name Value Unit

data
Shift Mode Manual –
Number of Gears Forward 1.000 –
Number of Gears Back 1.000 –
Maximum Brake Force 100.0 N
Brake Light Switch Threshold 1.000 %
Number of Retarder Steps 0.000 –

100

80

60
b)

40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
a)

Fig. 6.47 Pedal characteristic

6.2 Run Simulation

6.2.1 Result Manager

To run a simulation for each model, there are five different options for
calculation [1]:
6.2 Run Simulation 425

Fig. 6.48 ASC input data specifications window

Fig. 6.49 Electrical Consumer input data specifications window

Table 6.38 Electrical Name Value Unit

Consumer input data
Nominal Voltage 320.0 V
Direction Positive –
Exceeding Value Range Admissible –
Threshold Value 0.500 –
Reference Absolute –

• Single Calculation is a regular calculation with the input data supplied in the
components. Output of result defines which components result will be written
and available in the Result Manager.
• Matrix Calculation is used for multiple calculations and to evaluate the effect of
varying the values of input parameters on vehicle performance, consumption,
and emissions. The results can be viewed for each varied calculation.
• Component Variation is used for multiple calculations and the calculation
consists of subcalculations in which components are replaced by components of
the same type. The results can be viewed in the Result Manager.
426 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

600
550
500
Resistance ( )

450
400
350
300
250
200
150
220 270 320 370 420
Voltage (V)

Fig. 6.50 Resistance Table

Fig. 6.51 Battery H input data specifications window

• System Variation is used for multiple calculations from a list of all the model’s
systems. The results can be viewed similar to Component Variation.
• Batch Calculation is used for calculations series of different projects, either
Single Calculation, Matrix Calculation with DoE option, and Component
Variation with DoE option.
6.2 Run Simulation 427

Table 6.39 Battery H input Name Value Unit

data
Maximum Charge 5.000 Ah
Nominal Voltage 7.200 V
Maximum Voltage 9.000 V
Initial Charge 75.00 %
Minimum Voltage 6.000 V
Number of Cells per Cell-Row 40.00 –
Number of Cell-Row 2.000 –
Operating Temperature 25.00 °C
Internal Resistance 0.200 Ω

8.40

8.20

8.00
Voltage (V)

7.80

7.60

7.40

7.20
0 20 40 60 80 100
State of Charge (%)

Fig. 6.52 Idle voltage charge

Table 6.40 Idle voltage—charge data

State of Charge (%) Voltage (V) State of Charge (%) Voltage (V)
0 7.23 60 7.73
10 7.40 70 7.77
20 7.51 80 7.81
30 7.59 90 7.91
40 7.65 100 8.36
50 7.69 – –

To run the calculation in the Desk Area, click on Calculation Center or click on
AVL blue button in the upper right corner (Fig. 6.63). Click on to “Start
Calculation” button to running the simulation.
After the simulations were complete, click on the Result Manager in the
Navigation Frame (Fig. 6.64) and expand the task of which the results should be
viewed. The selected object is shown in the right section of the window.
428 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

8.40

8.20

8.00
Voltage (V)

7.80

7.60

7.40

7.20
0 20 40 60 80 100
State of Discharge (%)

Fig. 6.53 Idle voltage discharge

Table 6.41 Idle voltage—discharge data

State of Charge (%) Voltage (V) State of Charge (%) Voltage (V)
0 7.23 60 7.73
10 7.40 70 7.77
20 7.51 80 7.81
30 7.59 90 7.91
40 7.65 100 8.36
50 7.69 – –

Fig. 6.54 E-Drive input data specifications window

Project information can be viewed in the main window by selecting info in the
tree structure or by double clicking info in the right window. The window shows
general information: project name, author, vehicle model, drivetrain model, date
and state (regarding errors), then the tree structure of the Folder with defined
Calculation Tasks (different status for run or not run is shown using blue/grey
color). The picture of the Vehicle Model is also displayed.
6.2 Run Simulation 429

/* Transition from edriving to ebraking*/

/*Checking whether the Driver applies the Brake pedal. This information can be
directly taken from Cockpit: if the Brake Pressure is greater than Zero then there is
a braking action additional the vehicle should still be on the move
*/
if (a[3] > 0 && a[0] >0.1)
{
/*In this case the Brake pressure should be converted into Ratio of the maximum
Brake Pressure. Additional a brake Factor can be also used to scale this ratio ac-
cording to the size of E-Motor in order to get suitable load to the E-Drive.
a[0] : Vehicle Velocity;
a[1]: Vehicle Acceleration;
a[2]: Load Signal;
a[3]: Brake Pressure;
a[4]: Maximum Brake Pressure;
a[5]:Brake factor.
*/
y[0] = a[3]/a[4]*(-1)*a[5];
}
else
{
/*If there isn't any brake action (Brake Pressure is equal Zero) then the load from
Cockpit is used as drive load */
y[0] = a[2];
}

Fig. 6.55 C code function

Table 6.42 Description of Data Bus

Data Bus Channel Description Unit Connection Decouple
a[0] Vehicle Velocity km/h Optional 0
a[1] Vehicle Acceleration m/s2 Optional 0
a[2] Load Signal – Optional 0
a[3] Brake Pressure bar Optional 0
a[4] Maximum Brake Pressure bar Optional 0
a[5] Brems factor – Optional 0
a[6] a[6] – Optional 0
y[0] Mod Load Signal – Optional 0

One output file is produced for each component in the Vehicle Model and each
Calculation Task. Data for diagrams are extracted from these files and are shown as
Energy Flow Graphics, presentation diagrams for belonging task and standard
diagrams for used components.
430 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.56 E-Brake & M-Brake input data specifications window

In the tree structure of the Result Manager, all defined Calculation Task folders
are shown separately for each task. Those folders with results are shown in color;
tasks which are not run are grey. Files of the each Calculation Task are located
inside the respective folder. In Result Manager, all components are listed where
results have been written in pages mode or data sources mode (Fig. 6.65).
The result output for components is selected with output in the properties
window of the respective component. Select as defined in module for output of
results in the folder of the corresponding calculation task. There are two types of
result outputs available with the Result Manager: standard diagrams and presen-
tation diagrams.

6.2.2 Standard Diagrams

Standard diagrams (Fig. 6.66) are created separately for each component and only
contain results of the individual component and represent time histories of the
single components.
They have a predefined representation page, which can only be changed in some
parts. Standard diagrams are opened by selecting the respective Calculation Task in
the tree structure of Result Manager and then selecting the corresponding
component.
The pages mode sidebar is divided into a list of predefined standard diagram
pages for the respective component and TeimView Assistant with a tree structure of
components with all available curves and the current parameter for current diagram
of respective component with the list of all used curves. TeimView has two modes
tabs: pages and data sources. Pages are used to view results as curves in standard
6.2 Run Simulation 431

/*Conversion routine*/
/*Converting brake Torque into Pressure for all Brakes (Front & Rear)*/
double E-Brake;
/* Check whether Torque of E-Drive is negative that means the load signal to the
E-Motor is negative.
In this case the corresponding brake Pressure will be calculated*/
if (a[0] < 0 )
{
/* The corresponding Brake pressure will be determined by using the following
equation:
M = 2 * P * A * eff * u * r * c
with
M: Brake Torque;
P: Brake Pressure;
A: Brake Piston Surface;
eff: Efficiency;
u: Friction Coefficient;
r: effective Friction Radius;
c: Specific Brake factor.
P=M /(2 *A* eff * u * r* c)
It’s simplify the formula for Rear Brake and Front Brake by using
Brake_Factor_Front and Brake_Factor_Rear in order to use the mean value of
both:
Brake_Factor_Front= AF*effF*uF*rF*cF
Brake_Factor_Rear= AR*effR*uR*rR*cR
It’s also to take into account the following ratios: Ratio of Final Drive (iFD) and
Ratio of Transmission (iTR) between the E-Drive and E-Brake.
[P.S. The ratio iTR is equal 1 because there isn't any Gearbox in the model.]
P= M * iFD * iTR/[2 * (Brake_Factor_Front + Brake_Factor_Rear)/2]
The used channel data are then :
a[0] : eDrive_Torque;
a[1] : iFD;
a[2] : iTR;
a[3] : Brake_Factor_Front;
a[4] : Brake_Factor_Rear.
*/
eBrake = a[0]*2*a[1]*a[2]/(2*(a[3]+a[4]));
}
else
{
/* and if the Torque is positive that means E-Motor drives the vehicle the E-Brake
should be equal Zero */
E-Brake = 0.;
}
/*Calculation of reduced mechanical E-Brake Function to determine a maximum
value By applying negative load the E-Drive applies a resistance which generates
electrical power. In this case the mechanical power required for breaking will be
reduced by the power which the E-Motor has recuperated.
That means the vehicle will at first be electrically braked and The rest required
brake energie will be provided by mechanical brakes */
if ((E-Brake+a[5])>0.0)
{
y[0]= (E-Brake+a[5]);
}
else
{
y[0]= 0.0;
}

Fig. 6.57 C code function

432 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 6.43 Description of Data Bus

Data Bus Channel Description Unit Connection Decouple
a[0] eDrive_Torque Nm Optional 0
a[1] iFD (Ratio of Final Drive) – Optional 0
a[2] iTR (Ratio of Final Transmission) – Optional 0
a[3] Brake_Factor_Front – Optional 0
a[4] Brake_Factor_Rear – Optional 0
a[5] Brake Pressure_Driver Pa Optional 0
y[0] BRK_dp_Recup Pa Optional 0

Fig. 6.58 Range extender control input data specifications window

diagram and data sources in tables as numerical data for the respective component
for analyzing and extracting.
The data sources mode sidebar (Fig. 6.67) has a tree structure where the data
source, data file, and table are shown. In data source view is a list of all curve data
that can be shown.
Energy Flow Graphics feature can be selected in the Result Manager (Fig. 6.68).
An animation shows the flow between the drivetrain components over time of the
following parameters: Current [A], Energy Stored [kJ], Energy [kJ], Power [kW],
Speed [1/min], Velocity [km/h], Torque [Nm], Force [N], Voltage [V].
The animation can be controlled by appropriate switches (play, pause, step-wise,
stop, repeat, velocity). A time-bar, showing the actual simulation time, can be
moved to a certain time-step with the mouse.
Below the flow graphics a monitor is shown which displays the result curves of
selected components. With a zoom-option, the horizontal direction can be scaled so
that long cycles can also be viewed properly.
6.2 Run Simulation 433

/* Starting && Shut down Engine and Charging Battery*/

int operatingMode;
if(realTime<=0.0) { operatingMode = 0; }
/*Checking whether the State of Charge exceeds the Minimum Value*/
if (a[0] < a[1] )
{
/* Range extending: In this case the Engine should be started and Generator have
to generate energy into Battery. */
operatingMode=1;
}
if (a[0] > a[2] )
{
/* Pure electrical Drive: In this case the Engine is turned off and the E-Motor per-
form the eDriving. */
operatingMode=0;
}
if (operatingMode)
{
/* Start Switch for Engine have to be set. The load signal for Generator should be
applied when the engine is around its optimum operating area.
The load signal to the Engine is provided by PID which controls the Engine speed
to the pre-defined speed level. */
y[0] = 1; /*start switch Gen*/
y[1] = 0; /*load signal Gen init*/
if (a[4]> (a[6]-50)) /*check on the ICE speed*/
{
y[1] = -0.5; /*load signal Gen*/
}
y[2] = a[3]; /*start switch ICE*/
y[3] = a[5]; /*load signal ICE*/
if ( (a[4]< (a[6]-50)) && (a[5]>0.5) ) /*check on the ICE speed and limit the
value*/
{
y[3] = 0.5; /*load signal ICE*/
}
}
if (!operatingMode)
{
/* When ICE is turned off, all of the set values to the Range Extender components
are set to not-active. */
y[0] = 0.0;
y[1] = 0.0;
y[2] = 0.0;
y[3] = 0.0;
}

Fig. 6.59 C code function

434 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 6.44 Description of Data Bus

Data Bus Channel Description Unit Connection Decouple
a[0] SOC_Act % Optional 0
a[1] SOC_Min % Optional 0
a[2] SOC_Max % Optional 0
a[3] Start_Switch _CP – Optional 0
a[4] Engine Speed 1/min Optional 0
a[5] Load_Signal_Engine – Optional 0
a[6] Desired Engine Speed 1/min Optional 0
y[0] Start_Switch_Gen – Optional 0
y[1] Load_Signal_Gen – Optional 0
y[2] Start Switch_Engine – Optional 0
y[3] Load_Signal_Engine – Optional 0

Fig. 6.60 Monitor input data specifications window

Table 6.45 Description of Data Bus Channel Description Unit

Data Bus
Input 0 LoadSignal_Cockpit –
Input 1 Velocity km/h
Input 2 Torque_eDrive Nm
Input 3 SOC (State of Charge) %
Input 4 Engine_Speed rpm

In addition to the graphical representation, the associated values can also be

displayed in the monitor as well as in the drivetrain flow graphics.
The values of the Energy Flow Graphics can also be displayed in a pie chart.
Clicking the button EFG pie chart opens an area where the segments can be
added or removed with the buttons “+” and “−.”
The association between a segment and a component parameter can be done by
marking the segment in the segment list and then doing a left mouse-click on a
so-called connector of the component (Fig. 6.69). Several connectors can be chosen
for one segment. In that case, the segment represents the sum of all associated
values. The segment list consists of the absolute segment values as well as of the
values in terms of percentages.
6.2 Run Simulation 435

Fig. 6.61 PID control input data specifications window

Table 6.46 PID control input Name Value Unit

data
Proportional Parameter 10.00 –
Derivative Parameter 0.000 s
Integral Parameter 1.0e−4 1/s
Output Value Minimum 0.000 –
Output Value Maximum 1.000 –

Fig. 6.62 Constants input data specifications window

436 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Table 6.47 Constants table data

Data Bus Channel Description Value Unit Type
Constant 0 Brake_Factor_Front 0.00015 – Double
Constant 1 Brake_Factor_Rear 0.00008 – Double
Constant 2 iFD (Ratio of Final Drive) 3.650 – Double
Constant 3 iTR (Ratio of Final Transmission) 1.000 – Double
Constant 4 Maximum Brake Pressure 50.00 bar Double
Constant 5 Brake Factor 1.000 – Double
Constant 6 SOC_Min 45.00 % Double
Constant 7 SOC_Max 60.00 % Double
Constant 8 Desired Engine Speed 3000 1/min Double

Fig. 6.63 Start calculation

To evaluate the economy characteristics the simulation was running a typical

NEDC cycle (Fig. 6.70). The total distance of this cycle is 10.931 m, the total time
is 1180 s, idle standing time is 267 s, average speed including stops is 33.35 km/h,
average driving speed excluding stops is 43.10 km/h, average acceleration is
0.506 m/s2 and maximum acceleration is 1.042 m/s2.
After running the simulation, all the results can be exported into graphs: the slip
signal for all the wheels (Fig. 6.71), the required friction coefficient (Fig. 6.72),
comparison of front and back friction coefficient (Fig. 6.73), electrical power,
6.2 Run Simulation 437

Fig. 6.64 Result Manager window

Fig. 6.65 Result Manager pages mode

438 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.66 Standard diagrams

Fig. 6.67 Result Manager data sources mode

6.2 Run Simulation 439

Fig. 6.68 Energy Flow Graphics

Fig. 6.69 Energy Flow Graphics pie chart

440 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.70 NEDC typical cycle

Fig. 6.71 The slip signal for all the wheels

maximum power out, and power input (Fig. 6.74), voltage, current, charge, and
State of Charge (Fig. 6.75), and electrical power and power loss (Fig. 6.76), total
input and output energy and charge (Fig. 6.77), speed, braking torque, and brake
6.2 Run Simulation 441

Fig. 6.72 The required friction coefficient

Fig. 6.73 Comparison of front and back friction coefficient

power (Fig. 6.78), brake pressure, braking torque and brake power (Fig. 6.79),
braking torque and rotational acceleration (Fig. 6.80), acceleration velocity and
distance (Fig. 6.81), acceleration pedal travel, brake pedal force and clutch pedal
442 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.74 Electrical power, maximum power out and power inputs

Fig. 6.75 Voltage, current, charge, and State of Charge

travel (Fig. 6.82), load signal, brake pressure, and clutch release (Fig. 6.83), real
time, current gear and velocity (Fig. 6.84), rotational accelerations (Fig. 6.85),
torques (Fig. 6.86), power loss and efficiency (Fig. 6.87), torque, speed, and
6.2 Run Simulation 443

Fig. 6.76 Electrical power and power loss

Fig. 6.77 Total input and output energy and charge

mechanical power (Fig. 6.88), torque, maximum torque—motor and maximum

torque—generator (Fig. 6.89), efficiency, electrical power, and power loss
(Fig. 6.90), total input and output energy (Fig. 6.91).
444 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.78 Speed, braking torque and brake power

Fig. 6.79 Brake pressure, braking torque, and brake power

For all inputs and outputs, a specific graph can be made: switch and resistance
(Fig. 6.92), e-drive torque input (Fig. 6.93), driver brake pressure (Fig. 6.94), input
vehicle velocity (Fig. 6.95), input vehicle acceleration (Fig. 6.96), input load signal
6.2 Run Simulation 445

Fig. 6.80 Braking torque and rotational acceleration

Fig. 6.81 Acceleration velocity and distance

(Fig. 6.97), input brake pressure (Fig. 6.98), mod load signal (Fig. 6.99), input load
signal cockpit (Fig. 6.100), speed input and output (Fig. 6.101), rotational accel-
eration input and output (Fig. 6.102), efficiency and torque loss (Fig. 6.103),
446 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.82 Acceleration pedal travel, brake pedal force, and clutch pedal travel

Fig. 6.83 Load signal, brake pressure, and clutch release

air resistance force, resistance force and traction force (Fig. 6.104), wheel loads
front (Fig. 6.105), wheel loads rear (Fig. 6.106), axle loads (Fig. 6.107), friction
coefficient and friction coefficient exploit (Fig. 6.108), longitudinal force and slip
6.2 Run Simulation 447

Fig. 6.84 Real time, current gear, and velocity

Fig. 6.85 Rotational accelerations

(Fig. 6.109), desired, current, minimum, and maximum velocity (Fig. 6.110), clutch
pedal travel and acceleration pedal travel (Fig. 6.111), brake pedal travel and
acceleration pedal travel (Fig. 6.112), clutch pedal travel and gear (Fig. 6.113),
brake pedal travel, and power of all brakes (Fig. 6.114).
448 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.86 Torques

Fig. 6.87 Power loss and efficiency

6.2 Run Simulation 449

Fig. 6.88 Torque, speed, and mechanical power

Fig. 6.89 Torque, maximum torque—motor, and maximum torque—generator

450 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.90 Efficiency, electrical power, and power loss

Fig. 6.91 Total input and output energy

6.2 Run Simulation 451

Fig. 6.92 Switch and resistance

Fig. 6.93 E-drive torque input

452 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.94 Driver brake pressure

Fig. 6.95 Input vehicle velocity

6.2 Run Simulation 453

Fig. 6.96 Input vehicle acceleration

Fig. 6.97 Input load signal

454 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.98 Input brake pressure

Fig. 6.99 Mode load signal

6.2 Run Simulation 455

Fig. 6.100 Input load signal cockpit

Fig. 6.101 Speed input and output

456 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.102 Rotational acceleration input and output

Fig. 6.103 Efficiency and torque loss

6.2 Run Simulation 457

Fig. 6.104 Air resistance force, resistance force and traction force

Fig. 6.105 Wheel loads front

458 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.106 Wheel loads rear

Fig. 6.107 Axle loads

6.2 Run Simulation 459

Fig. 6.108 Friction coefficient and friction coefficient exploit

Fig. 6.109 Longitudinal force and slip

460 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.110 Desired, current, minimum, and maximum velocity

Fig. 6.111 Clutch pedal travel and acceleration pedal travel

6.2 Run Simulation 461

Fig. 6.112 Brake pedal travel and acceleration pedal travel

Fig. 6.113 Clutch pedal travel and gear

462 6 Electric Powertrain Configuration Model and Simulation

Fig. 6.114 Brake pedal travel and power of all brakes

References

1. AVL Cruise (2011) Users guide. AVL List GmbH, Graz, Austria, Document no. 04.0104.2011,
Edition 06.2011
2. AVL Cruise (2011) Primer. AVL List GmbH, Graz, Austria, Document no. 04.0103.2011,
Edition 06.2011
Chapter 7
Creating Virtual Road Infrastructure

7.1 AVL Road Importer

7.1.1 Getting Started

AVL Road Importer is an AVL Concerto™ option (Fig. 7.1). The purpose of this
option is to convert any GPS data or x, y data of a real road into a format readable
by AVL Concerto™ [1].
This tool is not a GIS tool in the sense that it does not permit to log GPS data nor
does it have any link to any mapping tool. All the data are provided by the user.
Therefore, the generated road is representative of that data. The only given
information about the road are the points, which the user can limit in case they
cannot be done with the given set of parameters.
This subchapter describes the possibilities of AVL Road Importer as well as its
intended use. To navigate, use the command bar available on the left part of the
screen. It is composed of four sections:
Data—in this section, the user is able to either import GPX or KML files to
AVL Concerto™ or simply choose a file in AVL Concerto™ Data Explorer;
Road—in this section, the user is able to choose what data to work with, but also
prepare it before the main algorithm;
Plot—in this section, the user can find supplementary tools to verify the quality
of the road just generated but also you will be able to specify additional elements
such as speed limits;
Export—in this section, the user will find the necessary tools to export to AVL
InMotion or AVL CRUISE format [1].

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 463

B.O. Varga et al., Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles,
Green Energy and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-18639-9_7
464 7 Creating Virtual Road Infrastructure

Fig. 7.1 AVL Road Importer main menu

7.1.2 Data Submenu

The Data submenu is accessible by clicking on the button Data in the command bar.
In the submenu there are the following possibilities (Fig. 7.2):

Fig. 7.2 AVL Road Importer—Data submenu

7.1 AVL Road Importer 465

Open Data Explorer—this opens the AVL Concerto™ Data Explorer and the
user is able to access any AVL Concerto™ file (read). This is also where previously
imported KML and GPX files can be accessed.
Import KML File—the user is able to import KML through this. (by choosing
the KML files wish to import and click ok). KML (Keyhole Markup Language) is
an XML language focused on geographic visualization, including annotation of
maps and images. Geographic visualization includes not only the presentation
of graphical data on the globe, but also control of the user’s navigation in the sense
of where to go and where to look. After importing a KML file, it will appear in the
Channel-Browser. The imported files are saved to the directory/Roads/KML/as a
Concerto Transport File (CTF).
Import GPX File—the user will be able to import GPX through this (by
choosing the GPX files you wish to import and click ok). GPX (GPS eXchange
Format) is a lightweight XML data format for interchange of GPS data (waypoints,
routes, and tracks) between applications and web services on the Internet. After
importing a GPX file, it will appear in the Channel-Browser. The imported files are
saved to the directory/Roads/GPX/as a Concerto Transport File (CTF).

7.1.3 Road Submenu

The Road submenu is accessible by clicking on the button Road in the command
bar. In the submenu the user will find the following possibilities (Fig. 7.3):

Fig. 7.3 AVL Road Importer—Road submenu

466 7 Creating Virtual Road Infrastructure

Channel Selection—by clicking on this button, the user can access the channel
selection page (Fig. 7.4) [1]. Each modification of the parameters needs to be saved
by clicking on the Apply button.
• Project—define the project name here. The project name in itself is not used by
the algorithm but it helps predefine the name of the output files;
• Road—define which channel to use for either latitude or longitude or x and y.
Each zone can be activated by checking the corresponding checkbox. If GPS
data is specified, the algorithm will convert it into UTM coordinates;
• Altitude—defines which channel to use for the altitude. A channel can be
chosen directly into (from data) or the channel containing the barometric
pressure (from barometer). If the barometric pressure is chosen, the algorithm
will convert the pressure into an altitude in meters.

Fig. 7.4 AVL Road Importer—Channel selection

7.1 AVL Road Importer 467

Fig. 7.5 AVL Road Importer—Pre-processing

Preprocessing—by clicking on this button, the pre-processing page is accessed

(Fig. 7.5) [1]. This page serves two purposes:
• The first purpose is to be able to view quickly the selected data in the Channel
Selection page;
• The second purpose is to declare invalid points in the data easily by selecting the
part which is invalid with the available cursors.
Invalidating data will make the algorithm ignore those points for road creation.
Parameters—by clicking on this button, the parameters page is accessed
(Fig. 7.6) [1]. Each modification of the parameters needs to be saved by clicking on
the Apply button.
This page regroups all parameters for the main algorithm. It is cut down in
several parts each regarding a certain aspect of the road.
• General—this section regroups all the general parameters for the road:
i. Speed limits—define a default speed limit as well as the unit used for
speeds;
ii. Friction—defines a default friction between 0 and 1 for the entire road.
468 7 Creating Virtual Road Infrastructure

Fig. 7.6 AVL Road Importer—Parameters

• Road—this section regroups two options:

i. Datum for conversion to UTM coordinates—you may choose the datum
used to convert the GPS data. The datum has a different precision depending
on the country;
ii. Default data precision—this value allows the user to filter the data
depending on the distance between two points. If this value is set to 5, it will
only keep points that are lower than 5 m apart and the minimum value is set
to 0.1 m.
• Altitude—this section contains all options relative to the altitude:
i. Maximum allowed slope—choose the datum used to convert the GPS data.
The datum has a different precision depending on the country;
ii. Smoothing effect—this defines the applied smoothing to altitude. The used
algorithm is a moving average. If None is set, no smoothing is applied. If
low, medium, or strong is set the moving average applied once, twice, or
three times respectively.
7.1 AVL Road Importer 469

• Algorithm—this section contains all options that only concern the algorithm:
i. Road width—this is the only parameter defining the road. This value is used
to determine if the points will be removed or not depending on if the turn is
doable. The larger the value the harder it is to make the turn, hence more
values will be removed from the data.
ii. Loop circuit—this parameter is still experimental. It enables the creation of
a closed track. Activating this option will not only reconnect the endpoint to
the first point but it will also try to correct the altitude to fully connect the
three dimensions of the road.
Execute—this is how to start the algorithm. Depending on the file size this step
may take some time. Once the algorithm finishes a file appears in the data explorer
(Fig. 7.7) [1]. This file should contain:
• The original data in the measurement key O;
• The parameter used for the algorithm in the measurement key P;
• The results of the algorithm in the measurement key R.
To save this file, the user must right click on it and export it as a CTF, ATF, or
ATF-XML (Fig. 7.8).

Fig. 7.7 Result file

470 7 Creating Virtual Road Infrastructure

Fig. 7.8 Export the result file

7.1.4 Plot Submenu

The Plot submenu is accessible by clicking on the button Plot in the command bar.
In the submenu there are the following possibilities (Fig. 7.9) [1].
• Elevation profile—clicking on this button, will access the elevation profile page
(Fig. 7.10). The purpose of this page is to verify the quality of the altitude.

Fig. 7.9 AVL Road Importer—Plot submenu

7.1 AVL Road Importer 471

Fig. 7.10 Elevation profile

• Speed limits—by clicking this button, the speed limits page is accessed
(Fig. 7.11). On this page, the specific speed limits for all parts of the road are
defined.
The user can define the speed limits using the band cursor to select a portion of
the road, and then click on a speed to be applied on this portion. By default the user
may choose between 50, 70, 90, or 110 (km/h). The used unit is the one that the
user specified in parameters submenu [1].
If the default values are not enough, the user can define own values in the
textbox on the right and click on Apply.
The graphs on the bottom left of the page allow the user to see the set speed
limits and it is updated every time a change is made.
The speed limits can be set up by automatic definition. In this section several
methods are available to try and automatically define the speed limit based on the
input vehicle speed coming from the data [1]. These methods are:
i. Method percentage—this algorithm will create speed limit zones based on the
maximum vehicle speed witnessed in the data. Four zones will be identified as:
25, 50, 75, and 100 % of the maximum vehicle speed (Fig. 7.12);
ii. Method-specific country—this algorithm will determine the speed limits to
apply based on the vehicle speed and thresholds defined by the user. To define
the thresholds type them in the popup window (Fig. 7.13);
iii. Method max speed break down every X—this algorithm will determine the
cut-off vehicle speed into zones depending on the distance traveled X where X
472 7 Creating Virtual Road Infrastructure

Fig. 7.11 Speed limits

Fig. 7.12 Speed limits—Method percentage

7.1 AVL Road Importer 473

Fig. 7.13 Speed limits—Method specific country

can be either 5, 10, or 50 m. The algorithm will then apply the maximum of
the vehicle speed in the defined zones as the speed limits for the road
(Fig. 7.14).
For each algorithm above, there will be a detection of zero values for the vehicle
speed. Every time a vehicle stop is detected there will be a stop panel added to the
road automatically that will be the duration of the stop event.

7.1.5 Export Submenu

The Export submenu is accessible by clicking on the button Export in the command
bar. In the submenu there are the following options (Fig. 7.15) [1].
• InMotion test run—when clicking on InMotion test run, the user will be
prompted for a directory to save the test run. The extension is ROAD, and this
test run only contains information linked to the road. It cannot be used as a
standalone in InMotion. It can, however, be imported directly in the Road menu
of InMotion. (this test run is not a digitalized road, the user has to import the
road segments it contains);
• AVL CRUISE way file—when clicking on AVL CRUISE way file, the user will
be prompted for a directory to save the way file. The extension is WAY, and this
file contains only the altitude profile versus the distance for now.
474 7 Creating Virtual Road Infrastructure

Fig. 7.14 Speed limits—Method max speed breakdown every X

Fig. 7.15 AVL Road Importer—Export submenu

7.1 AVL Road Importer 475

Fig. 7.16 HTML Google Map preview

• HTML Google Map preview—when the original data is in GPS coordinates

(latitude, longitude) there is an HTML file generated automatically along with
the AVL CRUISE way file or the InMotion test run. To view their content, they
must be opened by using an Internet browser (Fig. 7.16).

Fig. 7.17 Google Earth section

476 7 Creating Virtual Road Infrastructure

Fig. 7.18 Google Map section

7.1.6 Going Online

It is possible to go online to be able to visualize the data in a friendlier manner.

Because Google Maps and Google Earth are great tools for this, AVL Road
Importer will connect to this software to offer the best visual experience. Also, the
user can go online and access those functionalities by clicking on the Google Earth
and Google Maps buttons.
When clicking on the Google Earth button (Fig. 7.17), Google Earth will be
opened and the data will be automatically displayed. There are two kinds of dis-
plays. The first is to display only one point at a time. This point will be represented
as a car in Google Earth.
When clicking on the Google Maps button (Fig. 7.18), an Internet page will be
automatically opened with a Google Maps display of your selection. Each click on
this button will create a new Internet page.

Reference

1. AVL Road Importer (2013) User manual version 1.7, AVL France Technical Documentation
Chapter 8
Loop Powertrain Simulation

8.1 IPG CarMaker

8.1.1 Virtual Vehicle Environment

A virtual vehicle is a computer modeled representation of an actual vehicle with a

behavior that matches that of its real world counterpart. With CarMaker, the virtual
vehicle is made up of mathematical models that contain equations of motion or
kinematics along with other mathematical formulas that define the multibody sys-
tem. The model is parameterized with data that relates directly to the vehicle to be
studied [1].
By this approach it is possible to use CarMaker to test any vehicle with a
validated parameter set, and to easily switch between virtual vehicles by changing
the parameter data that are used in the vehicle model. The virtual vehicle contains
all parts of a real vehicle, including powertrain, tires, chassis, brakes, etc. It is also
easy to integrate real automotive controllers (ABS, ESP, ACC) or software modeled
controllers into the virtual vehicle by using hardware or software in the loop [2].
A virtual road is a digitized or computer-modeled representation of a road, track,
or course which simulates a real course or one that is generated specifically for
testing. With CarMaker, the road can be generated in two ways:
• By combining individual road segments, such as straights and curves, to form a
larger road. For each road section there is a specific length, width, angle, slope,
pitch, friction coefficient, etc., defined that can be specified;
• By using digitized data of an existing road that has been collected. With this
approach, the measured data that are taken by survey or some other method is
contained in a data file that is read by CarMaker and used as the road or a test
track during simulation [2].
A virtual driver is computer software, which simulates the actions of a real driver.
Everything that would normally be controlled by a real driver, such as turning the

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 477

B.O. Varga et al., Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles,
Green Energy and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-18639-9_8
478 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

steering wheel, stepping on the gas, brake and clutch pedals, shifting gears in a
manual transmission vehicle, etc., are controlled by the virtual driver. There are two
approaches that can be taken into account to perform the driver actions:
• Simple control—with simple control, the actions are performed by specifying in
advance what will happen at a certain time or distance;
• IPGDriver—the course is controlled by a smart computer driver, which tries to
maintain a course on a test track and can also plan ahead. The driver can be
modified to operate within specified limits. For example, a driver may have a
fast or slow reaction time, he may want to maintain a certain speed, and he could
be trying to go as fast as possible [3].
When the virtual vehicle, virtual road, and virtual driver are taken together, it can
refer to it as the Virtual Vehicle Environment (VVE), since the virtual vehicle
“drives” on the virtual road and is “driven” by the virtual driver (Fig. 8.1).
The CIT (CarMaker Interface Toolbox) consists of a number of tools (applica-
tions and utilities) that run on a host computer. The CIT includes the following:
• The CarMaker GUI—this is the main Graphical User Interface which is used to
control the actions of the VVE, select the virtual vehicle parameter data, define
or select the virtual road, set the virtual driver parameters, define or load
maneuvers;
• The Vehicle Data Set Editor—edit any parameter of the vehicle with a conve-
nient user interface. Each individual submodel class is editable in a separate tab;
• The IPGControl—visualization and analysis tools IPGControl can be used to
view selected output quantities in real-time, load post-simulation data files, and
plot and analyze the results;

Fig. 8.1 Virtual Vehicle Environment (VVE)

8.1 IPG CarMaker 479

• The IPGMovie—real-time 3D animation of the VVE. The virtual vehicle is

shown performing the specified driving maneuvers (performed by the virtual
driver) on the virtual road;
• The Instruments—display the most important instruments, dials, and informa-
tion about the vehicle driving conditions like: pedal position, steering wheel
angle, gear selection, ignition, speedometer, tachometer, ESP and ABS warning
lamps, brake light, etc.;
• DVA (Direct Variable Access) allow simulation quantities to be read and
modified interactively through a user-friendly graphical interface;
• ScriptControl—test automation utility that allows scripts to be defined, edited,
and executed. All the functions of the CIT can be controlled automatically using
ScriptControl;
• TestManager—another utility for test automation. A mixture of script and GUI-
based creation and execution of test series [2].

8.1.2 CarMaker Main GUI

To start CarMaker under windows press the Start button and select Programs—IPG
—CarMaker.
The CarMaker main GUI pops up and automatically loads the project folders
where the user was working before last shut down of the program. Nonetheless, it
can easily switch the project folder by selecting File—Project Folder and select the
one project for work [2].
The main window of CarMaker is called the main Graphical User Interface GUI
(Fig. 8.2).

Fig. 8.2 Main GUI of CarMaker

480 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Car subsections describe all parameters required to parameterize the vehicle

model using the Vehicle Editor. In the excel tables by clicking once in a cell, their
position can be moved to another cell by using the keyboard arrows [2].
The functionalities that can be found under file intend to manage the vehicle data
set library. Below it can find functionalities that are available:
• To use a data set which is already built, corresponding vehicle file must be
loaded via the vehicle editor;
• The user can also create a new vehicle data set from scratch. In this case, be
aware that even if this option is chosen, the Vehicle Editor is filled with default
values (the exception is the vehicle picture). If the vehicle parameterization not
finished before closing, a comment should be added;
• Once the vehicle data set is parameterized, the changes can be saved or alter-
natively save them to a new file;
• Note that there is the possibility to import a part of the vehicle from another
vehicle data set;
• The Vehicle Generator gives the possibility to generate a vehicle model with
basic data only;
• The Vehicle Data Set Generator can generate a vehicle with basic data. This can
be extremely useful if the work is dedicated on a new regulation system and on
the exact vehicle parameterization itself [2].
Bodies are the masses of the vehicle models and can be described in the Vehicle
Body tabs (Fig. 8.3) and Bodies (Fig. 8.4). According to the selected vehicle model
(flexible or rigid), a different number of bodies can be parameterized. In case of a

Fig. 8.3 Vehicle data set

8.1 IPG CarMaker 481

Fig. 8.4 Bodies

flexible body mode, the main body is split into two bodies. The main body/bodies
include all sprung mass of the vehicle [4].
Engine Mount: CarMaker offers the possibility to simulate an elastically
mounted engine. By activating this feature, an additional mass is added to the
model which needs to be connected to the main body by a joint. The required
settings can be specified in the Engine of the Vehicle Data Set Editor tab (Fig. 8.5).
The Engine Body is parameterized similar to the vehicle body. The position of
the center of gravity in the design frame is required, as well as the moments and
products of inertia [2].
Joint Engine section, the connection point from the engine mass to the vehicle
body is specified. Mounting generalized Joint Force Mode, each of the five force
elements Force X, Force Y, Force Z, Torque X, and Torque Y are made of a spring
and damper element. The amplification factor can be used to easily manipulate the
spring and damper characteristics by a multiplication factor given in this field.
The Characteristic Value description: the linear spring and damper characteristic
defined by a single coefficient in (N/m) for the spring stiffness and in (Ns/m) for the
damping.
1D look-up table description: nonlinear spring and damper characteristic defined
by a look-up table. For the spring, the map requires the force in (N) over
482 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Fig. 8.5 Engine mount

compression in (m); the damper element is specified by force in (N) over velocity in
(m/s).
Suspensions for a given axle: the spring characteristics are the same for both
sides of the vehicle. The Spring is modeled as a component that generates a force
when it is compressed or stretched (Fig. 8.6).

Fig. 8.6 Suspensions—spring

8.1 IPG CarMaker 483

Fig. 8.7 Suspensions—secondary spring

For each front and rear axle, the stiffness of the Secondary Spring can be defined
with a simple coefficient if the secondary spring force is a linear function of the
wheel travel variation (Fig. 8.7). If the mode not specified is selected, the secondary
spring is deactivated [2].
The stiffness parameter is either a simple coefficient or a table according to the
selected parameter Mode.
Amplification parameter enables to scale the stiffness of the secondary spring
very quickly for test purposes, instead of modifying the whole table. It can also use
this parameter to convert the values to fit to the units required by CarMaker. The
default value is 1.0. If the value is 0.0, the secondary spring is deactivated [2].
For a given axle, the Damper characteristics are the same for both sides of the
vehicle (Fig. 8.8). The damper is modeled as a component that generates a force
when being compressed or deflected (reaction to the change of velocity) [2].
For each front and rear axle, the damper characteristic is defined either by a
coefficient or by a table of values according to the selected mode.
The characteristics of the damper are split into two domains: push and pull. For
each domain a different damping can be defined. The push domain corresponds to a
positive damper speed, which means that the damper is being compressed.
For a given axle, the Buffer characteristics are the same for both sides of the
vehicle (Fig. 8.9). The buffers are used to limit the wheel travel in one direction or
in both up and down. If the wheel traveled far enough to hit one of the buffers, the
buffer acts like an additional spring [2].
That is why the user has to parameterize two buffers per axle (four in total),
stiffness for each buffer, and the wheel travel from which the buffers are activated in
both positive and negative directions.
The buffer stiffness can be parameterized by a coefficient (mode Characteristic
Value) or by a table of values (mode look-up table 1D).
For each front and rear axle, the buffer stiffness are defined either by a coefficient
or by a table of values according to the selected mode.
484 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Fig. 8.8 Suspensions—damper

The characteristics of the buffer are split into two domains: push and pull, where
the push domain corresponds to a positive wheel travel.
In the Stabilizer tab, only the properties of the single Anti Roll Bar
(ARB) element are specified. Its angle or length variation is defined in the kine-
matics of the model [2].
Various Kinematics models are available (Fig. 8.10). The kinematics of the
model has to be specified or each of the front and rear axles separately.
The Compliance model takes into account the transition of the wheel when
forces are applied due to elasticity effects of the suspension (Fig. 8.11).
The user can choose between the following compliance descriptions that are
available in the model option on the compliance tab, for others the user has to select
the mode not specified and define them in an external kinematics file [2].
Wheel Bearing friction activates or deactivates the effect of friction at the wheel
bearings. The wheel bearing friction is characterized by a single coefficient μ, which
defines the friction force on the bearing. The bearing radius R enables to evaluate
the friction torque on the bearing based on the friction force. Using the amplifi-
cation factor amp the friction coefficient can be scaled very quickly instead of
modifying the parameter itself [2].
External Forces are calculated by an external model and can be added to the
spring, damper, or stabilizer forces calculated by CarMaker. The model can be
generated by a C code or using MATLAB®/Simulink™.
8.1 IPG CarMaker 485

Fig. 8.9 Suspensions—buffer

Fig. 8.10 Suspensions—kinematics

Steering System consists of a mechanical module which defines the ratio

between the steering wheel angle and the steering rack displacement (Fig. 8.12).
Optionally, a power steering unit can be added by selecting the Pfeffer Steering
model which also regards friction losses in the steering system [2].
486 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Fig. 8.11 Suspensions—compliance

Fig. 8.12 Steering gear ratio

The Pfeffer Steering model is a very detailed model of a steering system

including effects caused by friction losses, elasticity, and power steering.
The Mechanical module (Fig. 8.13) includes all mechanical components which
transfer torque from the steering wheel to the tie rods.
The Power Assistance module can be of the following modes: hydraulic (HPS),
electrical (EPSc and EPSapa), or user defined (Fig. 8.14).
Because the power steering is a high-frequency system, the calculation of all
quantities once in the simulation cycle might not be sufficient to reach correct
results. For this, the integration time can be enhanced to x-times of one simulation
cycle using the option integration sub-steps [2].
8.1 IPG CarMaker 487

Fig. 8.13 Mechanical module

Fig. 8.14 Power assistance module

488 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Fig. 8.15 Tires

The hydraulic power steering unit supports the steering wheel motion on the
base of hydraulic pressure generated by an engine-driven pump.
Using the DVA mechanism the user can implement his own assistance model or
a steering without assistance.
Tires are parametrized within the vehicle data set (Fig. 8.15). The purpose of the
tire models is to calculate the slips and the stress applied to the contract point on the
road (patch point) and then to convert them into stresses applied to the wheel center,
since the rest of the vehicle model directly uses those efforts.
Brake model determines the ratio between the forces at the brake pedal to the
braking torque at each wheel (Fig. 8.16). The brake system consists of hydraulic
models and does not contain any controller model.

Fig. 8.16 Brake

8.1 IPG CarMaker 489

Fig. 8.17 Powertrain—general

Powertrain module is a torque transmission model which transfers a torque

from the engine to the wheels. In reaction to that, the wheel speeds are modified and
the rotation speed of the different components of the driveline are calculated sub-
sequently (Fig. 8.17).
The engine is seen as a torque source producing its output depending on the
throttle position and on its speed (its speed is imposed by the wheel speeds) [2].
The Generic Powertrain typically consists of the engine, the clutch, the gearbox
and the driveline, which represents a classical powertrain with a combustion engine.
The way to parameterize the engine torque map is to use the engine mapping
model look-up table 1D drag and full load (Fig. 8.18). The mapping model look-up

Fig. 8.18 Powertrain—engine mapping

490 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Fig. 8.19 Powertrain—Fuel Consumption Map

table 2D engine speed and gas may be used instead if the user wishes to define the
torque values at mid-loads on his own. This is only necessary if you have a
complete and accurate torque map of an engine and if the tests require a very
accurate engine response [2].
For this model two characteristics have to be parameterized: the maximum
engine torque and the drag torque characteristics (at a given speed the gas pedal is
completely released). CarMaker interpolates the mid-load characteristics automat-
ically, depending on the specified exponent.
A Fuel Consumption Map can only be added using the engine model look-up
table (Fig. 8.19). Fuel tank parameters relating to the fuel and fuel tank can be
carried out on this tab [2].
The Clutch model enables the transfer of all or none of the torque produced by
the engine to the driveline part (Fig. 8.20).

Fig. 8.20 Powertrain—clutch

8.1 IPG CarMaker 491

The following clutch models are available:

• Friction model for a conventional mechanical clutch;
• Converter model for a vehicle equipped with an automatic transmission;
• DVA model where the user must define the torque transmitted by the DVA
quantity.
The integrated lock-up table gives the possibility to define the speed at which the
converter is locked or unlocked for each gear in dependence on the throttle position.
The clutch is locked if the reference speed over-runs the lock speed limit and is
unlocked if the gear number changes or the reference speed under-runs the unlock
speed limit [2].
The gearbox module enables to convert the rotation speed of the shafts as well as
the transferred torque just like a real gearbox would (Fig. 8.21).
For the automatic model an automated shifting unit can be modeled (Fig. 8.22).
With driveline models the user can choose the type of torque distribution
(Fig. 8.23). The differential model transfers the torque from the input shaft to each
wheel or for a differential to each axle. On the other hand the speeds coming from
both output shafts are converted to a mid-speed imposed to the input shaft [2].
The differential models are exactly the same for the front and rear differential.
Concerning the models for the center or hang-on differentials, only a few param-
eters differ from the other differential (Fig. 8.24).
When a wheel, respectively a shaft, is slipping, the differential is able to transfer
a part of the torque to the wheel or shaft without slip, within a given limit.
The coupling model represents the differential models, which show how both
output sides of the differential are linked together.
The aerodynamic model applies additional variable forces to the vehicle body,
according to the vehicle speed. The adaptation of the map by accurate values is
often not required as the aerodynamic model is of minor importance at low

Fig. 8.21 Powertrain—gearbox

492 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Fig. 8.22 Powertrain—gearbox automatic model (gears and shifting limits)

Fig. 8.23 Powertrain—driveline

8.1 IPG CarMaker 493

Fig. 8.24 Powertrain—driveline differential model

speeds [2]. Under about 100 km/h the influence of the aerodynamic forces is so
small that the user can afford to leave the default values (Fig. 8.25).
In the Sensors tab, there is the possibility to define four types of sensors: Sideslip
Angle Sensors, Body Sensors, Driving Assistance Sensors, and Road Property
Sensors (Fig. 8.26).
Sideslip Angle Sensors are located in the vehicle center of gravity by default.
A Body Sensor is an inertial sensor that can be positioned anywhere on the vehicle
to measure the position, velocity, rotational velocity, acceleration and rotational
acceleration. Up to 10 body sensors can be placed on the vehicle [2].
Driving Assistance Sensors (DASensor) can be parameterized independently,
just by selecting the sensor in the general area. The parameters that are specific to
the selected sensor are displayed under the graphical representation of the vehicle.
The Free Space Sensor Module (FSSensor) is an extended DASensor module,
whose sensor beam is subdivided in equiangular horizontal and vertical segments.
The Traffic Sign Sensor (TSSensor) detects all or preselected traffic sign which
falls within its defined range and horizontal/vertical aperture angles. The sensor
cross-checks if the sign faces the sensor and then sorts all detected signs in
ascending order with distance.
The Line Sensor module is used to detect lines and barriers that have been
defined by the user on the road dialog using the road marking and/or traffic barrier
options as a new bump or marker. It can be compared to an idealized camera.
494 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Fig. 8.25 Aerodynamic

Fig. 8.26 Sensors

8.1 IPG CarMaker 495

The Road Property Sensor collects road information at a user defined point
ahead of the vehicle. Several attributes like the road bend and its deviation, road
marker attributes (speed limit), or the longitudinal and lateral slope are detected.
This sensor can give information about the relative position: deviation distance,
deviation angle, and current driving lane are calculated. This data can be important
for various applications such as lane keeping assistance, lane departure warning,
autonomous driving; sign detection, energy management, pre-scanning, and opti-
mization of fuel consumption or detection of wheel lift [2].
In the Miscellaneous module the user can create his own vehicle graphics.
Supported file types are PNG images (Fig. 8.27). Using PNG pictures, any photo
can be imported.
A picture of the vehicle in top view and another one in side view is required. To
create a PNG using IPGMovie, the picture needs to be scaled to the length of the
vehicle (1 m = 100 pixel) and saved as a PNG image. Using the graphical tool,
everything around the vehicle needs to be deleted to create a transparent
background.
Then, select all and paste it to another file of the size of 560 × 226 pixels (72
dpi). Move the picture to the left side of the window (in case of a side view
additionally align it vertically to the bottom). The top view should be saved in the
same folder and finally the pictures can be selected in the CarMaker GUI [2].
Loads: The following section will present informations about the additional
loads (Fig. 8.28). With the so-called trim loads there is the possibility to add some
extra loads in order to simulate passengers, luggage, and heavy measurement
equipment. Check if the static position of the vehicle using ModelCheck, the effects

Fig. 8.27 Miscellaneous

496 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Fig. 8.28 Loads

of trim, loads will be included in the height of the vehicle’s center of gravity or the
wheel positions at the start of the configuration.
For some specific simulation purposes, the user may want to simulate a TestRun
with an additional load on the vehicle, but still want to check the static state of the
vehicle without it. The picture represents the vehicle body, defined loads (this is
illustrated by a point) [2].
Maneuver is the concept of CarMaker for the driving scenario (Fig. 8.29) and it
is following maneuver definition, which is split into several maneuver steps
(acceleration, braking, etc.).

3 4

Fig. 8.29 Maneuver menu: 1 list of the maneuver steps, 2 specification of a maneuver step, 3
longitudinal dynamics, 4 lateral dynamics
8.1 IPG CarMaker 497

These maneuver steps are called mini-maneuvers. Each mini-maneuver is

composed of:
• Longitudinal dynamic actions: accelerating, braking, gear shifting, etc.;
• Lateral dynamic actions: steering;
• Additional actions, defined by a very easy script language.
CarMaker offers a convenient GUI to build a great diversity of driving scenarios.
To build a driving scenario how to add and parameterize successive and various
maneuver steps it is necessary to control the vehicle as the user wants. The list of
the maneuvers steps is displayed and can be built in box 1.
The first entry in the maneuver list serves to specify starting conditions. Possible
settings are the initial speed, the gear number, the steering wheel angle, and track
offset.
A new maneuver step is added by using the New button at the bottom of box 1.
The maneuver steps are always inserted ahead of the one selected. A maneuver step
can be selected by clicking on the maneuver list in box 1; it is then highlighted in
blue. To add a step to the end of the list, click on the entry “ ==== END ==== ” to
select it, and then click on the New button.
Maneuver steps can also be copied and pasted, deleted, or imported from another
TestRun. You can find the same functionality Import by clicking with the right
mouse button anywhere in the Maneuver GUI [5].
After creating a maneuver step, the actions need to be defined. Each
mini-maneuver consists of duration (box 2) and a description of the driver’s task,
separated in longitudinal and lateral dynamics (box 3 and 4).
On the specification of a maneuver step (box 2) the user can define an end
condition for each maneuver step using real-time expressions. The classical end
conditions—time or distance—can be directly entered in the duration fields.
Longitudinal dynamics (box 3) are available to fully automate and detailed speed
and pedal control. To accelerate and brake the vehicle according to its dynamic
limits, the option IPGDriver should be chosen (closed loop maneuver). This option
activates the driver model for the longitudinal dynamics.
Possible specifications of lateral dynamics (box 4) are available to control the
steering wheel [5].
Simulation the whole control of the VVE, and with this of the CarMaker
simulation, is done via the CarMaker main GUI. The status of the simulation can be
observed in the simulation box.
Storage of Results mode collects only selected data and it is temporarily stored
in a ring buffer without being saved to the disk automatically. For mode saves all is
selected, all data is continuously and automatically saved to the disk.
If one of the history modes is selected, the data is temporarily stored in a ring
buffer. The saving process is started manually at the end of the simulation by clicking
the Save button. The amount of saved data depends on the history mode that has
been selected. If the mode history 10 s is selected, clicking on save at the end of the
simulation will save simulation results for the last 10 s of the simulation [6].
498 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

8.1.3 CarMaker Main Parameters

IPGRoad, the road model of CarMaker, enables to calculate the position of any
point on the road surface, including its coefficient of friction (Fig. 8.30). IPGRoad
describes the centerline of the road (x, y, z), which is symbolized by the white
stripes on the picture above.
Once the road geometry is defined, the track width counting from the centerline
to both sides of the road has to be parameterized, too. The same goes for the friction
coefficient of the road surface. In addition to that, it can redefine the width and
friction coefficient only for a certain section of the road. Once the TestRun has
started, the road definition is automatically linked to IPGMovie.
The IPGRoad dialog box can be accessed from the main GUI by selecting
Parameters—Road. The first tab that appears shows the general settings of the road
(Fig. 8.31). The global settings are [5]:
• Start coordinates x, y, z (m) defines the origin of the road;
• Start direction (deg) defines the angle offset from the first segment regarding the
x-axis;
• Car starts at (m) define at which distance the car should start;
• Driving lane should be used: the left or the right one;
• Country is option for the visualization and availability of the traffic signs;
• Track width (m) is defined on both sides of the centerline;
• Margin width (m) the margins are basically longitudinal stripes on both sides of
the entire road length;
• Friction stripe (m) in order to have a variable friction coefficient along the track
width up to two stripes can be defined.

The definition of the road geometry with a segment-based approach consists of a

succession of various segments (straight lines, curve left, or right) with correctly

Fig. 8.30 Road in IPGMovie

8.1 IPG CarMaker 499

Fig. 8.31 Road—general settings

parameterized properties in order to build a complete road. To use this method,

move to the second tab of the IPGRoad dialog box called Segments (Fig. 8.32).
To duplicate a segment, select the respective segment, click on “Copy”, select
the segment “ ==== END ==== ”, and finally click on the button “Insert” [7].
The segment list is displayed and can be built in the box at the bottom left of the
road GUI. At this point, segments can be added or deleted. Once the geometry of

Fig. 8.32 Road—segments

500 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Fig. 8.33 Road—Bird’s-Eye

view

the road is defined either using digitized road data or the segment-based approach
the user can check it with the Bird’s-Eye view (Fig. 8.33).
An IPGMovie interface tab in the road dialog defines a road in terms of seg-
ments, bumps, markers, vehicle start position, etc. (Fig. 8.34).
CarMaker offers the possibility to use real measurements to define the maneu-
vers (Fig. 8.35).

Fig. 8.34 Road—IPGMovie interface

8.1 IPG CarMaker 501

Fig. 8.35 Input From File

Several data may be read from a file: vehicle speed, steering wheel angle,
steering torque, pedal position, gear number, park brake position, and the pressure
in the master brake cylinder.
This functionality is referred to as Input From File (IFF), and its corresponding
GUI can be reached via the CarMaker GUI—Parameters—Input From File.
By clicking on the GUI using the right mouse button, a context menu opens. The
user can choose between Reset, Load, Save Configuration, Import, and Edit Aliases.
The configurations can be loaded from the project, shared and central directory
folder SimInput/Settings, whereas the saving of the configurations is possible only
within the project directory folder SimInput/Settings.
The file containing the measurement loads is the Input File tab. Only one file can
be chosen, thus if the measurements are split into several files, the user should
gather them into a single one.
This file must be a text file without commas or other punctuation marks and
should consider the following syntax: each column is referred to as a channel. Tabs
are allowed to separate the columns of each channel: the first line specifies the
channel names. In an optional second line, the unit and/or a factor for each channel
can be specified [8].
502 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Any input file requires a Time Channel. Without this channel, the IFF func-
tionality cannot work properly. It can be selected from the available channels using
a drop-down menu on the right side of the Channel in File. It is also possible to
define channel aliases for an automatic selection of a channel. This is possible by
clicking the right mouse button on the GUI and choosing Edit Aliases.
In the Starting Conditions tab the conditions for gear step, velocity, and maxi-
mum gas are used as initial values at the start of the maneuver.
In order to have a steady situation at the start of the maneuver, CarMaker starts a
procedure to reach these values. The parameterized maneuver does not start and the
simulation status in the CarMaker GUI remains on Preparation as long as the
Starting Conditions are not reached.
Selecting and formatting the Quantities to overwrite are the list of the quantities
that may be overwritten. In fact, it cannot be overwritten by the IFF functionality.
This channel is used by functionality, the option Speed Profile for the definition of
the longitudinal dynamics in the maneuver GUI.
The four last quantities are referred to as user defined. This means that the user
can link other quantities to the IFF functionality via the C-interface of CarMaker.
IPGDriver calculates a static desired course at the beginning of the simulation.
During this calculation the driver is able to optimize the path with respect to corner
cutting [5]. IPGDriver is a controller for following a course and a speed controller
on a given track (Fig. 8.36).
IPGDriver enables you to add the control actions of a human driver to your
complete vehicle simulation. These actions include the steering, braking, throttle
position, gear shifting, and clutch operation. To sum up, the driver actions are:
• Choice of driving course within the lane borders (corner cutting);
• Steering;
• Choice of the driving speed according to the course and the vehicle behavior;
• Influence on the speed over the accelerator and brake pedal, as well as over the
clutch pedal and gear selection;
• Regard traffic objects and follow.
CarMaker includes two versions of IPGDriver:
• User parameterized driver: this model is part of every version of CarMaker. The
user parameterized driver can perform a driver adaptation to automatically learn
about the vehicle limits by performing a preset sequence of maneuvers;
• Racing driver: this model is available in the pro version of CarMaker and
enables the optimization of the lap time in function of the speed and to perform a
driver adaptation procedure to automatically find these limits.
The option User parameterized Driver allows parameterization of the driver
model in the tab Standard Parameters.
IPGDriver is able to recognize traffic objects driving ahead. If the check box
Traffic is activated, the driver will follow the traffic objects (Fig. 8.37).
Using the Environment GUI (Fig. 8.38), it is possible to define environmental
conditions like the temperature, the time of day, or the wind velocity for the
8.1 IPG CarMaker 503

Fig. 8.36 IPGDriver—standard parameters

Fig. 8.37 IPGDriver—traffic

504 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Fig. 8.38 Environment

simulation [6]. If the model takes these parameters into account, they can influence
the results of the simulation.
The generic model uses a simplified approach to calculate the environmental air
temperature, pressure, and density. Other environmental parameters are kept con-
stant. It is possible to define temperature offsets depending on the time of day
and/or distance. Both offsets can be defined via the look-up tables.

8.1.4 Start Simulation

To start the first simulation (Fig. 8.39) open TestRun (File—Open—Examples—

Vehicle Dynamics—Training). Start the simulation by hitting the green Start button
in the CarMaker GUI. Open the Instruments (File—Instruments) and open
IPGMovie (File—IPGMovie).
When the user starts the simulation for the first time, the CarMaker GUI con-
nects itself to the application. If all preparations are completed, the program is really
performing the simulation of the TestRun. It normally remains in this state until the
TestRun ends or is aborted because of some error condition or manual intervention
of the user [9].
IPGControl is a tool that displays diagrams (Fig. 8.40). To use IPGControl
online load the work model and start a simulation. A diagram is created by choosing
the Quantities (Car.ax, DM.Brake, DM.Steer.Ang, etc.) and the Reference Quantity
(Time).
8.1 IPG CarMaker 505

Fig. 8.39 Simulation—IPGMovie and Instruments

To use IPGControl offline, perform a simulation and select save to the store of
results. In IPGControl load the File—Load File—SimOutput—NameOfPC—Date
—model_name.erg. After selecting the result file to be loaded, it appears in the list
of available data sets [2].
Session log window is opened automatically if errors occur. It can be opened
manually over main menu from: Simulation—session log (Fig. 8.41).
Session log is found in the Simulation menu and that is a record of events for
each simulation in a log file. Indeed, it is useful to keep a history of important or
unusual situations and events during the simulation of a TestRun that does not
disappear when the simulation is finished or the user turns off the computer. This
might be of particular interest for test automation, as the user can trace any potential
errors that might have during a given session.
By pressing the Analyze button the user will proceed to the system analysis. Its
results will be displayed and classified according to the following criteria [2]:
506 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Fig. 8.40 Simulation—IPGControl

• Project: a list of all projects (defined with Settings > Result Folder) that displays
the total simulation time and distance for each project.
• User: all users that have run simulations on the system are listed in this section.
Total simulation time and distance for each project are shown as well.
• TestRun: TestRun files that have been loaded and played in the defined time
frame appear in this section with total simulation time and distance.
8.2 CRUISE—CarMaker Co-Simulation 507

Fig. 8.41 Opening session log window

8.2 CRUISE—CarMaker Co-Simulation

8.2.1 General Settings

The AVL CRUISE simulation tool is developed by the Advanced Simulation

Technologies (AST) team of the AVL List GmbH. AVL CRUISE is software for
vehicle’s driving performance, fuel consumption, emissions, and driving quality
simulation.
Although AVL CRUISE is able to simulate the whole vehicle, the focus is on the
simulation of the powertrain.
AVL CRUISE reduces the analysis effort with a ready-to-use vehicle analysis
platform. Vehicle modeling of any powertrain topology with scalable fidelity is
done with a unique sub-system layer concept. This approach enables the reuse of
models or any of its sub-systems, exactly matching the application needs in dif-
ferent development phases of a consistent vehicle development process [10].
AVL CRUISE allows the simulation of vehicle driving performance, fuel con-
sumption, and emissions. This concept can be used for modeling all vehicle con-
figurations with scalable fidelity. This approach allows the reuse of models or
sub-systems in different optimization phases of a process in order to improve
vehicle performances.
508 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Fig. 8.42 Creating working directory

If a AVL CRUISE powertrain is chosen in the vehicle data set CarMaker starts the
AVL CRUISE simulation program during the initialization phase of the TestRun
simulation.
A CarMaker working directory is created over main menu File—Project Folder—
Create Project (Fig. 8.42).
Selecting CarMaker working directory over main menu: File—Project Folder—
Select (Fig. 8.43).

Fig. 8.43 Selecting working directory

8.2 CRUISE—CarMaker Co-Simulation 509

Fig. 8.44 Stand-alone simulation

After creating and selecting the working directory, CarMaker is supposed to be

ready to run. To test CarMaker stand-alone simulation open one of the examples
over File—Open—Examples—VehicleDynamics—Road_Hockenheim_R8 and
then press Start button and the simulation should run (Fig. 8.44).

8.2.2 CRUISE—CarMaker Interfaces

Preparing a AVL CRUISE powertrain for CarMaker co-simulation requires the

introduction of several new components in AVL CRUISE (CM-Car and Hub
component) as well as usage of system GUI feature and SAM calculation task.
On AVL CRUISE side the preparation for co-simulation are [11]:
• Building model with specific components—modules for co-simulation (CM-Car
and Hub module);
• Using system/sub-system to switch between AVL CRUISE stand-alone simu-
lation and co-simulation with CarMaker;
• Setup SAM calculation task of co-simulation;
• Some special modules needed for AVL CRUISE stand-alone simulation must be
excluded in co-simulation model (Vehicle, Cockpit, etc.);
On CarMaker side the preparation for co-simulation are:
• Creating CRUISE working directory inside a directory CarMaker;
510 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

• Copying and renaming the calculation kernel file (CRUISE\bin\CRUISE_m.dll

in CarMaker\lib\CRUISENT.dll) inside directory of CarMaker;
• Selecting AVL CRUISE powertrain and Project Folder for co-simulation.
• On both AVL CRUISE and CarMaker the preparations for co-simulation are:
• Harmonizing SimParameters and Memory Management.
The CM-Car component defines the interface in co-simulation between
AVL CRUISE powertrain models calculated by SAM calculation task and
CarMaker simulation package (Fig. 8.45) [12].
The interface component is exchanging the information between AVL CRUISE
and CarMaker and there must be one CM-Car module in the vehicle model.
At every time step, AVL CRUISE data will go to the CarMaker application
through Data Bus input channels CRUISE to CarMaker, and from there, the data
comes back to AVL CRUISE through output channels CarMaker to CRUISE which
can be connected with AVL CRUISE components [11].
This interface allows the user to easily establish a working AVL CRUISE
powertrain model for CRUISE—CarMaker co-simulation. The main settings to be
entered in the CM-Car interface are the following:

Fig. 8.45 CM-Car component in AVL CRUISE

8.2 CRUISE—CarMaker Co-Simulation 511

• Manual or Automatic Shift Mode—information about using gearbox in vehicle

model and it is needed by the IPGDriver;
• Transmission Ratio—the complete transmission ratio between the gearbox
output speed and wheel speed and it is needed by the IPGDriver;
• Idle Speed—the value has to be consistent with the engine idle speed inside the
engine module;
• Gear Ratio Table—value of the transmission ratio for complete gearbox and
supposed to be consistent with transmission ratio values in gear ratio table of
gearbox module;
• Body—the drive torque is supported by the car chassis;
• Wheel carrier—the drive torque is supported by the wheel carrier.
The component hub is a combination of a brake and a virtual wheel (Fig. 8.46).
It is used in models with an interface to a co-simulating program which simulates
the environment, the vehicle, and the wheel [11].
The component has the Data Bus inputs braking torque and (wheel) resistance
torque which can be connected with an interface component like AVL CRUISE
interface or CM-Car.
Inertia moment input is actually not necessary because this value is overwritten
with the wheel inertia given in the vehicle data set of CarMaker.
To avoid problems with slightly rotating wheels during standstill it is recom-
mended to uncheck the dynamic mode. dynamic mode is deactivated by default.
Deactivation may be done in modeling a sticking brake in kinematic mode. When

Fig. 8.46 Hub component in AVL CRUISE

512 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

set to dynamic, the brake calculation always stays dynamic and never switches to a
kinematic connection.
The most important aspect is that there are exactly the same numbers of Hub
modules as wheels in the model and they are properly connected or positioned like
in the AVL CRUISE stand-alone model. The hub location change is done in the
properties dialog by choosing a proper location from the pull-down menu.
SAM (System Analysis Mode) folder with system analysis task is added in the
calculation task by default (Fig. 8.47).
The system analysis simulation is used to analyze the parts of the driveline or
components in sub-system. It is switched on/off with a check box on the Calculation
Center application form.
There is no need to define standard vehicle specific tasks such as Cycle Run, Full
Load Acceleration, etc. Components Cockpit, Vehicle and task components Driver,
Course and Profile are also not required.
SAM Task will be used in AVL CRUISE powertrain model for calculation of
powertrain quantities which are required and transferred to CarMaker application
[11].
The model with the interface for co-simulation developed in AVL CRUISE will
be saved in the working folder CarMaker/CRUISE, where it will be loaded and
launched as project work in the application CarMaker [11].
Choose the powertrain folder in the vehicle data set from CarMaker. In the
pull-down menu choose AVL_CRUISE (Fig. 8.48).
To include the AVL CRUISE powertrain in the CarMaker simulation environ-
ment, click on the Browse button to select the desired AVL CRUISE powertrain.
Select Open and AVL CRUISE powertrain will be integrated into the CarMaker
simulation environment as shown in the following figure.
In order to really include AVL CRUISE powertrain in CarMaker simulation
environment, press folder button to select desired AVL CRUISE powertrain. In the
Project input field there must be a path to the AVL CRUISE PRJ file. Select Open
and AVL CRUISE powertrain will be integrated into CarMaker Simulation
Environment (Fig. 8.49).

Fig. 8.47 SAM (System Analysis Mode) folder

8.2 CRUISE—CarMaker Co-Simulation 513

Fig. 8.48 CRUISE—CarMaker interface

For the purposes of this manual a AVL CRUISE powertrain model will be
constructed from scratches, using only one standard AVL CRUISE model.
Therefore, select that model using the Start AVL CRUISE command.

8.2.3 Model for Co-Simulation

In order to make the final step toward including AVL CRUISE powertrain in
CarMaker environment is, enough to select already prepared AVL CRUISE pow-
ertrain model through CarMaker File Explorer and press Open.
AVL CRUISE will open and when selecting Vehicle Model, the user can view
and extract it from the AVL CRUISE GUI screen (Fig. 8.50).
This AVL CRUISE model consists of one system and one sub-system, i.e., all
model components are contained in one sub-system of the model. In order to
prepare AVL CRUISE powertrain model for CarMaker co-simulation the user has
to create two systems, each with three sub-system.
514 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Fig. 8.49 AVL CRUISE powertrain integrated into CarMaker

Fig. 8.50 Vehicle Model in AVL CRUISE

8.2 CRUISE—CarMaker Co-Simulation 515

Fig. 8.51 Adding a new sub-system

First step is to add two sub-system in the current system. Right click on
sub-system 001 in sub-system window part and select add new sub-system options
as shown in Fig. 8.51.
Repeat this procedure to create another sub-system in system 001. The result of
this procedure should be one system with three sub-systems (sub-system 001,
sub-system 002, and sub-system 003) [11].
In order to distinguish all further actions in system and sub-system structure
rename the current system into AVL CRUISE, sub-system 001 into Vehicle,
sub-system 002 into Powertrain, and sub-system 003 into CarMaker. After that,
select all components that are not part of the powertrain and right click somewhere in
the Vehicle Model area and then select sub-system—Vehicle. All selected compo-
nents will be added to the Vehicle sub-system of the AVL CRUISE system [11].
Additionally, the powertrain components of Aut FWD model must be added to
the Powertrain sub-system of AVL CRUISE system. To do so, select all remaining
components in Vehicle Model window again, right click somewhere in Vehicle
Model area and then select sub-system—Powertrain (Fig. 8.52).
The selected components for the Vehicle sub-system are: Vehicle, Wheels,
Brakes, Catalyst, Cockpit, Monitor, and ASC.
Hence that CarMaker sub-system of AVL CRUISE system contains no com-
ponents so far. Therefore, we added already mentioned components CM-Car and
hub to the CarMaker sub-system (Fig. 8.53). CM-Car and hub components can be
found in Modules—Special Modules section. Select CarMaker sub-system in
AVL CRUISE system and use drag&drop technique to add one CM-Car component
and four hub components to that sub-system. Since the hub component in fact
represents brake and virtual wheel, mechanical connection must be made so that
front axle hub components are connected to the differential.
Complete CarMaker Sub-System can be loaded with corresponding modules.
With a right mouse button click on sub-system area and from sub-systems popup
516 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Fig. 8.52 Adding selected components to the Vehicle sub-system

Fig. 8.53 CarMaker sub-system

menu load CM-Car.sub from directory data\sub_system. After, rename and arrange
CarMaker sub-system, select each component and adjust it with move and stretch to
gain position and shape/look of the current model.
Next step is to make a distinction between AVL CRUISE simulation model and
CarMaker specific AVL CRUISE powertrain model. Therefore, we will first create
8.2 CRUISE—CarMaker Co-Simulation 517

a copy of the built system. Right click on AVL CRUISE system, select duplicate
and rename the created system into something more intuitive CarMaker PT.
Deselect activation and visibility of AVL CRUISE sub-system, while it is not
part of the CarMaker PT system and establish missing mechanical connection from
the differential to each of the front hubs.
There are now two systems (AVL CRUISE and CarMaker PT), each with three
sub-systems (Vehicle, Powertrain, and CarMaker). Next step is to group some of
the sub-systems into each system: AVL CRUISE System includes Vehicle and
Powertrain (Fig. 8.54), CarMaker PT system and includes Powertrain and
CarMaker (Fig. 8.55).
The connections in the data bus for CarMaker sub-system are described in
Table 8.1 and in Fig. 8.56.
The connections in the data bus for the drivetrain sub-system are described in
Table 8.2.
After all necessary connections have been established go to Calculation Center
of AVL CRUISE and activate SAM Task and adjust parameters with the following
values:
• End Time: check Infinite option;
• Time Step: 0.001 (s);
• Simulation 5: FSS Heun.

Fig. 8.54 AVL CRUISE system

518 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Fig. 8.55 CarMaker PT system

Table 8.1 Data Bus connection for CarMaker sub-system

Component Requires Input Information Component Delivering Output Information
CarMaker Drive Torque FL Differential Output Torque 1
Drive Torque FR Differential Output Torque 2
Engine On/Off Engine Operation Control
Engine Speed Engine Engine Speed
Engine Torque Engine Engine Torque
Hub Front Right Braking Torque CarMaker Braking Torque FR
Resistance Torque CarMaker Resistance Torque FR
Hub Rear Right Braking Torque CarMaker Braking Torque RR
Resistance Torque CarMaker Resistance Torque RR
Hub Front Left Braking Torque CarMaker Braking Torque FL
Resistance Torque CarMaker Resistance Torque FL
Hub rear left Braking Torque CarMaker Braking Torque RL
Resistance torque CarMaker Resistance Torque RL
8.2 CRUISE—CarMaker Co-Simulation 519

Fig. 8.56 Data Bus connection for CarMaker

Table 8.2 Data Bus connection for drivetrain sub-system

Component Requires Input Information Component Delivering Output Information
Engine Load Signal CarMaker Load Signal
Start Switch CarMaker Engine Start Switch
Gearbox Desired Gear Gearbox Control Desired Gear
Gearbox Control Current Gear Gearbox Current Gear
Desired Gear Cockpit CarMaker Desired Gear
Desired Gearbox Program Gearbox Program Desired Gear
Operation Control Engine Operation Control
Reference Speed Torque Converter Turbine Speed
Velocity CarMaker Vehicle Velocity
Gearbox Program Current Gear Gearbox Current Gear
Load Signal CarMaker Load Signal
Speed Gearbox Output Speed
520 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

8.3 Running the Simulation for Electric Model

To run the simulation, first the model must be connected with AVL CRUISE,
(connection with the desired model must be checked), and then the road must be
loaded, with the desired maneuvers.
To check the connection with AVL CRUISE, the model must be opened like
shown in Fig. 8.57.
After pressing the start button, like shown in Fig. 8.39, the simulation starts. In
the IPGControl data window, the user can monitor any parameters by selecting
them from the quantities tab.
For the electric model the four main monitored properties are: the Current [A],
the Voltage [V], Energy [kJ], and Energy Stored [kJ]. They are selected from
Quantities—AVL.CRUISE.efg like shown in Fig. 8.58 and monitored in real time,
as seen in Fig. 8.59.
If the user is interested in the powertrain, the parameters that can be monitored
are shown in Fig. 8.60 or if the interest in the Driver, the parameters are shown in
Fig. 8.61.
In order to see the whole variation of the parameters, total fit must be selected
from the display tab.
After the simulation stops, and after pressing total fit, the recorded variations can
be exported either as a. csv file and post-processed further like in Figs. 8.62, 8.63
and 8.64, or they can be saved as they were recorded and printed (Fig. 8.65).
By exporting the Current [A], the Voltage [V], Energy [kJ] and Energy Stored
[kJ], the user can analyze the state of the battery, the recovered energy either versus
elapsed time, or by the track. Basically, the user can conclude which is the optimal
track for recovered energy or underline the optimal range.

Fig. 8.57 Connection to AVL CRUISE check (electric model)

8.3 Running the Simulation for Electric Model 521

Fig. 8.58 Selecting the desired properties to monitor

Fig. 8.59 Monitoring the electric model in the IPGControl data window
522 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Fig. 8.60 Monitoring the Powertrain properties

Fig. 8.61 Monitoring the Driver properties

8.3 Running the Simulation for Electric Model 523

Fig. 8.62 Export of the 322.2

recorded data: Voltage
322.1

322

Voltage [V]
321.9

321.8

321.7

321.6

321.5
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time [s]

Fig. 8.63 Export of the 1.20E+04

recorded data: Energy
1.00E+04

8.00E+03
Energy [kJ]

6.00E+03

4.00E+03

2.00E+03

0.00E+00

-2.00E+03
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Time [s]

Fig. 8.64 Export of the 500

recorded data: Current 450
400
350
Current [A]

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
50-
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time [s]
524 8 Loop Powertrain Simulation

Fig. 8.65 Export of the 4.00E+00

recorded data: Energy Stored
3.50E+00

3.00E+00

Energy Stored [kJ]

2.50E+00

2.00E+00

1.50E+00

1.00E+00

5.00E-01

0.00E+00

-5.00E-01
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Time [s]

References

1. IPG CarMaker (2014) Installation guide version 4.5. IPG Automotive, Karlsruhe, Germany
2. IPG CarMaker (2014) User’s guide version 4.5.2. IPG Automotive, Karlsruhe, Germany
3. IPG CarMaker (2014) IPG driver release notes 6.4. IPG Automotive, Karlsruhe, Germany
4. IPG CarMaker (2014) Vehicle data request form data required for parametrization and
validation of a vehicle data set in CarMaker 4.5. IPG Automotive, Karlsruhe, Germany
5. IPG CarMaker (2014) IPG driver user manual 6.4. IPG Automotive, Karlsruhe, Germany
6. IPG CarMaker (2014) Reference manual version 4.5. IPG Automotive, Karlsruhe, Germany
7. IPG CarMaker (2014) Programmer’s guide version 4.5.2. IPG Automotive, Karlsruhe,
Germany
8. IPG CarMaker (2014) Performance report version 4.5. IPG Automotive, Karlsruhe, Germany
9. IPG CarMaker (2014) Quick start guide version 4.5.2. IPG Automotive, Karlsruhe, Germany
10. AVL Cruise (2010) Coupling cruise—drive. AVL list GmbH, Graz, Austria, Document no.
04.0116.2010, Edition 07.2010
11. AVL Cruise (2010) Cruise–CarMaker/TruckMaker co-simulation. AVL List GmbH, Graz,
Austria, Document no. 04.0115.2010, Edition 07.2010
12. AVL Cruise (2011) Interfaces. AVL List GmbH, Graz, Austria, Document no. 04.0110.2011,
Edition 06.2011