Computer Aided Design and

Computer Aided Manufacturing

By
Dr P Ramesh

1
 UNIT I
• Introduction of Automation, Product cycle, CAD,
CAM and CIM -CAD Tools, CAM
ToolsUtilization in an Industrial Environment-
Evaluation criteria CAD standards- CAD data
structure
• Computer Graphics: Co-ordinate systems- Graphics
package functions- 2D and 3D transformations,
Translations, Scaling, Rotation about a Fixed Point,
Reflections and Shears- homogeneous
transformations.

2
 Automation and CAD/CAM
Automation can be defined as the
technology concerned with the application
of complex mechanical, electronic, and
computer-based systems in the operation
and control of manufacturing systems.
Automation can be defined as the technology concerned
with the application of complex mechanical, electronic,
and computer-based systems in the operation and control
of manufacturing systems.
3
 CAD/CAM
• CAD/CAM = Computer Aided Design and
Computer Aided Manufacturing. It is the
technology concerned with the use of
computers to perform design and
manufacturing functions.

4
 Product Cycle of CAD/CAM
The Design Process
Design Collecting
Design definitions, relevant design
needs specifications, information and
and requirements feasibility study
Synthesis
Analysis The CAD Process
Design Design
Design Design Design Design
documentation and modeling and
evaluation optimization analysis conceptualization
communication simulation

The Manufacturing Process

Production
planning The CAM Process
Design and
procurement of
Process
new tools Quality Packaging
planning Production Shipping
control
Order
materials

NC, CNC, DNC

programming

Marketing

5
• CAD can be defined as the use of computer systems to create
, modification and analysis or optimization (perform certain
functions) in the design process.
• CAM is the use of computer systems to plan, manage and
control the operations of manufacturing plant through either
direct or indirect computer interface with the plant’s
production resources.
• CIM is Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) refers to
the use of computer-controlled machineries and automation
systems in manufacturing products. CIM combines various
technologies like computer-aided design (CAD) and
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) to provide an error-
free manufacturing process that reduces manual labor and
automates repetitive tasks.
6
 CAD Tools

CAD Hardware
CAD software package:
There are many CAD software packages. Some of them are
AUTOCAD, MICROSTATION, SOLID WORKS, SOLID
EDGE, CATIA, NX CAD, PRO ENGINEER,
UNI GRAPHICS etc.

7
CAM Tools

8
 Definition of CAD/CAM Tools Based on Their
Implementation in an Engineering Environment

Hardware

Design and + Computer Software = CAD/CAM tools

Mfg tools

Networking
9
 Utilization in an industrial
Environment
• Greater flexibility. • Better product design.
• Reduced lead times. • Greater manufacturing
• Reduced inventories. control.
• Increased Productivity. • Supported integration.
• Improved customer • Reduced costs.
service. • Increased utilization.
• Improved quality. • Reduction of machine
• Improved communications tools.
with suppliers. • Less floor space.
10
 Evaluation Criteria CAD
standard:
• Hardware, Operating System, User
Interface, Documentation and Support,
Maintenance, Modeling Capabilities, Ease
of Modeling, Interface with other CAD
Packages and Data Transferability: • Design
Documentation:

11
 CAD Data structure
• CAD data can be 2D or 3D, composed of
wireframes, surfaces or solids, and
represented by polygons or voxels. CAD
data can contain underlying spline or
analytical geometry, gaps between faces,
and formats can be ASCII or binary.

12
 Computer graphics
• The term computer graphics (CG) describes
the use of computers to create and
manipulate images.
• Graphics can be two- or three-dimensional
• Computer Graphics is the creation and
manipulation of images or pictures with the
help of computers.

13
14
 Coordinate Systems:
• In order to specify the geometry of a given
solid, it is necessary to use a variety of
coordinate systems. Its Major classifications
are:-
• The Model Coordinate System or (world
coordinate systems) (MCS).
• The Working Coordinate System (WCS).
• The Screed Coordinate System (or device
coordinate system) (SCS).
15
 Graphics Package Functions
• Generation of graphic elements
• Transformation: Scaling, Translation,
Rotation and mirror
• Display control and windowing functions
• Segmenting functions
• User input functions

16
 2D and 3D Transformations

• Translation:
• Translation involves moving the element from one
location to another
• Scaling:
Scaling of an element is used to enlarge it or
reduce its size. The scaling need not necessarily be
done equally in x and y directions. e.g. a circle can
be transformed into ellipse by using unequal x and y
scaling factors
17
Rotation about a Fixed Point ,Reflections and
Shears
Rotation:
In this transformation, the points of an object are rotated about
the origin by an angle θ For a positive angle, this rotation is in
the counter clockwise direction
Reflection: Reflection or mirror is a transformation, which
allows a copy of the object is to be displayed while the object is
reflected about a line or a plane.
Shear:
A shearing transformation produces distortion of an object or an
entire image.

18
 HOMOGENEOUS
TRANSFORMATIONS
• Each of the above transformations with the exception of
translation can be representedas a row vector X, Y and a 2 X
2 matrix. However, all the four transformations
discussedabove can be represented as a product of a 1 X 3
row vector and an appropriate 3 X 3matrix. The conversion
of a two-dimensional co-ordinate pair (X, Y) into a 3-
dimensionalvector can be achieved by representing the point
as [X Y 1]. After multiplying this vectorby a 3 X 3 matrix,
another homogeneous row vector is obtained [X1 Y1 1].

19
20
 UNIT II
• Geometric Modeling: Various construction methods,
wire frame modeling- synthetic curves and their
representations, Bezier curve, B-spline curves,
rational curves- surface modeling.
• Solid Modeling: Solid representation- fundamentals-
introduction to boundary representations constructive
solid geometry- analytical solid modeling.

21
 Various construction methods
• These are various types of geometric models
used in CAD,
• Based on the dimensioning, - Two
dimensional modeling, - Three dimensional
modeling.
• Based on the modeling,
• - Wire frame modeling,
• - Surface modeling,
• - Solid modeling.
22
 Wire frame modeling
• Wire Frame Models: It is the oldest and simplest
methods of geometric modeling which can be used to store
model mathematically in the computer memory. It contains
information about the locations of all the points (vertices) and
edges in space coordinates. Various wireframe entities are
points, lines, planer arcs, circle, curves etc. Each vertex is
defined by x, y, z coordinates. Edges are defined by a pair of
vertices and faces are defined as three or more edges. Thus
wireframe is a collection of edges, there is no skin defining
the area between the edges. This is the lowest level of
modeling and has serious limitations. But it some
applications such as tool path simulation it is very convenient
to use wireframe models.

23
models.

24
 Synthetic curves and their
representations
• The major types of synthetic curves provided
by CAD/CAM systems are
• Hermit cubic spline
• Bezier curves
• B-spline curves
• Rational B-splines
• Nonuniform rational B-splines.

25
 Bezier curve
• A quadratic Bezier curve is a Bezier curve of degree
2 and is defined through 3 points (P0, P1 and P2) is
show in the fig (A). A cubic Bezier curve is a Bezier
curve of degree 3 and is defined by 4 points (P0, P1,
P2 and P3). The curve starts at P0 and stops at P3.
The line P0P1 is the tangent of the curve in point P0.
And so it is the line P2P3 in point P3. In general, the
curve will not pass through P1 or P2; the only
function of these points is providing directional
information. The distance between P0 and P1
determines ―how long‖ the curve moves into
direction P1 before turning towards P3 is shows in
the fig (B). 26
27
 B-Spline curve
• The B-Spline curve Tool draws smooth curves when
you create open or closed shapes. B-spline, also
known as Basis spline, uses a mathematical formula.
It is this calculation that produces really nice elegant
curves. When you use the B-Spline Tool, control
points are connected together as you draw and a
polygon is constructed. The polygon controls the
position and direction and calculates the smoothest
possible curve between two points on the page.

28
29
 Rational Curve
• The rational normal curve is a smooth, rational curve
C of degree n in projective nspace Pn. It is a simple
example of a projective variety; formally, it is the
Veronese variety when the domain is the projective
line. For n = 2 it is the flat conic Z0Z2 = Z2 1, and for
n = 3 it is the twisted cubic. The term "normal" refers
to projective normality, not normal schemes. The
intersection of the rational normal curve with an
affine space is called the moment curve.

30
31
 Surface modeling
• It is the next stage of wireframe modeling. In wireframe
modeling models re unable to represent complex
surfaces of objects like car, ship, aeroplane, wings,
castings etc. only a surface profile of these objects. A
surface model represents the skin of an object. These
skins have no thickness or material type. Surface models
define the surface properties, as well as the edges of
objects. These are often capable of clearly representing
the solid from the manufacturing. However, no
information regarding the interior of the solid model
would be available which could be relevant for
generating the NC cutter data. Further the calculation of
properties such as mass and inertia etc would32 be
difficult.
There are a number of mathematical techniques
available for handling these surfaces such as
Bezier and B-splines.
Bezier surface: The basic functions of a Bezier
surface are the coefficients of control points.
From the definition, it is clear that these two-
dimensional basis functions are the product of
two one-dimensional Bezier basis functions and
consequently the basis functions for a Bezier
surface are parametric surfaces of two variables u
Fig. Surface Representation
and v defined on the unit square.
B-spline surface approximates a characteristics
polygon as shown and
passes through the corner points of the polygon,
where its edges are
tangential to the edges of the polygon. This may
not happen when the control
33
polygon is closed.
• Advantage:
• 1. Eliminates much ambiguity and non-uniqueness present in
wireframe models by hiding
• lines not seen
• 2. Renders the model for better visualization and presentation,
objects appear more realistic
• 3. Provides the surface geometry for CAM, NC machine
• 4. Provides the geometry needed by the manufacturing engineer
for mould and die design
• Disadvantages:
• 1. Provides no information about the inside of an object
• 2. Curved surfaces need a fine mesh to be accurate
• 3. Provides wrong results if mesh is too coarse
• 4. Complicated computation, depending on the number of
surfaces.
34
 Solid modeling
• Solid modeling is the most powerful of 3D modeling
technique. This includes vertices(nodes), edges, surfaces,
weight and volume. This model consisting of the
completedescription of the solid in a certain form is the most
ideal representation, as all theinformation requires at every
stage of product cycle can be obtained with technique.
Definingan object with a solid model is the easiest of the
available three modeling techniques. Themodel is a complete
and unambiguous representation of a precisely enclosed and
filledvolume. Solid model contain bath geometric and
available to represent the solid, butgeometry two techniques
are very famous, these are constructive solid geometry (CSG)
andboundary representation (B-rep)

35
 Solid representation- fundamentals
• Solid modeling is based on complete, valid and unambiguous
geometric representationof physical object.
• Complete:points in space can be classified. (inside/ outside)
• Valid: vertices, edges, faces are connected properly.
• Unambiguous:there can only be one interpretation of object.
• Solid model representationschemes are
• 1. Constructive solid geometry (CSG)
• 2. Boundary representation (B-rep)
• 3. Spatial enumeration
• 4. Pure primitive instancing
• 5. Generalised sweeps

36
 Introduction to Boundary
representation (B-rep)
• Objects are represented in this scheme by their enclosing surfaces
or boundaries (Figure). In a boundary representation (B-rep)
modeller, a solid is represented by anevaluated data structure
containing the elements which describe its boundary. These
elements are dividedinto two categories: topological and
geometric. The topological elements are linked together in a
network
or graph which represents their interconnections or connectivity in
terms of vertices, edges and faces. Thisface-edge-vertex graph
contains no geometric information about an object — the
geometric elements(points, curves and surfaces) which give form
and fix it in space are separate.

37
• In a B-Rep system, a solid is defined by five views —
plan, front, two ends and the reverse plan. Rubber
banding lines are used to inter-relate corresponding
features in the various views. B-Rep stores a
description of the object in terms of its surfaces, edges
and vertices as shown in above Fig.

38
 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
• CSG defines a model in terms of combining basic and
generated (using extrusion andsweeping operation) solid
shapes. Objects are represented as a combination of
simpler solid objects (primitives). CSG uses Boolean
operations to construct a model.
• There are three basic Boolean operations:

39
40
 Analytical solid modeling
• ASM is closely related to finite element modeling. It is developed
to aid designers in the arduous task of modeling complex
geometry commonly found in design applications. • It can be
viewed as more of a representation scheme for design than for
manufacturing purposes due to its formulation, which does not
involve orientable surfaces as does brep or CSG. • ASM uses the
parametric representation of an object in 3D space that is a
mapping of a cubical parametric domain into a solid described by
the global coordinates. • ASM is mainly for design applications
and not suited for manufacturing. It does not involve orientable
surfaces as in Brep and CSG. • ASM has now a wide range of
applications such as mass property calculations, composite
material modeling, and computer animation. • It is use in FEA due
to the efficiency and flexibility of mesh generation algorithms that
operate on hyperpatches, which facilitates uniform transition or
41
non uniform mesh and division in hexahedral elements.
• Applications:
1) Mass property calculation
2) Composite material modeling
3) Computer Animation
4) FEM mesh generation with hyperpatch
concepts.
E.g. PATRANG is based on ASM and has
interface to various FEA packages.

42
 UNIT III
• Numerical Control (NC): Introduction- Basic
components of an NC system-NC Procedure-NC
Coordinate system-NC Motion control system-
Application of NC
• CNC & Part Programming: Introduction to CNC -
Fundamentals-canned cycles- cutter radius
compensation, length compensation- computed
assisted part programming using APT.

43
 Numerical Control (NC)
Introduction
• Numerical Control NC is a form of programmable
automation in which the mechanical actions of a
machine tool or other equipment are controlled by a
program containing coded alphanumerical data.
• Numerical control NC is any machining process in
which the operations are executed automatically in
sequences as specified by the program that contains
the information for the tool movements.

44
Basic components of an NC
system

45
 NC Procedure
• a) Process Planning: - This is listing of the sequence of operation to
be performed during manufacturing of a part. This as well lists the
machine by which the part to be made is routed.
• b) Part Programming:-The part programmer is responsible for
planning the sequence by N.C system and to document these in a
special format.
• c) Tape Verification: - The tape is checked for its accuracy. It is
checked by two methods. To run the tape through a computer
program that will point out the contents of the tape and errors in the
tape can thus be checked.
• d) Production: - The corrected tape is then used for manufacturing
the parts on the N.C machine. The operator loads the raw materials
on the machine tool and adjusts the position of the cutting tool
relative to workpiece. The N.C system then takes over and
machines the part according to the instructions on the tape. 46
 NC Coordinate System
• NC systems can be divided on the number of the
direction of motion instructions they are able to
control simultaneously on a machine tool.
• In the NC coordinate system, each free body has
six degrees of freedom, three positive or negative
translations along the X, Y and Z-axis, and three
rotations clockwise or counterclockwise about
these axes.

47
 NC Motion control system
Point to Point Mechanism:

Straight Cut Mechanism:

Contouring Mechanism:

48
 Applications of NC
• Parts with complicated contours.
• Parts requiring close tolerance and/or good repeatability,
• Its parts requiring expensive jigs and fixtures if produced
on conventional machines.
• Small batch lots or short production runs.
Machine Tool Applications (Machining applications)
• Milling, drilling, turning, boring, grinding
• Machining centres, turning centres, mill-turn centres
• Punch presses, thermal cutting machines, etc.

49
 CNC & Part Programming
• Introduction to CNC , Fundamentals:
• Numerical control is a programmable automation in
• which process is controlled by
Numbers, Letters, and symbols.

• CNC Machining is a process used in the manufacturing

sector that involves the use of computers to control
machine tools like lathes, mills and grinders.

50
Why is CNC Machining necessary?

• To manufacture complex curved geometries in 2D or 3D was

extremely expensive by mechanical means (which usually would
require complex jigs to control the cutter motions)

• Machining components with high Repeatability and Precision

• Unmanned machining operations
• To improve production planning and to increase productivity
• To survive in global market CNC machines are must to achieve
close tolerances.

5
1
MAJOR COMPONENTS RELATED TO CNC MACHINE
TOOLS
Any CNC machine tool essentially consists of the following parts:

Part program:

•A series of coded instructions required to produce a part.

•Controls the movement of the machine tool and on/off

control of auxiliary functions such as spindle rotation and
coolant.

•The coded instructions are composed of letters, numbers

and symbols. 52
 Program input device

• The program input device is the means for part

program to be entered into the CNC control.

• Three commonly used program input devices are

punch tape reader, magnetic tape reader, and
computer via RS-232-C communication.

53
Machine Control Unit

The machine control unit (MCU) is the heart of a CNC

system. It is used to perform the following functions:
• To read the coded instructions.
• To decode the coded instructions.
• To implement interpolations (linear, circular, and
helical) to generate axis motion commands.
• To feed the axis motion commands to the amplifier
circuits for driving the axis mechanisms.
• To receive the feedback signals of position and speed
for each drive axis.
• To implement auxiliary control functions such as
coolant or spindle on/off and tool change.
54
 Machine Tool

• CNC controls are used to control various types of

machine tools.

• Regardless of which type of machine tool is

controlled, it always has a slide table and a spindle
to control position and speed.

• The machine table is controlled in the X and Y

axes, while the spindle runs along the Z axis.

55
 Feed Back System
• The feedback system is also referred
to as the measuring system.
• It uses position and speed transducers to
continuously
monitor the position at which the cutting tool is located at
any particular instant.
• The MCU uses the difference between reference signals
and feedback signals to generate the control signals for
correcting position and speed errors.
56
 Drive System

• Drives are used to provide controlled motion to CNC

elements

• A drive system consists of amplifier circuits, drive

motors, and ball lead-screws.

• The MCU feeds the control signals (position and

speed) of each axis to the amplifier circuits.

• The control signals are augmented to actuate drive

motors which in turn rotate the ball lead-screws to
position the machine table.
57
58
 Canned cycles

A canned cycle is a way of conveniently performing

repetitive CNC machine operations. Canned cycles automate
certain machining functions such as drilling, boring, threading,
pocketing, etc... Canned cycles are so called because they allow a
concise way to program a machine to produce a feature of a part. A
canned cycle is also known as a fixed cycle. A canned cycle is
usually permanently stored as a pre-program in the machine's
controller and cannot be altered by the user.

59
 Cutter radius compensation
Cutter Radius Compensation also known as CRC, is a function of
the CNC controller to automatically shift the tool from the cutter
center line to the cutter edge along the programmed cutter path. If it
were not for CRC the cutter path locations would have to be
calculated to the cutter center line. Cutter Radius Compensation
(CRC) can be used to program continuous path milling operations.
There are a few special rules that must be applied to the
programming method when using CRC.
1) The point before the CRC approach and exit from the contour
cut must be equal to or greater than the cutter radius.
2) CRC can only be started and stopped along linear motion.
3) CRC can only be applied to 2 axis of motion at a time.
4) The use of more than one non motion block in a row is not
allowed

60
 Length compensation
Tool length compensation is instated with a G43 word. Included
within the G43 command is an H-word that specifies the offset
number in which the tool length compensation value is stored. You
must also include a Z-word in the G43 command, telling the
machine where you want the tool tip to be positioned. Cutting tools
used on machining centers differ from one another. For one thing,
there are a variety of cutting tool types that are used on machining
centers, including center drills, spot drills, drills, taps, reamers,
boring bars, end mills, and face mills (among many others). Each
type of tool requires a different way of gripping the actual cutting
tool in its holder. Some tools (like some straight shank tools) use a
collet system. Others (like end mills) use a set- screw to hold the
cutting tool in place. Yet others (like face mills and taps) require a
very special style of tool Holder–designed especially for the cutting
tool.
61
Tool length compensation will allow you to write programs even
though you don’t know how long the cutting tools will be at
production time.

62
 Computed assisted part programming using APT
Introduction

A group of commands given to the CNC for operating the

machine is called the program.
It consists of:
•Information about part geometry
•Motion statements to move the cutting tool
•Cutting speed
•Feed
•Auxiliary functions such as coolant on and off, spindle
direction

63
64
 UNIT IV
• Group Technology: Part families, Parts classification
and coding, Production flow analysis, Machine cell
design – FMS, Introduction, components of FMS,
material handling systems, Computer control
systems, advantages of FMS.
• Computer Aided Quality Control: Terminology in
Quality control, Inspection and testing, Contact
inspection methods, optical and non-optical,
integration of CAQC with CAD and CAM

65
68
 Machine cell design

Machine design aims at determining the best arrangement of

machines in each product cell.
• Minimization of material handling cost is an often used
objective in determining the layout of machines in a cell.
• Constraints related to the availability of space, material handling
system type and so on are considered.
• Type of operations and parts are not the only factors that impact
the layout of machines.
• Type of material handling system to be used also needs to be
considered;

80
 UNIT V
• Computer Aided Processes Planning: Retrieval
type and Generative type-benefits Machinability data
systems-Computer generated time standards.
• Computer Integrated Production Planning:
Capacity planning- shop floor control-MRP-I, MRP-
II-CIMS benefits.

134