Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Chapter-1
Vectors
Prepared by Dr. S. K. Parida

The note provides the basic concepts and terminology for understanding university Physics_Mechnaics (UPM).
When studying different chapters, please pay attention to (i) Concepts (ii) Terminology (iii) Typical mathematical
values (iv) All boxed equations.

Topic to be covered: The difference between scalars and vectors, and how to add and subtract
vectors graphically. What the components of a vector are and how to use them in calculations.
What unit vectors are and how to use them with components to describe vectors. Two ways of
multiplying vectors.

Introduction to topic

In the earlier classes, you might have knowing scalars and vectors are two different types of
physical quantities. Scalars are those having only magnitude where as vectors have both
magnitude and direction for their complete specification. To measure any physical quantities, we
need the knowledge of scalar and vectors mathematics including addition, subtraction and
multiplication. Looking at the example in each categories mass, temperature, current, density, etc
are scalars where as velocity, acceleration, momentum, force, etc are the vectors.

In order to explore and describe details vector mathematics, lecture-1 has been designed with
different topics including vector calculus.

Vector:

A physical quantity having magnitude and as well as direction for its complete specification is
called a vector. Ex: Displacement, force, torque, etc.
It can be represented by an arrow showing the direction of the given vector.

Parallel vector and Anti-parallel vector:

Two vectors having same magnitude and direction called parallel vectors whereas same
magnitude and opposite direction is called anti-parallel vectors.

Addition of vectors:

If the two sides of a triangle are represented by two vectors taken in same order, then the

 =  + 
resultant is represented by third side of the triangle taken in opposite order.

The magnitude and the direction of the resultant vector will be

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

=  +  + 2 

 =   working formula



will be zero i.e.  + 

 + ! + "
 + # + $ + ⋯ … … … … … … … … … = 0
Imp note: If more than two vectors are represent by a polygon taken in same order, the resultant

Subtraction of vectors:

other. To construct the vector  −   at the head of  or place the

 , we can place the tail of − 
Subtraction of one vector from another is equivalent to add one vector with negative vector

two vectors  and 

 head to head.  −   =  + *−
 +

Multiplication of a vector with scalar:

times and direction will remain same as that of given vector. , = - .

 , where m is the scalar.
When a vector is multiplied with a scalar, the result will be a vector having magnitude scalar

Rectangular components of a vector:

be / =   and 0 = 1
The rectangular components of the resultant vector will

The magnitude of resultant:  = 2/ + 0

3
Direction:  =   working formula
4

Addition of vector using components:

We can add 

 and 
 using components of the two given

Along X-direction, resultant,
/ = / + /

vectors.

And similarly along Y-direction,
0 = 0 + 0

Vectors in 3D:

A vector can be represented by using components in 3D

 = / 5̂ + 0 7̂ + 8 9:

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

 = / 5̂ + 0 7̂ + 8 9:

Units Vectors:

Here, 5̂ , 7̂ ; 9: are the unit vectors along X-, Y- and Z- direction.

 = / 5̂ + 0 7̂ + 8 9: and 
  = / 5̂ + 0 7̂ + 8 9:
Addition of vector using unit vector:

 = */ 5̂ + 0 7̂ + 8 9:+ + */ 5̂ + 0 7̂ + 8 9:+

 + 

 = </ + / =5̂ + *0 + 0 +7̂ + <8 + 8 =9: working formula

 + 

Scalar product:
 = / 5̂ + 0 7̂ + 8 9: and 
 = / 5̂ + 0 7̂ + 8 9:

 = */ 5̂ + 0 7̂ + 8 9:+. */ 5̂ + 0 7̂ + 8 9:+

. 

 = </ / =<5.@ 5̂= + */ 0 +<5.@ 7̂= + </ 8 =*5.@ 9:+ + *0 / +<7̂. 5̂= + *0 0 +<7̂. 7̂=
⇒ . 
+ <8 8 =*7̂. 9:+ + <8 / =*9:. 5̂+ + *8 0 +*9:. 7̂+ + <8 8 =*9:. 9:+

. 
 = / / + 0 0 + 8 8 working formula

.

=   ABBBBC working formula

Imp note: 5.@ 5̂ = 7̂. 7̂ = 9:. 9: = 1 and 5.@ 7̂ = 7̂. 9: = 9:. 5̂ = 0

Vector product:

 = */ 5̂ + 0 7̂ + 8 9:+ × */ 5̂ + 0 7̂ + 8 9:+

 × 

5̂ 7̂ 9:
 × 
 = F/ 0 8 F working formula
/ 0 8

B×
B
 = 1 A BBBB C working formula

Imp note: 5̂ × 5̂ = 7̂ × 7̂ = 9: × 9: = 0

5̂ × 7̂ = −<7̂ × 5̂= = 9: , 7̂ × 9: = −*9: × 7̂+ = 5̂ , 9: × 5̂ = −*5̂ × 9: + = 7̂

Best of Luck
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Chapter-2
Motion along a straight line

Prepared by Dr. S. K. Parida

Topic to be covered: Displacement, Average and Instantaneous Velocity, Average and

Instantaneous Acceleration, Motion with Constant Acceleration, Freely falling bodies, Velocity
and Position by integration

Distance

The actual path covered by a body is called distance. It is a scalar quantity and cannot be
negative. The unit of the distance is meter or cm.

Displacement Vector

The shortest distance between the initial and final point is called displacement. It is a vector
quantity and can be zero, positive or negative.

If during a time interval ∆t the position vector of the particle changes from G to G , the
Displacement vector of the particle HG for that time interval is defined as: HG = G − G

Speed

The amount of distance travelled by a body in one second is called its speed. It is a scalar
quantity. It cannot be negative.

Average speed

It is the ratio of total distance covered to the total time taken.

 M ;1 I J,IMMI; G + G + GN … . .

,IJKI LII; = =
 M 1-I 9I  +  + N … . .

Problem

A body moves with speed 50 km/h and returned with 40 km/h to the same point. Calculate the
average speed.
G + G G+G
,IJKI LII; = = G G = 44.4 9-/ℎ
 +  + 40
50
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Average velocity

If a particle moves through a displacement HG in a time interval ∆t then its average velocity for
that interval is the ratio of change in displacement to time interval.

ℎKI 1 ;1LM I-I

,IJKI ,IM 1S =
1-I 1IJ,M

,TUV/ = =
W/ /
/ Y 
Z
WX XY XZ
Working formula

Instantaneous Velocity:

As discussed in rectilinear motion, a more interesting quantity is the instantaneous velocity ,,

time derivative of the position vector G:

which is the limit of the average velocity when we shrink the time interval ∆t to zero. It is the

,/ = limWX→_ WX =
W/ `/
`X
working formula

Average Acceleration

The average acceleration is defined as:

ℎKI 1 ,IM 1S

,IJKI  IMIJ1  =
1-I 1IJ,M

Let the velocity vector of a particle moving in a curved path at time t and  + H is , and , .
The velocity , differs both in magnitude and direction from the velocity
,.

The average acceleration in the time interval H as the particle moves from one point to another
point is defined as:

ℎKI 1 ,IM 1S

,IJKI  IMIJ1  =
1-I 1IJ,M

TU/ = =

WU Y U
U Z
WX XY XZ
Working formula

The direction of TU is along H, which is quite different from the instantaneous velocity vectors
, and , .
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Instantaneous Acceleration

But the much more interesting quantity is the result of shrinking the period H to zero, which
gives us the instantaneous acceleration, . It is the time derivative of the velocity vector:
,

/ = limWX→_ WX =

WU 
`U
`X
Working formula

;,/ ; G
The relation among displacement, velocity and acceleration along x-direction will be

/ = =
; ;

Kinematical equations (Constant acceleration)

Let us consider a body is moving with constant acceleration  , for motion in two or three
dimensions. We want to derive two/three sets of equations to describe the x, y and z co-
ordinates, each of which is similar to the equations in rectilinear motion.

Derivation of 1st kinematic equation:

Let us consider a body is moving with initial velocity ,/ at time  and attain the final
velocity , / in time  along x-direction.
Therefore, the acceleration along x-direction will be, / = Y4 . Let the initial velocity ,_/
U UZ4
X X Y Z

at time t = 0 s and final velocity ,/ at time t = t s along + x direction.

Then, / =
U4 Ua4
X_

,/ = ,_/ + /  … … … … … … … … … <1.1= Working formula

Derivation of 2nd kinematic equation:

Consider a body covers average displacement between initial G_ and final G diaplacement in time
t s. Then the average velocity will be

G − G_
,TU/ = … … … … … … … … . <1.2=


If the same body moves with initial velocity ,_/ and attain final velocity ,/ after certain time,
then average velocity will be

,TU/ =
Ua4 U4

<,_/ + ,_/ + / =
,TU/ =
2
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

1
⇒ ,TU/ = ,_/ + /  … … … … … … … . . <1.3=
2

From eq.(1.2) and eq.(1.3), we get

G − G_ 1
= ,_/ + / 
 2
1
⇒ G − G_ =  A,_/ + / C
2

G − G_ = ,_/  + /  … … … … … … … … … … . <1.4= Working formula



Derivation of 3rd kinematic equation:

To relate displacement, acceleration, initial velocity and final velocity, we should find the time
from equation (1.1) as

,/ − ,_/
= … … … … … … … . . <1.5=
/

Substituting above value of time‘t’ in eq.(1.4), we get

1
G − G_ = ,_/  + / 
2

,/ − ,_/ 1 ,/ − ,_/
⇒ G − G_ = ,_/ A C + / A C
/ 2 /

,_/ ,/ ,_/ 1 ,/ + ,_/ − 2,_/ ,/

⇒ G − G_ = − + / c d
/ / 2 /
2,_/ ,/ − 2,_/ + ,/ + ,_/ − 2,_/ ,/
⇒ G − G_ =
2/

⇒ 2/ <G − G_ = = ,/ − ,_/

,/ = ,_/ + 2/ <G − G_ = … … … … … … … … <1.6= Working formula

The above eq.(1.1),(1.4) and (1.6) can be resolved in to three sets of equations to describe the
motion along the three Cartesian directions as
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

,/ = ,_/ + / ; ,0 = ,_0 + 0 ; ,8 = ,_8 + 8 ;

1 1 1
<G − G_ = = ,_/  + /  ; <S − S_ = = ,_0  + 0  ; <g − g_ = = ,_8  + 8  ;
2 2 2
,/ = ,_/ + 2/ <G − G_ =; ,0 = ,_0 + 20 <S − S_ =; ,8 = ,_8 + 28 <g − g_ =;

Graphical interpretation of <h~j=

1. If the displacement remains parallel to the time axis, body is said to

be in rest position.

2. Displacement changes uniformly with time, so called as constant

velocity or uniform velocity.

3. Displacement increases with increase in time, so called as increasing

velocity.

4. Displacement decreases with decrease in time, so called as decreasing

velocity.
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

5. Displacement decreases to zero and slope became negative, so called as uniform negative
velocity.

6. First displacement decreases to zero and then uniformly

increases, so called as first negative velocity and then uniform
velocity.

Graphical interpretation of <k~j=

1. When velocity does not change with time and remain parallel
with time axis, then the graph represent the uniform velocity or
zero acceleration.

2. When velocity changes uniformly with time, then the graph

represents uniform acceleration.

3. When velocity increases with increase in time, then the graph

represents increasing acceleration.
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

4. When velocity decreases with increase in time, then the graph

represents decreasing acceleration.

5. When velocity decreases with time and the slope became negative,
then the graph represents uniform negative acceleration.

6. When velocity decreases with time, became zero and then increase
with time, then the graph represents uniform negative acceleration
with positive uniform acceleration.

These two graphs represent different physical situations. (i) A ball is dropped from top of a tower
to the ground (ii) A ball is projected into space.
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

The slope of the displacement versus time curve = Velocity

The slope of the velocity versus time curve = Acceleration
The area of the velocity versus time curve = Displacement.

We observed in (velocity vs time) graph

(i) At A and B points, the slopes of the graph are positive. So the acceleration will be
positive.
(ii) At point C, slope is zero. Therefore, acceleration will be zero.
(iii) At D, E points, the acceleration will be negative as the slopes are negative.

We observed in (displacement vs time) graph

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

(i) At A and B points, the slopes of the graph are positive. So the velocity will be
positive.
(ii) At point C, slope is zero. Therefore, velocity will be zero.
(iii) At D, E points, the velocity will be negative as the slopes are negative.

Acceleration due to gravity (g):

In nineteen century, Galileo made a statement that a body should fall with a constant downward
acceleration which is independent of its weight. But experiment shows that Galileo is right if the
effects of the air are neglected. So at an ideal condition (neglecting all parameters like presence
of air, rotation of earth etc), a falling body can be consider as freely falling body (falls with
constant acceleration due to gravity).

The constant acceleration of a freely falling body is called the acceleration due to gravity. The
value of the acceleration due to gravity (g) is equal to 9. 8 m/s2 = 980 cm/s2 = 32 ft/s2 .The
value of acceleration due to gravity in moon is 1/6th of g = 1. 6 m/s2 = 270 cm/s2 and on sun =
270 m/s2
Freely falling bodies
When a body is moving under the action of force of gravity, then acceleration of the body
becomes acceleration due to gravity. Under this condition, a body is said to be a freely falling
body. Therefore, acceleration (ay) = acceleration due to gravity (g).

Kinematic equations under gravity:

(a) Body is moving upward
Consider a coordinate system in which all the parameters in upward direction are +ve. So
displacement <S − S_ = = +,I, acceleration <0 = = −K, initial velocity <,_0 = = +,I, final
velocity (,0 = = +,I and time taken = t

(i) ,0 = ,_0 − K; working formula

<S − S_ = = ,_0  − K

(ii) working formula

(iii) ,0 = ,_0 − 2K<S − S_ = working formula

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

(b) Body is moving downward

Consider a coordinate system in which all the parameters in downward direction are -ve. So
displacement <S − S_ = = −,I, acceleration <0 = = −K, initial velocity *,_0 + = −,I, final
velocity (,0 = = −,I and time taken = t

(i) −,0 = −,_0 − K working formula

−<S − S_ = = −,_0  − K working formula


(ii)

(iii) *−,0 + = *−,_0 + + 2K<S − S_ = working formula

Evaluation of velocity and position by integration

(a) Evaluation of velocity by integration method

We can calculate velocity by integrating acceleration with certain time interval as

;,/
/ =
;

Here, we integrate velocity from ,/ to , / in time interval  to 

UY4 XY
l ;,/ = l / ;
UZ4 XZ

XY
⇒, / − ,/ = l / ;
XZ

If we consider the initial velocity ,/ = ,_/ and final velocity , / = ,/ in the time  =
0   =  , then the above equation will reduce to

,/ = ,_/ + m_ / ; Working formula

X
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

(Applicable to only variable acceleration)

(b) Evaluation of position by integration method

We can calculate position by integrating velocity with certain time interval as
;G
,/ =
;
Here, we integrate velocity from G to G in time interval  to 
/Y XY
l ;G = l ,/ ;
/Z XZ
XY
⇒ G − G = l ,/ ;
XZ

If we consider the initial position G = G_ and final position G = G in the time  =

0   =  , then the above equation will reduce to

G = G_ + m_ ,/ ; Working formula
X

(Applicable to only variable velocity)

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Chapter-3

Motion in two and three dimensions

Prepared by Dr. S. K. Parida

Topic to be covered: Position in 2D and 3D, Velocity vector from trajectory, Acceleration with
varying and constant speed, To deal in detail projectile motion as example of motion in two
dimensions. To define all the terms related to projectile motion

Position Vector

position vector, J. It can be represented by J = G5̂ + S7̂ + g9:.

In three dimensions, the location of a particle with respect to some choice of origin is specified by its

Average and Instantaneous Velocity:

If a particle moves through a displacement HJ in a time interval ∆t then its average velocity for that
interval is

ℎKI 1 ;1LM I-I

,TUV =
1-I 1IJ,M
HJ HG HS Hg
,TUV = = 5̂ + 7̂ + 9:
H H H H
HJ ;J ;
, = lim = = <G5̂ + S7̂ + g9: =
WX→_ H ; ;
;G ;S ;g
, = 5̂ + 7̂ + 9:
; ; ;
, = ,/ 5̂ + ,0 7̂ + ,8 9: Instantaneous speed

Magnitude of resultant: , = 2,/ + ,0 + ,8 In 3-D, working formula

Magnitude of resultant: , = 2,/ + ,0 In 2-D

U
Direction: tan q = U3 In 2-D, working formula
4

Average and Instantaneous Acceleration

The average acceleration is defined as:

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

ℎKI 1 ,IM 1S

TUV =
1-I 1IJ,M

, − , H, H,/ H,0 H,8

TUV = = = 5̂ + 7̂ + 9:
H H H H H

Instantaneous acceleration,  will be

H, ;, ;
 = lim = = <, 5̂ + ,0 7̂ + ,8 9: =
WX
WX→_ H ; ; /
;,/ ;,0 ;,8
 = 5̂ + 7̂ + 9:
; ; ;

 = / 5̂ + 0 7̂ + 8 9:
working formula

Where, the components

ents of acceleration along the three Cartesian axes

;,0 ; S
are
;,/ ; G ;,8 ; g
/ = = ; 0 = = ; 8 = =
; ; ; ; ; ;

Component of acceleration along and perpendicular to the

directions of motion

resolved in to two componenets (i) perpendicular components ⊥

The acceleration of a particle moving in a curved path can be

(ii) paralell (║ )or tangential componenets. The paralle ║

where as ⊥ , along the normal direction to the path. The

componenet is along the path, i.e., alo
along the direction of velocity

acceleration which is the rate of change of velocity, can occure

due to change in magnitude of the vvelocity, change in direction of
the velocity vector or both the magnitude and the direction of the

acceleration vector, ║ , arises from the change in magnitude of

velocity vector. It is observed that the parallel component of

he normal component ⊥ , arises from a

the velocity vector, while the
change in the direction of the velocity
velocity.

Projectile Motion

Projectile is anybody which is projected into space no longer used any fuel for its further motion.
The motion of the projectile is controlled by the effects of gravitational acceleration and air
resistance. A curved path is followed by a projectile called its trajectory.
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Examples: throwing a ball into space, a batted baseball, dropping a bag from airplane and a
bullet shot from a rifle.

The dotted path represents a parabolic trajectory and the solid path represents the actual orbit.
The difference between the paths is due to air resistance. Air resistance has sizeable effect for the
sky divers. There are other factors that can influence the path of motion; curvature of the earth
and rotation of earth which need to be taken into consideration while finding trajectory in the
flight of long-range missiles; a rotating body or a special shape can alter the flow of air around
the body, which may induce a curved motion or lift in the flight of a baseball or golf ball.

First we shall begin our analysis by neglecting all influences on the body except for the
influence of gravity. In such an idealized model the projectile motion of an object is in a
vertical plane

We shall choose coordinates with our y -axis in the vertical direction with 7̂ directed upwards and
our x-axis in the horizontal direction with 5̂ directed in the direction that the body is moving
horizontally. We choose our origin to be the place where the body is released at time t = 0 s.
Figure shows our coordinate system with the position of the body at time t and the coordinate
functions x (t) and y (t).

There are three possible ways that a body can be projected into space. These are

(a) Fired vertically upward

(b) Fired horizontally
(c) Fired with certain angle with horizontal

Body is fired vertically upward

Let us consider a body of mass ‘m’ is fired with initial velocity ,_0 from ground to reach its
highest point after time t s. The final velocity ,0 = 0 , maximum displacement travelled
= <S − S_ = and y -component of the acceleration, 0 = −K. Then we can compute following
relations

Ua3 Y
Maximum height: S − S_ =
V
(i) working formula

Ua3
Time of ascent: T =
V
(ii)

Ua3
(iii) Time of descent: ` = V
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Ua3
Total time of flight: r = T + ` =
V
(iv)

(v) Velocity reaching on ground: ,0 = ,_0

(vi) Horizontal range:
= gIJ

Body is fired horizontally

Let us consider a body of mass ‘m’ is fired horizontally with initial velocity *− ,_0 + to reach
ground after time t s. The maximum displacement travelled = − <S − S_ = and y -component of
the acceleration, 0 = −K. Then we can compute following relations

(i) Equation of Trajectory: Sum of the motion along x-axis and y-axis
Then x-axis motion: G = ,_/  and y- axis motion: S = K


The relation between above two expressions, S = K U = G

 / V
a4 Ua4 Y

Therefore, the path followed by projectile is parabolic in nature.

<00a =
Time of descent: ` =  = 2 =
s
V V
(ii) working formula

Horizontal range:
= ,_/ 2 V working formula

s
(iii)

U3
Instantaneous velocity: , = ,/ + ,0 ; t =  
U4
(iv)

Where ,/ = ,_/ and ,0 = K

Body is fired horizontally with certain angle

The y -component of the acceleration, 0 = −K, is a constant and is independent of the mass of

horizontal direction is zero, / = 0.

the body. Since we are ignoring the effects of any horizontal forces, the acceleration in the

,_ = ,_/ 5̂ + ,_0 7̂

Let the projectile be launched with an initial velocity

statement, “a body is projected with an initial speed ,_ at an

Often the description of the flight of a projectile includes the
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

angle _ with respect to the horizontal.” The vector decomposition diagram for the initial
velocity is shown in Figure. The components of the initial velocity are given by kuh = ku vwxyu
and kuz = ku x{|yu . The kinematic equations of motion of the object along x-direction is
,/ = ,_/ , <G − G_ = = ,_/ _  and y-direction is ,0 = ,_0 − K and <S − S_ = = ,_0  −
K . Using above kinematic equations, we can derive following relations


Equation of trajectory

The curved path of a projectile; it is principally determined by two types of motion: vertical and
horizontal motion.
If the launching point of the projectile is taken as origin, then x0= 0 and y0= 0 and then the two
kinematical relations take the form:
G = ,_ _  … … <1=
and S = ,_ 1_  − K … … . . <11=


By eliminating t from equations (i) & (ii), we obtain the equation of the trajectory as

S = tan _ G − G … … … . . <111= working formula

V
<Ua a =Y

This is the equation of a parabola S = G + }G

In our simple model of projectile motion, the trajectory is always a parabola.

Maximum Height:
Ua Y ~a Y
Maximum height: S − S_ = … … … . . <1,= working formula
V

Time of Flight:

To calculate total time of flight i.e. time of ascent plus time of descent, we should consider total

1
displacement is zero. Therefore, eq.(ii) will be
 A,_ 1_ − KC = 0
2
Here one obtain two solutions , t=0, and  =
Ua a
V
. The first solution corresponds to the
starting point and the second corresponds to the reaching point A. The total time require to reach
the landing point is termed as time of flight T
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

r= … … … . <,=
Ua a
V
working formula

Time of ascent: time require reaching the top of the projection, T = … … … . <,1= .
Ua a
V
Time of descent: time require to landing on the ground from the top of its projection.
` = … … … . <,11= .
Ua a
V

Horizontal range

The total distance travelled by a projectile between launching and landing point along horizontal
direction is defined as the horizontal range, R. The horizontal range can be obtained by
substituting the time of flight as obtained in relation (v) in equation (i)

= ,_ _ r
2 ,_ 1_
⇒
= ,_ 
K

= … … … … . <,111= working formula

Ua Y  a
V

Using the property of the trigonometric function It can be shown that the Range becomes
maximum at the projection angle of 450 and
T/ =
Ua Y
V
working formula.

U3
Instantaneous velocity , = ,/ + ,0 ; t =  
U4

Where ,/ = ,_  and ,0 = ,_ 1 − K

Example Problem (Refer Text book-3.7)

A batter hits a baseball so that it leaves the bat at speed v0 = 37 m/s at an angle α0 = 53.10. (a)
Find the position of the ball and its velocity (magnitude and direction) at t = 2.00 s. (b) Find the
time when the ball reaches the highest point of its flight, and its height h at this time. (c) Find the
horizontal range R- that, the horizontal distance from the point to where the ball hits the ground.
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Chapter-4

Newton's Laws of Motion

Prepared by Dr. S. K. Parida

Topic to be covered: What the concept of force means in physics, and why forces are vectors.
The significance of the net force on an object, and what happens when the net force is zero. The
relationship among the net force on an object, the object’s mass, and its acceleration. How the
forces that two bodies exert on each other are related

Introduction to topic

In the previous lecture, we have discussed the concepts of kinematics to describe motion in one
dimension, two-dimensional motion and also in three dimensions. Now I want to extend the
discussion from mass, velocity, acceleration, momentum to force by introducing Newton’s laws
of motion. The first law explains that on a rest body, net forces acting on it is zero where as
second law explains what will happen if the net force applied to a body is not zero but on the last
why action and reaction are exist in pair and not cancel to each other.

Force:

It is a pull or push that can change the shape, size, direction, speed etc.

Superposition of forces:

It states that sum total forces acting on a body will be summation of all the forces acting on it.

vertical components of the resultant force can be written as
/ = ∑ $/ and
0 = ∑ $0 . Therefore,

We can resolve the all forces along horizontal and vertical components. Then horizontal and

the magnitude and direction will be

‚3
Magnitude:
= 2
/ +
0 and direction: ∅ =  ‚
4

Newton’s 1st law

It states that everybody continues in the state of rest or moving with uniform velocity in a
straight line unless it compelled by some external force to change the state.

The consequence of the Newton’s 1st law is the inertia. There are different types of inertia like

on a body is zero, then ∑ $ = 0 . We can resolve the given force into three components like
inertia of rest, inertia of motion, inertia of direction and inertia of rotation. If the net force acting
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

∑ 
$/ = 0 , ∑  8 = 0 working formula
$0 = 0 and ∑ $

Newton’s 2nd law

It states that the rate of change of momentum with respect to time of a body is directly
proportional to the impressed force and moves in the direction of applied force.

∑ $ q
`ƒ
`X

⇒ ∑ $ = 9 -, (take k =1)

`
`X

∑ $ = - working formula

Resolving into three components, we get

∑  
$/ = -/ , ∑ $  0 and ∑ 
0 = - $8 = -8 working formula

Newton’s 3rd law

pair but they do not cancel to each other because of they act on two different bodies. If $/ is
To every action there is equal and opposite reaction. The action and reaction are always exist in

the force of B on the body A and $/ is the force of A on the body B, then

$/ = −$/ working formula

Mass and Weight:

The amount of matter contained in a body is called mass where as weight is a force by which a
body is moving towards the center of earth. Therefore, mass is scalar and cannot be negative

as weight is denoted by „
 = mK.
where as weight is a vector and can be positive, zero and negative. Mass is denoted by m where

Free-body diagram:

It is a method of analysis of the force and motion characteristics of a body or object by drawing
a simplified version of the external forces acting on it.

Consider body A is moving upward with acceleration a, then

applying Newton’s 1st law and second law, we get

Net force along x-direction is zero, ∑ $/ = 0

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Similarly, net force along y-axis is non-zero, ∑ $0 = -0

r + <−-K= = -0

(Sign convention: all the upward parameters are positive and downward parameters are negative
whereas right side parameters are positive and left side parameters are negative)
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Chapter- 5

Applying Newton’s Laws

Prepared by Dr. S. K. Parida

Topic to be covered: To use Newton’s first law for bodies in equilibrium, to use Newton’s
second law for accelerating bodies, to study the types of friction and fluid resistance, centripetal
force, banked road and motion in a vertical loop

Introduction to topic
In the Chapter-4, we have discussed the concepts of Newton’s laws. 1st law explains that a body
will remain either rest or moving with uniform velocity unless and until it compelled by some
external force. So when the net force acting on a body is zero, then we can apply Newton’s 1st
law whereas second law explains when the net force is non-zero, the body will accelerate in the
direction of applied force. The acceleration produced in the body is directly proportional to
magnitude of the force. But the third law explains that two bodies are always interacting with
two equal and opposite forces called as action and reaction. The action and reaction pair does not
cancel to each other because of they act on two different bodies.

We will now extend our discussion in applications of Newton’s law in different physical
situations. To understand the concepts of Newton’s laws, we should solve some physical
problems and extend into different components of forces and accelerations.

Newton’s 1st Law and its applications

We know the Newton’s 1st law was applied to those situations, where net forces acting on a body

can be mathematically written as ∑ $ = 0. In the terms of the components, it can be written as

is zero. It implies that either the body is at rest or moving with constant velocity. Therefore, it

∑ $/ = 0, ∑ $0 = 0 and ∑ $8 = 0.

Problem
A body of mass ‘m’ is tired with a string and remain taut position as shown the

Execute: ∑ $0 = 0
fig. Calculate the tension in the string.

r + <−-K= = 0

Newton’s 2nd Law and its applications

We know the Newton’s 2nd law was applied to those situations, where net forces acting on a
body is non-zero. It implies that body has to move in the direction of applied force. The
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

acceleration produced in the body is proportional to the applied force. Therefore, in

Mathematically, it can be written as ∑ $ = - working formula

quantitatively Force is equal to the product of mass and acceleration.

In the terms of the components, it can be written as

† $/ = -/ , † $0 = -0 and † $8 = -8 ‡wˆ‰{|Š ‹wˆŒŽ

Problem: Two bodies of masses m1 and m2 are attached with a frictionless pulley as shown in
fig. Calculate the common acceleration and tension.

Execute: for mass m1, ∑ $0 = − - 0

r + <−- K= = − - 0
⇒ - K − r = - 0 ……..(1)

for mass m2, ∑ $0 = - 0

r + <−- K= = - 0
⇒ r − - K = - 0 ……….(2)

By solving eq.(1) and eq.(2)., we get

0 = Z Y K and r =  K
  Z Y
Z Y Z Y

Newton’s 3rd Law and its applications

opposite forces to each other. Therefore, it can be mathematically written as $/ = −$/ .
We know the Newton’s 3rd law was applied to those situations, where two bodies exert equal and

Apparent weight and weightlessness

When a passenger with mass m rides in an elevator with y-acceleration ay the

passenger’s apparent is =m (g+ay )

When the elevator is accelerating upward ay is positive and the apparent weight is more
than passenger’s weight.

When the elevator is accelerating downward ay is negative and the apparent weight is less
than passenger’s weight.

Weightlessness:

When the elevator has a downward acceleration ay = -g that is, when it is in free fall, the
passenger seems to be weightless.

An astronaut orbiting the earth with a spacecraft experiences apparent weightlessness.
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

The person is not truly weightless because a gravitational force still acts. Astronauts in
orbit feel “weightless "because they have the same acceleration as their spacecraft—not
because they are “outside the pull of the earth’s gravity.

Frictional forces

• When a body rests or slides on a surface, the friction force is parallel to the surface.
• Friction between two surfaces arises from interactions between molecules on the surfaces
or chemical bonds among the molecules between two surfaces.
• Static friction followed by kinetic friction
• Before the box slides, static friction acts. But once it starts to slide, kinetic friction acts.

Kinetic and Static friction

• The kinetic friction force is ‘ = ’‘  working formula

Kinetic friction acts when a body slides over a surface.

• Static friction acts when there is no relative motion between bodies.

• The static friction force can vary between zero and its maximum value:  ≤ ’  W.F
• Rolling friction: Easier to roll a load across the horizontal floor than to slide it.
Coefficient of Rolling fiction µ r < µ k
• Typical values of µ r are :
0.002 to 0.003 for steel wheels on steel rails
0.01 to 0.02 for rubber tires on the concrete
(Rail road trains are more fuel efficient than high way trucks)

Fluid Resistance: opposition offered by the fluid to the body immersed in it.

‹ = ‰k working formula (applicable to small body with small range of velocity)

Ex:-A ball bearing falling in oil

‹ = ”k• working formula (applicable to big body with large velocity)

For larger objects moving through air at the speed of a tossed tennis ball or faster, the resisting
force is approximately proportional to square of v rather than v. It is then called air drag or
simply drag. Ex: Airplanes, falling rain drops
Proportionality constants, k and D depend upon shape and size of the body in motion and
property (density) of the fluid
Terminal Speed:

It is the constant velocity possessed by a body when it immersed into the fluid.

Terminal speed, vt: Speed of the body in equilibrium while moving through the fluid
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

∑ $0 = -0
9, + <−-K= = −-0 (here fluid resistance,  = 9,)
*VT3 +
,=
‘
But for the terminal velocity, 0 = 0

,X =
V
‘
working formula

∑ $0 = -0
Similarly, for big body with large velocity
velocity,

", + <−-K= = −-0 –luid resistance  = ", )

(–luid
*VT3 +
,=2 ˜
But for the terminal velocity, 0 = 0

V
,X = 2 ˜
Working formula

Centripetal force:

It is a force required by a body to moves in a circular path. It is

observed that centripetal acceleration is always acting along the radius and towards center. It is
perpendicular to the velocity of the body as velocity is along the tangent.

UY
™Xš›™XTœ = šT` = working formula
‚

‚
r= U
working formula

ž Y ‚
šT` = working formula
ŸY

U Y
$™X = -šT` = ‚
working formula

Banked road:

(a) Motion along a flat curve road

When a body of mass m moving with velocity v in a flat curve road

ad with radius of curvature R.
What
hat will be the maximum velocity for safety.

Execute: The motion along y-direction

direction will be
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

∑ $0 = 0

 + (−-K) = 0

 = -K ………..(i)

∑ $/ = -šT`

UY
=-
‚

U¤¥4 Y
T/ = -
‚

U¤¥4 Y
⇒ ’  = - (using eq.(i))
‚

U¤¥4 Y
⇒ ’ -K = -
‚

,T/ = ’ K
working formula

(b) Motion along a banked road

When a body of mass m moving with

velocity v in a banked road
ad with radius
of curvature R. What
hat will be the angle
of curve banked road.

Execute: The motion along y-direction

direction
will be

∑ $0 = 0

 t + (−-K) = 0
V
 = ¦ ………..(i)

∑ $/ = -šT`

UY
1t = -
‚

V UY
⇒ ¦ 1t = - (using eq.(i))
‚

UY
⇒ t = V‚
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

UY
t =   working formula
V‚

Motion in a vertical Loop:

A passenger of mass m moving with velocity v along a

circular path of radius R as shown in the fig. Calculate
the force that seat exerts on the passenger at top and
bottom.

Execute:

At the top,

∑ $0 = −-0

UY
⇒ Ÿ + (−-K) = −-
‚

UY
⇒ Ÿ = -K 1 − V‚ working formula

At the bottom,

∑ $0 = -0

UY
⇒ Ÿ + (−-K) = - ‚

UY
⇒ Ÿ = -K 1 + V‚ working formula
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Chapter-6
Work and Kinetic energy

Prepared by Dr. S. K. Parida

Topic to be covered: What is work and how work can be positive, zero and negative, what is
kinetic energy and work-energy theorem

Introduction to topic

In the chapter-4 & 5, we have discussed the concepts of Newton’s. 1st, 2nd and 3rd laws along its
applications in various physical problems. We will now extend our discussion how the net force
does work. The displacement produces by the net force may did work done. To understand how
kinetic energy is related to work done so called as work-energy theorem.

Work:
• Work done on a particle by all forces that act on it equals the change in its kinetic energy-
a quantity that’s related to the particle’s speed.
• This relationship holds even when the forces acting on the particle aren’t constant
• If a constant force acts on a body while it moves from one place to another making a
displacement in the direction of force, work done is defined as W= Fs

SI Unit of Work: 1 joule = (1 newton) (1 meter) or 1 J = 1 N * M

Unit of Work (British system): 1 foot- pound = (1 pound) (1 foot) or 1 ft * lb = 1lb * ft (N.A)
Conversion: 1J = 0.7376 ft * lb , 1 ft * lb = 1.356 j (Not required)

Work done by a constant force:

If a constant force F applied on a body at angle ∅, then it can be resolve into two components i.e.
parallel component $п = $ ∅ and perpendicular component $⟘ = $ ∅

Then, work done will be © = $п  = $ ∅.  = $ .  working formula

Work done by a varying force:

Work done by a varying force can be calculated by integrating force with displacement travelled

$. 

by it. © = m Y  ; working formula
Z

Work done can be positive, negative and zero depending upon the angle between the net force
and displacement. If the applied force and displacement are in same direction, work is said to be
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

positive and when applied force and displacement are in opposite direction, work will be
negative but when applied force and displacement are perpendicular, work will be zero.
Work-Energy theorem (constant force)
It states that the total work done on a particle is equal to its change in kinetic energy.
Let us consider a body of mass m is moving with initial velocity , cover the displacement s after
time t s and the acceleration during the interval will be ax. From 3rd kinetic equation, we get
, = , + 2/ 
UY Y UZ Y
/ = 
UY Y UZ Y
$ = -/ = -

 
$ = -, − -,

The product Fs is the work done by the net force F and is equal to the total work Wtot done by all
 
the forces acting on the particle. -, is represents the final kinetic energy while -, is

represents initial kinetic energy.

©XX = ª − ª working formula

Work-Energy theorem (varying force)

The work-energy theorem can also prove by taking varying force for total work done.
`U4 `U4 `/ `U4
/ = = = ,/
`/ `/ `X `/
/ / / `U4
©XX = m/ Y $/ ;G = m/ Y -/ ;G = m/ Y -,/ ;G
Z Z Z `/
U
©XX = mU Y -,/ ;,/
Z

 
©XX = -, − -,

©XX = ª − ª working formula

Power
The rate of change of work with time is called power.
Power is a scalar quantity. The unit of power is J/s or Watt. 1 kWh =3.6 x 106 J.
sTV™  ¬š‘ `™ ∆®
Average power, «TU = = working formula
X™ X™šUTœ ∆X

The instantaneous power can be calculate by taking limit ∆ → 0,

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

∆® `®
«X = M1-∆X→_ = working formula
∆X `X

`® `(¯) `
We know « = = =$
`X `X `X
 , working formula
« = $.
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Chapter-7

Potential Energy and Energy Conservation Law

Prepared by Dr. S. K. Parida

Topic to be covered: To use elastic potential energy for a body attached to a spring, to use
gravitational potential energy for vertical motion, to solve problems involving conservative and
non-conservative forces, to use energy diagram for understanding motion under conservative
force

Introduction to topic

In the chapter-7, we will now extend our discussion to potential energy and energy conservation
law. In our daily life, many examples that obey the conservation law.

Potential Energy:
Energy associated with a particular position of a body when subjected to or acted on by forces.
Examples:
• Field Forces act on bodies even if not touching, like gravity,
magnetism, electricity
• Direct Contact forces, like springs

Gravitational Potential Energy

The potential energy associated with a body’s weight and its height above the ground (reference
level) is its gravitational potential energy at that height.
The expression of the gravitational potential energy can be derived by multiplying force of
gravity with displacement i.e. °VšTU = -KS … … … … … … … … . . (1) working formula

The work done against the gravity will be ©VšTU = $ = „(S − S ) = -KS − -KS
Using eq.(i), we can write the above equations as

©VšTU = °VšTU, − °VšTU, = −*°VšTU, − °VšTU, + = −∆°VšTU … … … . (11) working formula

Conservation of Mechanical Energy (Gravitational Forces only)

We know that work-energy theorem; work done is equal to change in kinetic energy
©XX = ª − ª … … … … … … . . (1)
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Also we know, gravitational potential energy will be

©VšTU = °VšTU, − °VšTU, … … … … … … … (11)
Since only gravitational force is present, so total work done is equal to work done doe to gravity.
©XX = ©VšTU … … … … … … … … … … (111)
Using eq.(i) and eq.(ii) in eq.(iii), we get
ª − ª = °VšTU, − °VšTU,
ª + °VšTU, = ª + °VšTU,
# = ª + °VšTU =  working formula

When only the force of gravity does work, the total mechanical energy is conserved.

Conservation of Mechanical Energy (When Other Than Gravity Do Work )

Total work done will be the summation of work done due to gravity and work done due to other
force. Therefore, ©XX = ©VšTU + ©Xs™š … … … … … … … … (1,)

We know that work-energy theorem; work done is equal to change in kinetic energy

©XX = ª − ª … … … … … … . . (,)
Also we know, gravitational potential energy will be
©VšTU = °VšTU, − °VšTU, … … … … … … … (,1)
Using eq.(v) and eq.(vi) in eq.(iv), we get
ª − ª = °VšTU, − °VšTU, + ©Xs™š
ª + °VšTU, + ©Xs™š = ª + °VšTU, working formula

Expressing above terms with appropriate symbols, we get

 
-, + -KS + ©Xs™š = -, + -KS working formula

Therefore, work done by all forces other than the gravitational force equals the change in the
total mechanical energy # = ª + °VšTU of the system, where °VšTU is the gravitational potential
energy.

Elastic Potential energy:

Restoring force $š = −9G
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

_ _ 
°™œ = m/ $š ;G = m/ (−9G);G = 9G

Work done by the spring from x1 to x2,

 
©™œ = 9G − 9G = °™œ, − °™œ,

Conservation of Mechanical Energy (Restoring Forces only)

We know that work-energy theorem; work done is equal to change in kinetic energy
©XX = ª − ª … … … … … … . . (,11)
Also we know, gravitational potential energy will be
©™œ = °™œ, − °™œ, … … … … … … … (,111)
Since only restoring force is present, so total work done is equal to work done doe to resoting
force and called elastic potential energy.
©XX = ©™œ … … … … … … … … … … (1G)
Using eq.(vii) and eq.(viii) in eq.(ix), we get
ª − ª = °™œ, − °™œ,
ª + °™œ, = ª + °™œ,
# = ª + °™œ =  working formula
When only the restoring force does work, the total mechanical energy is conserved.
Expressing above terms with appropriate symbols, we get
   
-, + 9G = -, + 9G working formula

Situations with both Gravitational and Elastic Potential Energy

Total work done will be the summation of work done due to gravity, restoring force and work
done due to other force. Therefore, ©XX = ©VšTU + ©™œ + ©Xs™š … … … … … … … … (G)

We know that work-energy theorem; work done is equal to change in kinetic energy

©XX = ª − ª … … … … … … . . (G1)
Also we know, gravitational potential energy will be
©VšTU = °VšTU, − °VšTU, … … … … … … … (G11)
©™œ = °™œ, − °™œ, … … … … … … … (G111)
Using eq.(xi), eq.(xii) and eq.(xiii) in eq.(x), we get
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

ª − ª = °VšTU, − °VšTU, + °™œ, − °™œ, + ©Xs™š

ª + °VšTU, + °™œ, + ©Xs™š = ª + °™œ, +°VšTU, working formula

Expressing above terms with appropriate symbols, we get

   
-, + -KS + 9G + ©Xs™š = -, + -KS + 9G working formula

Conservative and non-conservative forces

A force is said to be conservative force when it depends on initial and final position of the body.
Ex: Gravitational force, Magnetic force, electrostatic force etc.
Characteristics:

It can be expressed as the difference between the initial and final values of a potential-
energy function.

It is reversible

It is independent of the path of the body and depends only on the starting and ending
points.

When the starting and ending points are the same, the work is zero.
Non-conservative force: Forces which do not satisfy the above properties
Ex: Kinetic friction/fluid resistance (dissipative forces)

Force and Potential energy

The force and potential energy are related by a formula
±²(š)
$(J) = − working formula
±š

In terms of x-, y- and z- axis,

±²(/) ±²(0) ±²(8)
$(G) = − $(S) = − $(g) = −
±/ ±0 ±8
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Chapter-8

Momentum, Impulse and Collisions

Prepared by Dr. S. K. Parida

Topic to be covered: Momentum and Impulse, Conservation of Momentum, : Momentum

Conservation and Collision, elastic collision

Introduction to topic

In the Chapter-8, we will now extend our discussion to momentum and impulse. We want to
discuss how change in momentum causes the impulse.

Momentum:
The amount of motion contained in a body is called momentum. It depends on the mass and
velocity of the body. The product of mass and velocity is equal to momentum. The rate of
change in momentum is called force.


∑ $ =
`ƒ
… … … … … … … . (1) working formula.
`X

Therefore, the net force (vector sum of all forces) acting on a particle equals the time rate of
change of momentum of the particle.

Impulse-momentum theorem

It states that the change in momentum of a particle during a time interval equals the impulse of
the net force that acts on the particle during that interval.

Impulse of the net force denoted by ‘J’ is the product of net force acting on particle and the time

interval. ³ = ∑ $ . ∆ working formula when force is constant


⇒ ³ = `X . ∆ (using eq.(i), )
`ƒ

⇒ ³ = XYX Z . ( −  )
›
› 
Y Z

³ = L
 − L
 Impulse-momentum theorem.

³/ = -, / − -,/ working formula along x-direction

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

X
³ = mX Y ∑ $ ; working formula when force is variable
Z

Conservation of linear momentum

It states that in an isolated system, total momentum of a system is equal to vector sum of all
momenta of all the particles in the system.
In the simplification, total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision.

Let us consider two bodies A and B having masses - ; - moving with initial velocities
,/ and ,/ attain final velocities , / and , / .
According to conservation of linear momentum,
- ,/ + - ,/ = - , / + - , / working formula

Collision:
A collision is said to be takes place when two bodies come to physical contact to each other.
Depending upon the result of momentum and kinetic energy, collision is divided into two
categories. (i) elastic collision (ii) inelastic collision

Elastic collision:
A collision is said to be elastic collision, when it obeys conservation law of momentum and
kinetic energy- that is, both momentum and kinetic energy will remain same in before and after
collision.
Therefore, - ,/ + - ,/ = - , / + - , / momentum
   
- ,/ + - ,/ = - , / + - , / kinetic energy

Elastic collision:
A collision is said to be inelastic collision, when it obeys conservation law of momentum but
does not obey conservation law of kinetic energy- that is, momentum will remain same in before
and after collision where as kinetic energy of after collision will be less than before.

An inelastic collision in which the colliding bodies stick together and move as one body after the
collision is after the collision is often called a completely inelastic collision
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Elastic Collisions, One Body Initially at Rest

A collision is said to be elastic collision, when it obeys conservation law of momentum and
kinetic energy- that is, both momentum and kinetic energy will remain same in before and after
collision.
Let us consider two bodies A and B having masses - ; - . Body A is moving with initial

velocities ,/ whereas second body is at rest ,/ = 0. After elastic collision, final velocities

of body A and B will be , / and , / respectively. According to conservation of linear

momentum, - ,/ + - ,/ = - , / + - , /

- ,/ = - , / + - , / ( since, ,/ = 0)

- , / = - (,/ − , / ) … … … … … … … . . (11)

Similarly, due to conservation of energy

   
- ,/ + - ,/ = - , / + - , /

  
- ,/ = - , / + - , / ( since, ,/ = 0)

- , / = - (,/ − , / ) … … … … … … … … (111)

Dividing eq.(iii) by eq.(ii), we get

´ U´Y4 µ *UµZ4 Y UµY4 Y +

Y = µ (UµZ4 UµY4 )
´ U´Y4

, / = ,/ + , / … … … … … … … … (1,)

Substituting eq.(iv) in the eq.(ii), we get

- (,/ + , / ) = - (,/ − , / )

 
, / = µ ´ ,/ working formula final velocity of body A
µ ´

Substituting above value in eq.(iv) we get

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

µ
, / = ,/ working formula final velocity of body B
µ ´

Completely Inelastic Collisions

An inelastic collision in which the colliding bodies stick together and move as one body after the
collision is after the collision is often called a completely inelastic collision

Let us consider two bodies A and B having masses - ; - . Body A is moving with initial

velocities ,/ whereas second body is at rest ,/ = 0. After complete inelastic collision, final

velocities of body A and B will be , / and , / respectively mixed together and moving with a

common velocity , / . Therefore, , / = , / =, /

According to conservation of linear momentum,

- ,/ + - ,/ = - , / + - , /

- ,/ = (- + - ), / (1 I , / = , / =, / ; ,/ = 0)

µ
, / = ( ,/ working formula
µ ´ )

The kinetic energy before and after collision will be


ª = - ,/

  µ
ª = (- + - ), / = (- + - ) ¶( · ,/
µ ´ )

Therefore, the ratio will be

¸Z µ
¸Y
= working formula
µ ´

Power
Def:- The rate of change of work with time is called power.
Power is a scalar quantity. The unit of power is J/s or Watt. 1 kWh =3.6 x 106 J.
sTV™  ¬š‘ `™ ∆®
Average power, «TU = = working formula
X™ X™šUTœ ∆X

The instantaneous power can be calculate by taking limit ∆ → 0,

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

∆® `®
« = M1-∆X→_ = working formula
∆X `X

`® `(¯) `
We know « = = =$
`X `X `X
 , working formula
« = $.
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Chapter-9
Rotation of Rigid Bodies
Prepared by Dr. S. K. Parida
Topic to be covered: What is center of mass, motion of center of mass and relation of external
force with center of mass, Angular Velocity and Acceleration, Rotation with constant angular
acceleration, Relating linear and angular kinematics, Energy in rotational motion, Parallel axis
theorem, Moment of Inertia calculations.

Center of Mass:
It is a point at which whole mass of the body is supposed to be concentrated is called center of
mass. It is not necessary that the center of mass is always inside the body. It plays very important
role in the rotational motion of the irregular bodies.

Z /Z Y /Y ¹ /¹ ⋯
G = Z Y ¹ ⋯
working formula

Z 0Z Y 0Y ¹ 0¹ ⋯
S = Z Y ¹ ⋯
working formula

In the term of the position vector,

J
Z šZ Y šY ¹ š¹ ⋯
J = Z Y ¹ ⋯
working formula

Motion of center of mass:

Derivative of the x- coordinate of center of mass with respect to time will give the velocity of
center of mass along x-direction.
Z /Z Y /Y ¹ /¹ ⋯
G = Z Y ¹ ⋯
` ` Z /Z Y /Y ¹ /¹ ⋯
,/ = `X G = `X 
Z Y ¹ ⋯
 `
⇒ ,/ =  (- G + - G + -N GN + ⋯ )
Z Y ¹ ⋯ `X
 ` ` `
⇒ ,/ =  `X - G + `X - G + `X -N GN …
Z Y ¹ ⋯

Z UZ4 Y UY4 ¹ U¹4 ⋯

,/ = working formula
Z Y ¹ ⋯

Velocity of center of mass along y-direction

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Z UZ3 Y UY3 ¹ U¹3 ⋯

,0 = Z Y ¹ ⋯
working formula

Velocity of center of mass in space co-ordinate

Z Y U
Z U Y ¹ U
¹ ⋯
, = working formula
Z Y ¹ ⋯

We know that - + - + -N + ⋯ = º is the total mass of the body constituting n-particles

Therefore, the above equation can be reduced to
Z Y U
Z U Y ¹ U
¹ ⋯
, =
»

º, = - , + - , + -N ,N + ⋯ . = « working formula

The momentum of the center of mass is equal to the sum of all the momentum of all the
constituting particles.
External Force and Center of Mass Motion:
`
The acceleration of center of mass  = `X ,

º = -  + -  + -N N + ⋯

Applying Newton’s 2nd law, ∑ $ = º

∑ $™/X + ∑ $X = º
But we know, due to Newton’s 3rd law the total internal forces exert among all particles is zero
i.e. ∑ $X = 0 .Therefore, we can write

∑ $™/X = º working formula

When a body or a collection of particles is acted on by external forces, the center of mass moves
just as though all the mass were concentrated at that point and it were acted on by a net force
equal to the sum of the external forces on the system.

In Physics, a rigid body is an idealization of a solid body in which deformation is neglected. In

other words, the distance between any two given points of a rigid body remains constant in time
regardless of external forces exerted on it. Even though such an object cannot physically exist
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

due to relativity, objects can normally be assumed to be perfectly rigid if they are not moving
near the speed of light.
In classical mechanics a rigid body is usually considered as a continuous mass distribution, while
in quantum mechanics a rigid body is usually thought of as a collection of point masses

Angular Velocity and Acceleration

In rotational motion, the unit of angle is radian. To have a clear

idea, let us consider circle as shown in fig (a) and (b)


= J  = J … … … (1)
J
1 radian can be express in degree as
360_
1 J; = = 53.3_
2¼
1 J;⁄ = 10 JL-

Angular Velocity
Angular velocity can be defined as the rate of change of angular displacement with respect to
time.
If  is the angular displacement covered by a body in time
 and  is the angular displacement covered in time  .
Therefore, change in angular displacement ∆ =  − 
in time ∆ =  − 
The average angular velocity can be the ratio of the
angular displacement ∆  ∆
Y Z ∆
¾TU8 = XY XZ
= ∆X
working formula … … … … . (2)

The instantaneous angular velocity ¾8 can be calculate

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

by taking limit of ¾TU8 as ∆ → 0

∆ `
¾8 = M1-∆X→_ ∆X
= working formula … … … … … … … … (3)
`X

Angular Acceleration
If ¾8 is the instantaneous velocity possessed by a body in time  and ¾ 8 is the instantaneous
velocity possessed in time  . Therefore, change in instantaneous velocity ∆¾ = ¾ 8 − ¾8 in
time ∆ =  − 
The average angular acceleration qTU8 can be the ratio of the change in instantaneous velocity
∆¾  ∆
¿YÀ ¿ZÀ ∆¿À
qTU8 = XY XZ
= ∆X
working formula … … … … … … . . (4)

The instantaneous angular acceleration q8 can be calculate by taking limit of qTU8 as ∆ → 0

∆¿À `¿À
q8 = M1-∆X→_ ∆X
= `X
working formula … … … … … … … … … … (5)

The angular acceleration can be related to angular displacement as

` ` `Y 
q8 = `X = working formula … … … … … … … … … … (6)
`X `X Y

Derivation of angular kinematic equations

1st Equation:
Let us consider a rigid body moving with initial angular velocity ¾_8 attatin final velocity ¾8 in
time t sec . then angular acceleration q8 will be
¿À ¿aÀ
q8 =
X_

¾8 = ¾_8 + q8  working formula … … … … … … … … … (7)

2nd Equation:

The average angular velocity can be written as

¿aÀ ¿À
¾TU8 = … … … … … … … … … … (8)

Similarly, the average angular velocity in terms of displacement can be written

a
¾TU8 = X_
… … … … … … … … … … (9)

Equating eq.(8) and eq.(9), we get

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

a 
X
= (¾_8 + ¾8 )

⇒  − _ = (¾_8 + ¾8 ) … … … … … … … … … … (10)

Now, substitute the eq.(7) in eq. (10), we get


 − _ = ľ_8 + (¾_8 + q8 )Å

 = _ + ¾_8  + q8  working formula … … … … … … … … … … . (11)

3rd Equation:


We know from eq.(11),  = _ + ¾_8  + q8 

⇒  − _ = ¾_8  + q8 

Substitute the value of t from eq.(7) in above expression, we get

¿À ¿aÀ  ¿À ¿aÀ ¿À ¿aÀ
 − _ = ¾_8  + q8 
ÆÀ
(∵ t = )
ÆÀ ÆÀ

¾8 = ¾_8 + 2q8 < − _ = working formula … … … … … … … … … … . <12=

Comparison of Linear and Angular motion with constant acceleration

Sl. No Linear Motion Angular Motion

1 / = !  q8 = 
2 ,/ = ,_/ + /  ¾8 = ¾_8 + q8 
1 1
G = G_ + ,_/ +    = _ + ¾_8  + q 
2 / 2 8
3

4 ,/ = ,_/ + 2/ <G − G_ = ¾8 = ¾_8 + 2q8 < − _ =

1 1
G − G_ = <, + ,/ =  − _ = <¾_8 + ¾8 =
2 _8 2
5

Comparision between different physical quantities in linear and angular motion

Sl. No Linear Motion Angular Motion

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

1.  = É1IJ ;1LM I-I  = K.MJ ;1LM I-I

2. , = M1IJ ,IM 1S ¾ = K.MJ ,IM 1S
3.  = M1IJ  IMIJ1  q = K.MJ  IMIJ1 
4. $ = M1IJ  J I Ê =  JË.I
5. « = M1IJ - -I.- É = K.MJ - -I.-
6. - = - -I  1IJ1 È = - -I  1IJ1

Relation between linear to angular (displacement, velocity and accleration)

We know that  = J
Differentating with respect to t on either side, we get

Ç`X Ç = J Ç `X Ç
` `

, = J¾ working formula … … … … … … … … … … … <13=

XT = =J = Jq working formula … … … … … … … … … … … <14=

`U `¿
`X `X

šT` = = ¾ J working formula … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . <15=

UY
š

Energy in Rotational Motion

Let us consider a rigid body of mass - moving with velocity , , then kinetic energy will be

ª = - ,


ª = - J ¾ ( since , = J ¾, ¾ 1 ℎI K.MJ ,IM 1S =



∑ ª = ∑ - J ¾


ª= - J ¾ + - J ¾ + -N JN ¾ … … … … … . = ∑ - J ¾
   

( „ℎIJI ∑ ª = ª =  M 91I1 IIJKS=

ª= <- J + - J + -N JN … … … … … =¾ = <∑ - J =¾
 

È = - J + - J + -N JN … … … … … = ∑ - J … … … … … . . <16=

ª= Ⱦ working formula … … … … … … … … … <17=


Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Gravitational potential Energy for an extended Body

Let us consider a body of mass M experiences gravitational potential energy U, assuming
acceleration due to gravity is same at all point in the body. Then gravitational potential energy
will be ° = ºKS working formula
Where S is the y-coordinate of the center of mass.

Proof:
Consider a body as a collection of mass elements mi present at distance yi in vertical position
with acceleration g. Then gravitational potential energy will be ° = - KS
∑ ° = ∑ - KS
° = - KS + - KS + -N KSN + ⋯
<Z 0Z Y 0Y ¹ 0¹ ⋯ =
°= »
× ºK
<Z 0Z Y 0Y ¹ 0¹ ⋯ =
°= × ºK
Z Y ¹ ⋯

° = S ºK
Perpendicular axis therorem
It states that the moment of inertia of a plane lamina about an axis perpendicular to the plane of
the lamina is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia of the lamina about two mutually
perpendicular axes in its own plane and intersecting each other at the point where the
perpendicular axis passess through it.
ÌÍ = Ìh + Ìz

Parallel axis therorem

Statement: The moment of inertia about an axis passing through
a point of the rigid body is equal to sum of the moment of inertia
about an axis passing through center of mass puls product of the
mass with square of the distance between the two parallel axis.

ÌÎ = ÌvŒ + ÏЕ
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Proof:
Let us consider ith particle having mass mi and diastance from X- and Y-axis are xi and yi
respectively. Thererfore, moment of inertia about the point O at CM will be

È = † - <G + S =


Consider the point P at which the momet of inertia about an axis at distance a and b from X- and
Y- axis will be

ȃ = † - Ä<G − = + <S − }= Å


ȃ = † - Ä<G +  − 2G = + <S + } − 2S }=Å



ȃ = † - <G + S = − 2 † - G − 2} † - S + < + } = † -
   

Since the center of mass is at origin of the coordinate system, the second term (- G ) and third
term (- S ) are zero as they corespond to the G and S respectively.

Therefore, ȃ = È + º; working formula … … … … … … … … …. <18=

Moment-of-Inertia Calculations
If a rigid body is the continuous distribution of mass, the moment of inertia will be

È = m J ;- working formula … … … … … … … … … . <19=

Where r = distance from axis of rotation to the point of suspension and dm = the elementary
mass of the given rigid body.
The density of the rigid body will be Ñ = ;-⁄;,. Therefore, eq.(2) can be written as
È = m J Ñ ;, (assume density Ñ is constant)

È = Ñ m J ;, working formula … … … … … … … . . <20=

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Chapter-10
Dynamics of Rotational Motion
Prepared by Dr. S. K. Parida

Topic to be covered: Torque, Torque and angular acceleration for a rigid body, Rigid body
rotation about a moving axis, Work and Power in Rotational Motion, Angular momentum,
Conservation of angular momentum.

Torque: It is defined as a twisting force that tends to cause rotation. We call the point where the
object rotates the axis of rotation.

The magnitude of the torque is the product of the force applied and perpendicular distance.
The applied force can be resolve into two components $XT = $ 1 and $šT` = $ 
Therefore, torque Ê = J. $ 1

Ê = J × $ = $J 1 working formula

The torque plays similar role as linear force in translational motion. So we can write the analogy
Newton’s 2nd law in rotational motion Ê8 = Èq8 working formula.

Rigid-Body Rotation about a Moving-Axis.

When a body moves about a moving axis, it executes both translational and rotational motion.
The combined kinetic energy in both tanslational and rotational motion can be written as

ª = º, + È ¾ working formula

 
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Rolling without slipping

, =
¾ ( condition for rolling without slipping)

Combined Translation and Rotation: Dynamics

∑ $™/X = º (translational motion)
∑ Ê8 = È q8 (rotational motion)

Work and Power in Rotational motion

The work dW done by the force Ftan while a point on the rim moves
a distance ds is
;© = $XT ;
⇒ ;© = $XT
; < ∵ ; =
. ;=
⇒ ;© = Ê8 ; < ∵ Ê8 = $XT
=
The total work done W by the torque during the angular displacement from  to  will be
® Y
© = l ;© = l Ê8 ;
_ Z
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

© = Ê8 < −  =
© = Ê8 . ∆ working formula ( workdone by a constant torque)
The work done by variable torque can be calculate by

Ê8 ; = <Èq8 =; = È = È `X ;¾8 = Ⱦ8 ;¾8

`¿À `
`X

Total work done ©XX = m_ ;© = m Y Ê8 ;

® 
Z

⇒ ©XX = m¿ Ⱦ8 ;¾8 ( using the value of Ê8 ; from above expression)

¿Y
Z

©XX = Ⱦ − Ⱦ
 
working formula ( workdone by a variable torque)

Power:
The rate of doing work is called power.
We know that ;© = Ê8 ;
Differentiating both side with respect to time t, we get

= Ê8
`® `
`X `X

« = Ê8 ¾8 working formula

Conservation of Angular Momentum

Statement: When the net external torque acting on a system is zero, the total angular momentum
of the system is constant.
´
Appling Newton’s second law, torque of body A on B, Ê   =
`Ó
`X
……………….. (i)
µ
Similarly, torque of body B on A will be Ê   =
`Ó
`X
……….. (ii)

According to Newton’s 3rd law, Ê   = −Ê   ……………. (iii)

Substitute the eq.(i) and eq.(ii) in eq.(iii), we get
µ ´
+ =0
`Ó `Ó
`X `X
`
 + É
*É  + = 0 ⇒ ` É = 0
`X `X

 =
É 
Ⱦ = 
È ¾ = È ¾ working formula
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Chapter-11
Equilibrium and Elasticity
Prepared by Dr. S. K. Parida

Topic to be covered: Conditions for Equilibrium, Centre of Gravity, Stress, Strain and Elastic
Moduli, Elasticity and Plasticity

Equilibrium
It is the stable state of a body at which vector sum of all the forces acting on the body is zero.
To get stable state of a body, we need two condition to satisfy
1st condition:
The vector sum of all the forces acting on a particle is zero or in extended body, the equivalent
statement is that the center of mass of the body has zero acceleration.

Therefore, ∑ $ = 0 or in componenet wise

∑ $/ = 0 , ∑ $0 = 0 and ∑ $8 = 0 working formula

2nd condition:
The vector sum of external torques acting on a body about any point is zero.
Therefore, ∑ Ê = 0 working formula

Center of Gravity (cg)

It is the point at which the whole weight of the body is suppose to be concentrated. It may be
inside or outside of the body.
We know from the defination of center of gravity
 = „
©  + „
 + „
N + ⋯
ºK = - K + - K + -N K + ⋯
ºK = K<- + - + -N + ⋯ =
º = - + - + -N + ⋯ it refer to the position of Center of mass
(cm)
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

It means that the center of mass (cm) and center of gravity (cg) are identical provided the
variation of acceleration due to gravity (g) with alltitude is neglected. Therfore, at an ideal
condition at the surface of earth cg = cm.

G = GV =
Z /Z Y /Y ¹ /¹ ⋯
Z Y ¹ ⋯
working formula

S = SV =
Z 0Z Y 0Y ¹ 0¹ ⋯
Z Y ¹ ⋯
working formula

In the term of the position vector,

J

J = JV =
Z šZ Y šY ¹ š¹ ⋯
Z Y ¹ ⋯
working formula

For two body system,

G = GV =
Z /Z Y /Y
Z Y
working formula

Gravitational Torque
Gravitational torque is defined as the product of weight and distance from the from the position
of center of mass to the axis of the rotation.

Ê = J × ©

Stress: It is the ratio of restoring force to the unit crosssectional area.

There are two types of stress
1. Tensile stress
2. Shear stress
Tensile stress
It is the ratio of perpendicular force to the unit crossectional area.

Therefore, rI1MI JI =

¯⟘

working formula

When the direction of perpendicular force is applied to a body is outward, refer to tensile stress
while if the direction of the applied force is inward, the stress is called compressive stress.

Therefore, ! -LJI1,I JI =

¯⟘

working formula
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

When the perpendicular force is applied to whole volume of a body, then the stress is called bulk

stress. Therefore, .M9 JI =

¯⟘

working formula

Shear stress
It is the ratio of parallel force to the unit crossectional area.
¯⫿
Therefore, ℎIJ JI =

working formula

Strain: It is the change in configuration of a body.

There are three types of strain.
1. Tensile strain
2. Bulk strain
3. Shear strain
Tensile strain
It is the ratio of change in length to the original length

Therefore, rI1MI J1 = =

sTV™  œ™VXs ∆œ
šVTœ œ™VXs œa
working formula

When the direction of perpendicular force is applied to the body is outward,

refer to tensile strain while if the direction of the applied force is inward, the
strain is called compressive strain.

-LJI1,I J1 = =
sTV™  œ™VXs ∆œ
šVTœ œ™VXs œa
Therefore, working formula

Bulk strain
It is the ratio of change in volume to the original volume

Therefore, .M9 J1 = =

sTV™  UœÕ™ ∆Ö
šVTœ UœÕ™ Öa
working formula

Shear strain
It is the angle between the change in length to the original height of
the body.

Therefore, ×ℎIJ J1 = = s working formula

sTV™  œ™VXs /
šVTœ s™VsX
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Elastic Moduli
Hooke’s Law
With in the elastic limit, srress is directly proportional to the strain.

= #M1 - ;.M. working formula

Xš™
XšT
Therefore,

Young’s Modulus:
It is the ratio of tensile stress to the tensile strain.
Ù
A ⟘C
Therefore, Ø = = =
Ÿ™œ™ Xš™ µ ¯⟘. œa
Ÿ™œ™ XšT ∆Ú .∆œ

working formula
Úa

Bulk Modulus:
It is the ratio of bulk stress to the bulk strain.
Ù
A ⟘C
Therefore,  = ՜‘ = =−
՜‘ Xš™ µ ¯⟘. Ua
∆Û
XšT  .∆U
working formula
Ûa

Shear Modulus / Modulus of rigidity:

It is the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain.
Ù⫿
A C ¯⫿. s
Therefore, × = Üs™Tš XšT = =
Üs™Tš Xš™ µ
4
 ./
working formula
Ý

Stress-strain curve
The stress and strain curve is plotted by taking the
stress along y-axis and strain along x-axis as shown in
fig. The explaination of the nature of the curve is
given below
oa region: In this region, stress is directly
proportional to strain. So the point a represent the
proportional limit. During this period, material donot
loss energy to return its original shape.
ab region: In this region, stress is not linearly
proportional to strain. But still material can return to
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

original shape with loss of energy. So the point b represent the elastic limit. During this period,
materials show the elastic hysterisis.
bc region: If we increase load beyond the point b, materials get deform permanently and show
the plastic behavior ( material cannot return to original shape). So the point c represent the
permanent set point of the material.
cd region: Further increase in load beyond the point c, materials get a point where it can break
called fracture point. So the point d represents the fracture point.

Lastly, during our explanation we mentioned two impontant ponits i.e. elastic point (b) and
fracture point (d). Depending upon the range between these two points, materials are divided into
two categories
1. Ductile: Materials having large db range i.e. materials can support more load beyond the
elastic limit are called ductile materials. Ex- soft iron
2. Brittle: Materials having small db range i.e. materials can support very less load beyond
the elastic limit are called brittle materials. Ex- glasses, sitar wire

Elastic Hysterisis:
In stress-strain curve, if we enlarge the region between
ab i.e. non-linear propotinality relation between stress
and strain, we observed that materials can return to
original shape but with loss of energy shown in fig.
The area under the curve gives the amount of energy
loss. Since elastic materials cannot return without loss
of energy, so called elastic hysterisis. Materials having
high degree of elastic hysterisis have many
engineering apllication like rubber used as vibration
absorber in vehicles.
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Chapter-12

Fluid Mechanics
Prepared by Dr. S. K. Parida

Topic to be covered: Density, pressure in fluid, buoyancy, fluid flow, Bernoulli’s equation,
venturimeter and efflux.

In physics, a fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress.
Fluids are a subset of the phases of matter and include liquids, gases, plasmas and, to some
extent, plastic solids. So, fluid = liquid + gas

The study of forces and flow within fluids is called fluid mechanics. Or Fluid mechanics is the
branch of physics that studies the mechanics of fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas) and
the forces on them. Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest;
and fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion.

Pressure
It is the ratio of the perpendicular force per unit area.

Consider an element of fluid at rest

⇒ Net force = 0
⇒ 0 = 0
⇒ L − <L + ;L=  – -K = 0
⇒ − ;L  = -K = <ρ;S=K
= ρg ⇒ mà Y dp = má Y ρgdy
ßà à á
ßá Z Z
⇒

L – L = − ρ K < S – S = <.-I ℎ =
S – S =
⇒

So, p − p = − ρ K ℎ
⇒ L_ – L = − ρ K ℎ
⇒ L = L_ + ρ K ℎ
⇒ Pressure increase with depth, so p > L_
Here P = pressure at a depth ‘h’= absolute pressure
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

And L_ = pressure at the surface = atmospheric pressure

Therefore, LTå = LTX + ÑKℎ working formula

Gauge pressure

The difference of atmospheric pressure from the absolute pressure is called gauge pressure.
Therefore, LVTÕV™ = LTå − LTX = ÑKℎ
⇒ LTå = LTX + LVTÕV™ working formula
If the gauge pressure is negative (patm > pabs), the the pressure is called vacuum pressure.
LUTÕÕ = LTX − LTå = −LVTÕV™ = −ℎÑK

Measuring atmospheric pressure

We can measure atmospheric pressure using a mercury barometer. The principle of working the
mercury barometer: Same depth ⇒ same pressure
LÕX`™ = L`™
LTX = « + ρ Kℎ ≅ ρ Kℎ
Knowing ρ and g, measuring h, we can calculate LTX .
For example: ρ mercury = 13.6 x103kg / m3, g = 9.8 m / s2, h = 0.76m
Then, LTX = ρ K ℎ = 1.01 × 10æ ç / - = 1019«
Buoyancy: It is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed
object. This upward force is called buoyant force.
Archemede’s Principle: When a body is completely or partiallly immersed in a fluid, the fluid
exerts an upward force on the body equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
Surface Tension: Surface tension is the elastic tendency of liquids which makes them acquire
the least surface area possible. It is the ratio of force to length. è =
¯
œ
working formula

Streamline flow: Flow of a fluid in which its velocity at any point is constant or varies in a
regular manner. A streamline is a curve whose tangent at any point is in the direction of the fluid
velocity at that point. In the streamline flow, there is no interaction between the fluid particles
during the fluid flow. If the Reynold number is less than equal to 2000, the flow of fluid is said
to be streamline flow.

Turbulent flow: A flow of fluid is said to be turbulent if the velocity at any point changes with
time. In the turbulent flow, there is strong interaction between the fluid particles during the fluid
flow so that high disorder fluid particles are found in this type of fluid flow. If the Reynold
greater than to 2000, the flow of fluid is said to be turbulent flow.
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Equation of Continuity:

The mass of fluid in a flow tube is constant. Where streamlines crowd together the flow speed
increases. A model equation of continuity obeys conservation of mass.

Mass flowing in = Mass flowing out

- = -

Ñ é = Ñ é

Ñ  , H = Ñ  , H

 , =  , working formula

The product , is the volume flow rate ;é/;

= , working formula
`Ö
`X

Bernoulli’s equation:
Statement: In an incompressible, non-viscous and steady streamline flow, sum total kinetic
, + ê + KS =
 ›
energy, pressure energy and potential energy is constant at any point i.e.



To prove: , + + KS = 
 ›
ê

The net work done ;© =  J I × ;1LM I-I

⇒ ;© = L  ; − L  ;
⇒ ;© = <L − L =;é ………………….. (i)
Change in Kinetic energy
;ª = -, − -,
 

⇒ ;ª = <Ñ;é=, − <Ñ;é=,
 

⇒ ;ª = Ñ;é <, − , =

……………….. (ii)

Change in potential energy

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

;° = -KS − -KS
⇒ ;° = Ñ;é KS − Ñ;é KS
⇒ ;° = ÑK;é <S − S = …………………. (iii)
According to conservation of energy, ;© = ;ª + ;°
<L − L =;é = Ñ;é <, − , = + ÑK;é <S − S =


⇒ L − L = Ñ , − Ñ , + ÑKS − ÑKS
 

⇒ L + Ñ , + ÑKS = Ñ , + L + ÑKS
 

⇒ , + + KS = , + + KS
 ›Z  ›Y
ê ê

, + ê + KS =  working formula

 ›

Derive an expression for the flow speed , in terms of the cross-sectional areas  and  and the
In-class problem (12.9): Figure shows a Venturimeter, used to measure flow speed in a pipe.

difference in height h of the liquid levels in the two vertical tubes.

, + Z + KS = , + Y + KS
Ans: We know from Bernoulli’s eq.
 ›  ›
ê ê

For horizontal tube, S = S

, + = , +
 ›Z  ›Y
ê ê

⇒ L − L = , ëUY − 1ì
ê U
Z

⇒ ℎÑK = , ë − 1ì
ê UY
UZ

(∵  , =  , , ⇒ UY = Z =
U 
Z Y

⇒ 2ℎK = , ëZ − 1ì

Y

⇒ , = í µ
sV
Y
 Z 
working formula
µY
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Chapter-13

Gravitation
Topic to be covered: Newton’s law of Gravitation, Weight, Gravitational Potential Energy,
Motion of Satellites, Kepler’s laws and Motion of Planets, Spherical mass distributions,
Apparent weight and earth’s rotation.

Gravitation
Gravitation refers to one of the four fundamental forces in physics, responsible for the attraction
between masses. The other three fundamental forces are the strong nuclear force, the weak
nuclear force, and electromagnetism. The terms gravity and gravitation both describe the
phenomenon which causes masses to attract each other. Both terms are widely used
interchangeably, and it is more or less permissible to do so. However, in some fields of study, the
difference between gravity and gravitation is more prominent.

In these situations, the main difference between gravity and gravitation is that gravitation
describes the attractive force between any two masses while gravity specifically describes
the resultant force with which an object is attracted towards the Earth (second body must
be earth).

Newton’s law of gravitation

Statement: Every particle of matter in the universe attracts

every other particle with a force that is directly proportional
to the product of the masses of the particles and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
$V = î
 ï
šY
working formula

Weight: The force with which a body is moving toward center of earth is called weight. It is a
vector quantity and can be zero, positive and negative.

© = $V

-K = î
 ï
šY

K=
ðï
šY

K=
ðï
‚ï Y
Expression of g on the surface of earth.
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Mass: The amount of matter contain in a body is called mass - = T . It is a scalar quantity and
¯

cannot be negative.

Variation of g with altitude

The variation of g can be calculated with height from the center of earth as follow

K=
ðï
‚ï Y
…………….. (i)

Ks = <‚
ðï
ï s=
Y
……………(ii)

Dividing the eq.(ii) by (i), we get

ñ¤ï
Y
=
VÝ *òï óÝ+
ñ¤ï
V
Y
*òï +

<‚ï =Y
⇒ Ks = K <‚
ï s=
Y

⇒ Ks = K

Y
Ý
A C
òï


⇒ Ks = K 1 + ‚ Ä∵ <1 + G= = 1 + GÅ
s
ï

Ks = K 1 −
s
‚ï
working formula

Variation of g with depth of earth

The variation of g can be calculated with depth from the surface of earth as follow

As we know the density of earth can be taken as constant, so it is necessary to change the
expression of g in term of density of earth. So
ô
ðê ‚ï ¹
K= = =
ðï ¹ žêð‚ï
Y Y
‚ï ‚ï N
…………….. (i)

K` =
žêð<‚ï `=
N
……………(ii)

Dividing the eq.(ii) by (i), we get

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

ôö÷ñ*òï øõ+

=
Võ ¹
ôö÷ñòï
V
¹

<‚ï `=
⇒ K` = K
‚ï

K` = K 1 −
`
‚ï
working formula

Variation of g due to rotation of earth

Variation of acceleration due to gravity due to rotation of earth can be calculated as

particle experiences a centripetal force of radial acceleration šT` = J¾ and acceleration due to
Let us consider a particle A on the surface of earth at an angle θ with center of earth so that the

gravity K. The resultant acceleration Kù can be calculated by using triangle (∆ AOB) law of
addition.

Kù = K + <J¾ = + 2K. J¾ cos <180 − =

<∵ ∆!û, J =
ü =

Kù = K + <
ü ¾ = − 2K.
ü ¾ cos 

Kù = ÄK + <
ü ¾ =   − 2K<
ü ¾ =
Z
 ÅY
Z

Kù = K ë1 +    − 2  ì
‚ï ¿ Y ‚ï ¿ Y Y

V V

Yö Y
ý.ž×_þ ×
c∵ = d
‚ï ¿ Y Yô×þa×þa 
V
≈

.


Kù = K ë1 +    − 2  ì
‚ï ¿ Y ‚ï ¿ Y Y

V V

K = K ¶1 − 2   ·
ù ‚ï ¿ Y Y
V

Kù = K ¶1 − × 2   ·
 ‚ï ¿ Y
V

Kù = K 1 −  
‚ï ¿ Y
V
working formula

At pole,  = 90_ ; Kù = K = 9.8 -/

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

At equator,  = 0_ , Kù = K −
ü ¾

Therefore, the variation of acceleration due to gravity from pole to equator in the surface of earth
will be K − Kù =
ü ¾ working formula

Escape velocity:
It is the minimum velocity with which a body must be projected vertically upwards in order that
it may just escape the gravitational field of the earth.

Kinetic energy of the body = -,™


………..(i)


© = mš $V . ;G


⇒ © = mš î . ;G 0_
  ï
/Y

⇒ © = mš î . ;G
  ï
/Y

⇒ © = mš î . ;G
  ï
/Y

⇒©=
ð  ï
š
……………….. (ii)

According to work-energy theorem, total work done = change in kinetic energy

= -,™
ð  ï 
š

,™ = 2
ðï
š
working formula

At the surface of earth, r = RE

,™ = 2
ðï
‚ï
working formula

The most simplified form will be

,™ = 2 = 2K
ü = 11.2 9-/ working formula

V‚ï Y
‚ï
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Orbital velocity
It is the velocity with which a satellite can put into orbit around the earth.

At equilibrium, centripetal force = Gravitational force

=
U Y ð  ï
š šY

, = 2
ðï
š
working formula

At the surface of earth, r = RE

,_ = 2
ðï
‚ï
working formula

The most simplified form will be

,™ = 2 = K
ü = 7.92 9-/ working formula

V‚ï Y
‚ï

The relation between escape velocity and orbital velocity will be

,™ = √2, working formula

Kepler’s laws
1st law (law of elliptical orbit): Each planet moves in an elliptical orbit, with the sun at one
focus of the ellipse.

2nd law (law of areal velocity) A line from the sun

to a given planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
Z
š™T ` ¯ .
= = Y Z
X™ `X `X
Z
` š.š`  ` 
=Y = J = J ¾
`X `X `X

∵ É = Ⱦ = -J ¾
c Ó d
⇒ =J ¾
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

` Ó
=
`X 

É= 

Ⱦ = 

È ¾ = È ¾ working formula

3rd law (law of time period): The periods of the planets are proportional to the 3/2 powers of
the major axis lengths of their orbits.

r= =
š™T  Xs™ ™œœ›™ Tå
Tš™Tœ U™œX0 
Y¤

⇒r=
Tå
Ó

The latus rectum of the ellipse M = }  ⇒ } = √M

⇒r=
T√œT
Ó

N
⇒ rq
¹
=
ŸZ TZ Y
¹
ŸY TY Y
working formula

Gravitational potential energy

The general expression for gravitational potential energy arises from the
law of gravity and is equal to the work done against gravity to bring a mass
to a given point in space. Because of the inverse square nature of the
gravity force, the force approaches zero for large distances, and it makes
sense to choose the zero of gravitational potential energy at an infinite
distance away. The gravitational potential energy near a planet is then
negative, since gravity does positive work as the mass approaches. This
negative potential is indicative of a "bound state"; once a mass is near a
large body, it is trapped until something can provide enough energy to
allow it to escape.

Def: The gravitational potential energy is the amount of work done in

bringing a body from infinity to a given point.
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

The general form of the gravitational potential energy of mass m is:

š
 = mš î  ï . ;G
° = m $V . ;G 0_
 /Y

°=−
ðï
š
working formula

Gravitational potential

°=−
ð
š

At the surface ° = −
ð
‚ï
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Chapter-14

Periodic Motion

Topic to be covered: Simple harmonic Motion, Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion,

Applications of Simple harmonic Motion: vertical SHM, , Simple Pendulum, Damped
Oscillation, Forced Oscillation and Resonance

OSCILLATIONS

One of the vital type of motion exist in our daily life is periodic. When a body repeats similar
situation after regular interval of time is called periodic motion. Oscillation is one of example of
periodic motion. It is periodic to and fro motion about its mean position. If the body repeat
similar situations many times along a fixed path and returning to each position and velocity after
a definite period of time is called oscillators and path shown is called oscillations.

Origin of restoring force: It is a force arises due to combined effect of gravitational pull and
tensional force of string which is always directed towards mean position. Ex: loaded spring,
simple pendulum etc.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM):

A body is said to be in simple harmonic motion if restoring force is directly proportional to the
displacement and directed opposite in direction.

Mathematically, restoring force; $š q – G

⇒ $š = −9G Where k = spring constant.

⇒ - `X Y = −9G
`Y /

; G 9
+ G=0
; -
⇒

+¾ G =0 … … … … … … … … … . <1=
`Y /
`X Y

Where ω = 2 = angular frequency

Solution: G = <cosωt + φ=

Time Period: It is the time taken by an oscillator to complete one revolution.

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Form the definition; angular frequency ¾ = =

 ßß    π
      à   

r= = 2¼2
 
¿ ‘
working formula

Frequency: Numbers of revolutions made by a body in one second is called frequency of

oscillations. Which means it is the reciprocal of time period.  =

Ÿ

Phase: It defines position and direction of a body.

We know the displacement of a body in SHM, x = < ¾ + =,  is the phase.

Velocity: Rate of change of displacement in SHM is called velocity

é= = −¾_ 1<¾ + = = −¾21 − Y working formula

`/ /Y
`X

Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity in SHM is called acceleration

= = = − ¾ <¾ − = = − ¾ G
`Ö `Y /
`X `X Y
working formula

Energy in SHM

The energy of the system in SHM is sum of kinetic energy and potential energy

# = ª + ° ………………….(i)

K = -, = -  `X
  `/

⇒ K.E = - ¶`X  <¾ + =·

 `

⇒ K.E = -Ä−¾_ 1<¾ + =Å



⇒ K.E = - ¾ 1 <¾ + = --------------------- (ii)



To compute the potential energy, we must find the work done in displacing the system from one
place rest (x=0) to a position x. Therefore for infinitesimal displacement dx, a restoring force –kx
required for work done

U = m/_ −$;G = m_ −<−9G=;G = 9G

/ / 
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

-¾ < <¾_  + == <∵ =¾ =

 ‘

⇒U=

-¾  <¾ + = − − − − − − − − − − −(iii)


⇒U=

Substituting eq(ii) and eq(iii) in eq(i), we get

E = - ¾ 1 <¾_  + = + -¾   <¾ + =

 

⇒ E = - ¾ Ä1 <¾ + = +  <¾ + =Å



⇒ # = - ¾


It obeys the conservation of energy.

Application of Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum can execute simple harmonic type of motion and the time period can be
calculated by using the ray diagram.

angle  such that the tangential component of the weight is taken as restoring force. So the
Let us consider a simple pendulum of mass m is suspended by a string of length L. It turns an

restoring force can be written as $ = −-K1

Being angle  is very small, sin ≈ 

$ = −-K ……………. (i)

But the restoring force $š = −9G ………….. (ii)

Comparing above two equations, −-K = −9G

9= = .Ó
V V /
/ /

9= ∵  = Ó
V /
Ó

We know the time period of a simple harmonic motion

r = ¿ = 2¼2 ‘ = 2¼2 ¤
  
a 
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

r = 2¼2
Ó
V
working formula

DAMPED HARMONIC MOTION (DHM):

Def: The harmonic oscillations under the influence of a spring like restoring force in a
dissipative medium is called damped harmonic oscillation.

Restoring force = F = −kx

dx
Damping force = Fß = −bv = −b
dt
Net force = F = F + Fß

m ßY = −kx + <−b ß =

ßY ( ß(

⇒ + + x=0
ßY (  ß(
ßY ß

⇒ + 2β ß + ω x = 0 − − − −<i=differential eq. for DHO

ßY ( ß(
ßY

Where β = = damping coef–icient



And ω = 2 = natural angular frequency

Solution: The solution of the damped harmonic motion is the function of cosine as

G = I ¦X  <¾′  + =

G = I  X
 <¾′  + = working formula
+
Y¤

Where ¾′ is the angular frequency with which an oscillator is oscillating in damped harmonic
motion.

ω′ = ω − β

¾ ′ = 2ω − β

¾′ = 2 − ž
Y
Y
working formula
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Case (i): Critical damping; when the restoring force is equal to damping force

=
Y
ž Y

} = 2√9- working formula;

This is the condition for critical damping and system will execute non-oscillatory motion.

Case (ii): Over damping; when the damping force is greater than restoring force
Y
ž Y
>

} > 2√9- working formula;

This is the condition for over damping and system will execute non-oscillatory motion.

Case (3): Under damping; when the damping force is less than restoring force
Y
ž Y
<

} < 2√9- working formula;

This is the condition for under damping and system will execute oscillatory motion.

⇒ G = I ¦X  <¾ù  + =

⇒ G = I   Äc2 − d  + Å
+
X ‘ åY
Y¤
 žY
W.F

This above displacement equation can be express in term sine

or cosine function of time. So the oscillation made by above is
oscillatory.

This show oscillatory motion with amplitude AeY¤ and time period r ′ = ¿′
+
π

A<t= = A_ eY¤
+
…………… working formula

T ′ = ¿′ =
π π
Y
………. working formula
20 + Y
¤ ô¤
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

FORCED HARMONIC MOTION (FHM):

Def: The harmonic oscillation under the influence of an externally applied sinusoidal varying
force is called forced vibrations.

I J1K  J I = $š = −9G

;G
Damping force = Fß = −}, = −}
;
Fß = F ( cosωß t

F=F + Fß +Fß

- `X Y = −9G + −} `X + $T/ ωß 

`Y / `/

⇒ `X Y +  `X +  G = ωß 
`Y / å `/ ‘ ¯¤¥4


⇒ ßY + 2β ß + ω x = f_ cosωß t
ßY ( ß(
This is the differential equation for FHM

Where β = = damping coef–icient, ω = 2 = angular frequency and f_ =

 1234

Solution for steady state: The solution of the forced harmonic motion can be written as

Let G =  <¾`  + 5= where A = amplitude at steady state

A=
6a

2<7Y ω8 Y =Y žβY ω8 Y

A=
6a
Y :Y
2 9  ω8 Y ž. ω Y
2 ô2Y 8

A=
6a
Z
<  ω8 Y =Y Y ω8 Y
2

A=
1234
<  ω8 Y =Y Y ω8 Y
W.F

(Amplitude of a driven oscillator)

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Case.(i) ;Ð < ; (mωß < 9=

The amplitude , A =
1234
<  ω8 Y =Y Y ω8 Y

But in case of weak damping, b is very small i. e. b → 0

⇒ = =
6a 1234
7Y

Case.(ii) ;Ð = ; ; <k = mωß = (Resonance)

The amplitude , A = =
1234 1234
<  ω8 Y =Y Y ω8 Y Y ω 8 Y

⇒ T/ =
1234
;Ð

Case.(iii) ;Ð > = (mωß > 9=

The amplitude ; A= =
1234 1234
<  ω8 Y =Y Y ω8 Y < ω8 Y =Y Y ω8 Y

But in case of weak damping, b is very small i. e. b → 0

⇒ =
1234
ω8 Y

Resonance:

Def: It is the phenomena in which frequency of applied periodic force coincide with natural
frequency of the body called resonance. At resonance amplitude of the vibration subsequently
energy of the system will be maximum.

For weak damping } → 0, =

1234
A ( ;Ð
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Chapter-15

Mechanical Waves

Topic to be covered: Types of mechanical waves, periodic waves, mathematical description of

waves, speed of transverse wave, energy in wave motion, standing waves on a string, normal
modes of a string

Waves
A disturbance or variation that transfers energy progressively from point to point in a medium
and that may take the form of an elastic deformation or of a variation of pressure, electrical or
magnetic intensity, electrical potential, or temperature.

Displacement equation for progressive waves

Let us consider a point P at a distance x from the origin such that the time taken to reach the
wave to the point P is U. Therefore the time at origin will be  − U s.
/ /

The displacement at x = 0 will be S<G = 0, = =  ¾

But after time t s, displacement will be

S<G, = =  ¾  − U
/

S<G, = =  ¾ U − 
/
[cos(-θ) = cosθ)

S<G, = =   U − 
 /
Ÿ

S<G, = =    Ÿ − 
/ 
U Ÿ

S<G, = =    > G − ¾


S<G, = =  <9G − ¾= working formula

Where 9 = ; ¾ =
 
> Ÿ
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Wave equation
The displacement of progressive wave can be written as

S<G, = =  <9G − ¾=

=  <9G − ¾= = −91<9G − ¾=

`0 `
`/ `/

= `/ `/  <9G − ¾= = −9 <9G − ¾= ……………….. (i)

`Y 0 ` `
`/ Y

=  <9G − ¾= = ¾1<9G − ¾=

`0 `
`X `X

= ¾1<9G − ¾= = −¾ <9G − ¾= ……………… (ii)

`Y 0 ` `
`X Y `X `X

We can relate the space and time coordinate by dividing eq.(ii) by eq.(i), we get
õY 3

= ¿Y <‘/¿X=
õ4Y ‘ Y <‘/¿X=
õY 3
õ?Y

õY 3

⇒ = ¿
õ4Y ‘
õY 3
õ?Y

=
`Y 0  `Y 0
`/ Y U Y `X Y
wave equation

Speed of the transverse waves , = 2 where F = tension and ’ = mass per unit length
¯
@

Power in a string
Power in a string will be equal to product of force and velocity

L<G, = = $0 <G, =,0 <G, =

⇒ L<G, = = −$ `/ Ä <9G − ¾=Å `X Ä <9G − ¾=Å

` `

¶∵ $0 <G, = = −$ `/ ; ,0 <G, = = ·

`0 `0
`X

⇒ L<G, = = $ 9¾ 1 <9G − ¾=

⇒ L<G, = = $ 9¾ 〈1 <9G − ¾=〉

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

LTU = ’$ ¾  ¶∵ 〈1 <9G − ¾=〉 = ·

 

LT/ = ’$ ¾  Ä∵  J -G1-.- ,M.I  L „IJ, 1 <9G − ¾= = 1Å

Analytical treatment of standing waves

The periodic disturbance in a medium resulting from thecombination of two waves of equal freq
uency and intensity travelling in opposite directions. A standing wave pattern is a virbrational
pattern created within a medium when the virbrational frequency of the source causes reflected
waves from one end of the medium to interfere with incident waves from the source. This
interference occurs in such a manner that specific points along the medium appear to be standing
still. Because the observed wave pattern is characterized by points that appear to be standing
still, the pattern is often called a standing wave pattern. Such patterns are only created within the
medium at specific frequencies of vibration. These frequencies are known as harmonic
frequencies, or merely harmonics. At any frequency other than a harmonic frequency, the
interference of reflected and incident waves leads to a resulting disturbance of the medium that is
irregular and non-repeating.

Reflected wave Incident wave

written as S <G, = = − <9G + ¾= ……………… (i)

The displacement of the incident progressive wave that travels in negative x-direction can be

written as S <G, = =  <9G − ¾= ………………. (ii)

Similarly, the displacement of the reflected wave that travels in the positive x-direction can be

According to superposition law, S<G, = = S <G, = + S <G, =

S<G, = = − <9G + ¾= +  <9G − ¾=

= − 9G ¾ + 19G 1¾ +  9G ¾ + 19G 1¾

Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

= 219G1¾

S<G, = = ¬ 19G 1¾

Where ¬ = 2 = amplitude of the standing wave. The maximum and minimum value of the
standing wave depends on the nature of variation the function value 19G.

The condition and position of the antinodes (AN)

19G = 1 = sin<2 + 1=


⇒ 9G = <2n + 1=


⇒ G = <2n + 1=
 
>

⇒ G = <2n + 1= ž condition for antinodes

>

Positions of the antinodes are G = , 3 , 5 , 7 … … … … … … ….

> > > >
ž ž ž ž

The condition and position of the nodes (N)

19G = 0 = sin <nπ=

⇒ 9G = nπ

⇒ G = nπ

>

⇒ G=
>
condition for nodes

Positions are of the nodes x = 0, , 2 , 3 , 4 … … … … … ..

> > > >

Normal modes in a stretched string

A normal mode of an oscillating system is a pattern of motion in which all parts of the system
move sinusoidally with the same frequency and with a fixed phase relation.

When relating to music, normal modes of vibrating instruments (strings, air pipes, drums, etc.)
are called "harmonics" or "overtones". The most general motion of a system is a superposition of
its normal modes. The modes are normal in the sense that they can move independently, that is to
say that an excitation of one mode will never cause motion of a different mode. In mathematical
terms, normal modes are orthogonal to each other.
Dr. Santosh Kumar Parida UPM_Class Note B.Tech. 1st Sem.

Let us consider a case, in which a string is stretched and fixed on both end. There will be two
nodes on either side of the string. With the knowledge of the formation of nodes, we can
calculate the length of the string which will be the integral multiple of half of the wavelength.

So, É = 
>

⇒D=
Ó


⇒ =
Ö Ó
 

 =
Ö
Ó
working formula

 =
Ö
Ó
frequency of 1st harmonic

 =
Ö
Ó
frequency of 2nd harmonic or 1st overtone

N =
NÖ
Ó
frequency of 3rd harmonic or 2nd overtone

The frequency of the 1st harmonic in term of the linear mass density will be

 =
 ¯
Ó
2@ working formula

Best of Luck