Industrial Engineering

(ME212)

Unit 2: WORK STUDY AND ERGONOMICS

 Unit 2: WORK STUDY AND ERGONOMICS
______________________________________________________________

➢ Scope, Objectives, Overview, Method study Objectives and procedure, Micro

motion study, Method study tools, Time study procedure, Performance rating,
Allowances, Predetermined Motion Time Systems (PMTS), Work Sampling,
Ergonomics, Work science, Design factors, Effect of environment, Man-
Machine System, Workload and Fatigues.

2
 Work Study
______________________________________________________________

Work study aims at improving the existing and proposed ways of

doing work and establishing standard times for work
performance.

Work-study is
encompassed by two
techniques, i.e.,
method study
(motion study) and
Work Measurement
(Time study) as
shown in Fig.

3
 Work Study
______________________________________________________________
"Method study is the systematic recording and critical
examination of existing and proposed ways of doing work,
as a means of developing and applying easier and more
effective methods and reducing costs.”

"Work measurement is the application of techniques

designed to establish the time for a qualified worker to
carry out a specified job at a defined level of
performance"

4
 Relation between Method Study & Time Study
______________________________________________________________

There is a close link between method study and work

measurement.

Method study is concerned with the reduction of the work

content and establishing the one best way of doing the job

Work measurement is concerned with investigation and

reduction of any ineffective time associated with the job and
establishing time standards for an operation carried out as per
the standard method.

5
 Objectives
______________________________________________________________

 To analyze the present method of doing a job systematically in

order to develop a new and better method.
 To measure the work content of a job by measuring the
time required to do the job for a qualified worker and hence
to establish standard time.
 To increase the productivity by ensuring the best possible
use of human, machine and material resources and
to achieve best quality product/ service at minimum
possible cost.
 To improve efficiency

6
 ADVANTAGES OF WORK-STUDY
______________________________________________________________

1. It helps to achieve the smooth production flow with minimum

interruptions.
2. It helps to reduce the cost of the product by eliminating waste
and unnecessary operations.
3. Better worker-management relations.
4. Meets the delivery commitment.
5. Reduction in rejections and scrap and higher utilisation of
resources of the organisation.
6. Helps to achieve better working conditions.
7. Better workplace layout.
8. Improves upon the existing process or methods and helps in
standardization and simplification.
9. Helps to establish the standard time for an operation or job
which has got application in manpower planning and production
planning.
7
 WORK-STUDY PROCEDURE
______________________________________________________________

Procedure
oriented
and
systematic
study

8
 CONCEPT OF WORK CONTENT
______________________________________________________________

The amount of work contained in a given job is referred to as

work content. For a given job work content is measured in terms
of man-hours or machine-hours.
1. Basic Work Content: Which is the minimum time
theoretically required to do an operation or job. This cannot be
reduced.
• The design and the specification are perfect.
• Process of manufacture is exactly followed.
• No loss of working time due to any of the reasons.
Thus, the basic work content represents an ideal condition which
is not possible to achieve.

2. Excess work content: The actual time required to complete an

operation or job is more than the basic time in practical
situations. This additional portion of the work content is called
excess work content. 9
 CONCEPT OF WORK CONTENT
______________________________________________________________

REASONS FOR EXCESS WORK CONTENT

1. Work content added due to defects in design or

specification of a product
2. Work content added due to inefficient methods of
manufacture
3. Ineffective time added due to shortcomings of the
management
4. In effective time added due to reasons attributed to work
man

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 WORK-STUDY AS A TOOL TO IMPROVE
PRODUCTIVITY
________________________________________________________
The important functions of production management are setting up most
effective method of performing the operation (standard method) and
control or effective utilization of resources.
Method study aims→ at determining the most effective method
of performing the job, the most logical layout for manufacturing facilities,
uninterrupted flow of materials throughout the organization, will help to
complete the job in the least possible time and at optimum cost.
Work measurement→ on the other hand determine the time required by
an operator to complete the operation or job for the standard method at
the defined level of performance.
Work-study is the most effective tool to enhance productivity because of
the fact that:
1.It is a direct mean of improving productivity of the system involving very
less or no cost.
2. Accurate means of setting standards of performance and help in PPC.
2. Application of work study results in immediate savings
11
METHOD STUDY

12
 Method Study
______________________________________________________________

The main purpose of method study is to eliminate the

unnecessary operations and to achieve the best method of
performing the operation.

According to British Standards Institution (BS 3138):

"Method study is the systematic recording and critical

examination of existing and proposed ways of doing
work as a means of developing and applying easier
and more effective methods and reducing cost.“

Fundamentally method study involves the breakdown of an

operation or procedure into its component elements and
their systematic analysis.
13
 Objectives of Method Study
______________________________________________________________
Method study is essentially concerned with finding better ways of
doing things. It adds value and increases the efficiency by
eliminating unnecessary operations, avoidable delays and
other forms of waste. Objectives are:
 To study the existing proposed method of doing any job,
operation or activity.
 To develop an improved method to improve productivity
and to reduce operating costs.
 To reduce excessive material handling or movement
and thereby reduce fatigue to workmen.
 To improve utilization of resources.
 To eliminate wasteful and inefficient motions.
 To standardize work methods or processes, working
conditions, machinery, equipments and tools.
14
 Scope of Method Study
The areas to which method study can be applied successfully in
manufacturing are:
1. To improve work methods and procedures.
2. To determine the best sequence of doing work.
3. To smoothen material flow with minimum of back tracking and to
improve layout.
4. To improve the working conditions and hence to improve labour
efficiency.
5. To reduce monotony in the work.
6. To improve plant utilisation and material utilisation.
7. Elimination of waste and unproductive operations.
8. To reduce the manufacturing costs through reducing cycle time of
operations.

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 Advantages of Method Study
______________________________________________________________

 Work simplification
 Improved working method
 Better product quality
 Improved workplace layout
 Improved equipment design
 Better working conditions
 Better material handling
 Improved workflow

16
Steps involved in
Method Study

17
 1. Selection of the Job for Method Study
______________________________________________________________

Cost is the main criteria for selection of a job, process and

department for methods analysis.

To carry out the method study, a job is selected such that the
proposed method achieves one or more of the following results:
(a) Improvement in quality with lesser scrap.
(b) Increased production through better utilisation of resources.
(c) Elimination of unnecessary operations and movements.
(d) Improved layout leading to smooth flow of material and a
balanced production line.
(e) Improved working conditions.

CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTION OF METHOD STUDY

1. Economic aspect
2. Technical aspect,
3. Human aspect. 18
 1. Selection of the Job for Method Study
______________________________________________________________

A. Economic Aspects
The method study involves cost and time. If sufficient returns
are not attained, the whole exercise will go waste. Thus, the
money spent should be justified by the savings from it.

The following guidelines can be used for selecting a job:

(a) Bottle neck operations which are holding up other production
operations.
(b) Operations involving excessive labour.
(c) Operations producing lot of scrap or defectives.
(d) Operations having poor utilisation of resources.
(e) Backtracking of materials and excessive movement of
materials.

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 1. Selection of the Job for Method Study
______________________________________________________________

B. Technical Aspects
The method study man should be careful enough to select a
job in which he has the technical knowledge and expertise. A
person selecting a job in his area of expertise is going to do full
justice.

Other factors which favour selection in technical aspect are:

1. Job having in-consistent quality.
2. Operations generating lot of scraps.
3. Frequent complaints from workers regarding the job.

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 1. Selection of the Job for Method Study
______________________________________________________________

C. Human Considerations
Method study means a change as it is going to affect the way
in which the job is done presently and is not fully accepted by
workman and the union. Human considerations play a vital
role in method study. These are some of the situations where
human aspect should be given due importance:
1. Workers complaining about unnecessary and tiring work.
2. More frequency of accidents.
3. Inconsistent earning.

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 2. Recording Techniques for Method Study
______________________________________________________________

Records are very much useful to make before and after comparison
to assess the effectiveness of the proposed improved method.
Recording must be:
Accurate
Clear & Concise
Understandable
Graphical method of recording was originated by Gilberth. In order to make the
presentation of the facts clearly, without any ambiguity and to enable to grasp
them quickly and clearly, it is useful to use symbols instead of written
description.

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 2. Recording Techniques for Method Study
______________________________________________________________

1. Operation

An operation occurs when an object is intentionally changed

in one or more of its characteristics (physical or chemical).
An operation always takes the object one stage ahead towards
completion.

Examples of operation are:

• Turning, drilling, milling, etc.
• A chemical reaction.
• Welding, brazing and riveting.
• Lifting, loading, unloading.
• Getting instructions from supervisor.
• Taking dictation.

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 2. Recording Techniques for Method Study
______________________________________________________________

1. Operation

An operation occurs when an object is intentionally changed

in one or more of its characteristics (physical or chemical).
An operation always takes the object one stage ahead towards
completion.

Examples of operation are:

• Turning, drilling, milling, etc.
• A chemical reaction.
• Welding, brazing and riveting.
• Lifting, loading, unloading.
• Getting instructions from supervisor.
• Taking dictation.

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 2. Recording Techniques for Method Study
______________________________________________________________

Inspection
An inspection occurs when an object is examined and
compared with standard for quality and quantity. The
inspection examples are:
• Visual observations for finish.
• Count of quantity of incoming material.
• Checking the dimensions.

Transportation
A transport indicates the movement of workers, materials
or equipment from one place to another.
Example: Movement of materials from one work station to
another.
Workers travelling to bring tools.

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 2. Recording Techniques for Method Study
______________________________________________________________

Delay D: Delay (Temporary Storage)

A delay occurs when the immediate performance of the next
planned thing does not take place.
Example:
Work waiting between consecutive operations.
Workers waiting at tool cribs.
Operators waiting for instructions from supervisor.

Storage
Storage occurs when the object is kept in an authorised
custody and is protected against unauthorised removal. For
example, materials kept in stores to be distributed to various
work.

26
 2. Recording Techniques for Method Study
______________________________________________________________
1. CHARTS USED IN METHODS STUDY

This is the most popular method of recording the facts. The activities
comprising the jobs are recorded using method study symbols. A great
care is to be taken in preparing the charts so that the information it shows
is easily understood and recognized.

These charts are used to measure the movement of operator or work

(i.e., in motion study).
(a) Adequate description of the activities.
(b) Whether the charting is for present or proposed method.
(c) Specific reference to when the activities will begin and end.
(d) Time and distance scales used wherever necessary.
(e) The date of charting and the name of the person who does charting.

It can be broadly divided into

(A) Macro motion charts and
(B) Micro motion charts. 27
 Method Study
______________________________________________________________

(A) MACRO MOTION CHARTS

1. Operation Process Chart
It is also called outline process chart. An operation process chart gives the
bird’s eye view of the whole process by recording only the major activities
and inspections involved in the process.
Operation process chart uses only two symbols, i.e., operation and inspection.
Operation, process chart is helpful to:
(a) Visualize the complete sequence of the operations and inspections in the
process.
(b) Know where the operation selected for detailed study fits into the entire
process.
(c) Understand the graphic representation of the points at which materials are
introduced into the process and what operations and inspections are carried on
them are shown.

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 Method Study
______________________________________________________________

29
 Operation process
chart
______________________________________________________________

30
 Operational Process Chart
______________________________________________________________

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 Advantages of OPC
______________________________________________________________

32
 2. Flow Process Chart
______________________________________________________________

Flow process chart summarizes the flow and activity of

a component/man through a procedure in terms of
sequence of operation, transportation, inspection, delay
and storage.

It also includes the information about time required and

distance moved.
Flow process charts are of three types:
(i) Material type—Which shows the events that occur to the
materials.
(ii) Man type—Activities performed by the operator.
(iii) Equipment type—How equipment is used.

33
 2. Flow Process Chart
______________________________________________________________

The main objective of drawing the flow process

chart is to examine the process in order to make it
much more efficient and effective.

The flow process chart is useful

• To reduce the distance travelled by men (or
materials).
• To avoid waiting time and unnecessary delays.
• To reduce the cycle time by combining or
eliminating operations.
• To fix up the ·sequence of operations.
• To relocate the inspection stages.
34
1. Component was brought
from stores 10 m away.
2. The component was
loaded on the machine (2
min).
3. It was machined (5 min).
4. It was then moved to
inspection bench 12 m away.
5. It has to wait for 15 min for
the inspector to be free from
previous job.
6. The component was
checked for accuracy (2 min).
7. It was then moved back to
store 12 m away from
inspection bench and stored
in rack.

35
36
37
38
 3. Two Handed Process Chart
______________________________________________________________

A two handed (operator process chart) is the most

detailed type of flow chart in which the activities of the
workers hands are recorded in relation to one
another.

The two handed process chart is normally confined to

work carried out at a single workplace. This also gives
synchronised and graphical representation of the
sequence of manual activities of the worker.

The application of this charts are:

(i) To visualize the complete sequence of activities in
a repetitive task.
(ii) To study the work station layout. 39
 Symbol Used in Two-Handed Process Chart
______________________________________________________________

40
 Construction of the Chart
______________________________________________________________

• The two handed process chart consists of two charts,

one for the left hand and other for the right hand.
• The simultaneous activities are recorded opposite
to each other on the chart.
• This helps to analyse what left hand will be doing
when right hand is working or vice versa at any point
of time.
• All the five symbols are used and inspection and
storage are not used in the conventional sense.
• Inspection symbol is used when touch or feel by
hand is to be recorded.
• Storage symbol is used when the hand is used as a
grip or vice to hold the object.
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 Example of Two Handed Process Chart:
______________________________________________________________

42
Example of Two Handed
Process Chart: NUT And Bolt
Assembly

43
______________________________________________________________

Example of Two Handed Process Chart:

Cutting glass Tube (current method)
44
 Example of Two-Handed Process Chart
______________________________________________________________

Example of Two
Handed Process
Chart: Cutting
glass Tube
(proposed method)

45
 4. Multiple Activity Chart
______________________________________________________________

An Activity Chart is a graphical representation of a

whole or a portion of work cycle, which shows the
relative periods of activity and idle times of men and
machine.
In multiple activity chart the activities of two or more
subject (worker, equipment or both) are recorded on a
common time scale to show their inter-relationship.

Multiple activity chart is made to

(i) Study idle time of the man and machines
(ii) Determine number of machines handled by one operator
(iii) Determine number of operators required in teamwork to
perform the given job.
(iv) Help in exploring the possibility of reducing both the
operator time and idle machine time. 46
 Type of Multiple. Activity Chart
______________________________________________________________

1. Man-Machine Type Chart

2. Man-multi machine type Chart
3. Multi-man on same machine chart
4. Multi-man and multi-machine chart

47
 Purpose of Multi Activity Chart
______________________________________________________________

• To detect the idle time for machine and workers

• To optimize work distribution between workers
and machines
• To decide number of worker in a group
• To balance the work team
• To examine the activities
• Used to find the most economical route

48
 Construction of the Chart
______________________________________________________________
• A multiple activity chart consists of a series of bars
(columns) placed against a common time scale.
• Each subject is allocated one bar and the activities related
to the subjects are represented in this bar.
• The columns are placed against a common time scale which
starts at zero and ends at cycle time of the job.
• The task to be recorded is broken into smaller elements
and time for each element is measured with the help of a
stop watch.
• The activities are then recorded in the chart in their
respective columns.
• Two symbols are used in the chart—One representing
working and other idle.

49
 An Illustration of Multiple Activity Chart
______________________________________________________________
The operator engaged on the machine performs the following
operations:
1. Pick up the job, place it between the jaws of a hydraulic vice
(0.2 min).
2. Make the switch 'ON' to tightly hold the part (0.08 min).
3. Make the switch 'ON' start automatic cycle of the operation
(0.08 min).
4. Machining of the part on auto cycle (1.5 min).
5. Wait till the vice opens automatically (0.08).
6. Pick up the machined job from the vice (0.05).
7. Keep it in the tray (0.05).
Construct the multiple activity chart for the machining operation.

50
51
 Example: Inspection of Catalyst in a Converter
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

52
 Example: Inspection of Catalyst in a Converter
______________________________________________________________

53
 MICRO-MOTION STUDY
______________________________________________________________

Micro-motion study provides a technique for recording and

timing an activity.

Micromotion study is a set of techniques intended to divide the

human activities in a groups of movements or micro-motions
(called as Therbligs) and the study of such movements helps to
find for an operator one best pattern of movement that consumes
less time and requires less effort to accomplish the task.

54
 Therblings
______________________________________________________________
The micro-motion group of techniques is based on the Idea of
dividing human activity into divisions of movements or groups of
movements (Therbligs) according to purpose for which they are
made. Gilbreth differentiated 17 fundamental Hand or hand
and eye motions to which an eighteenth has subsequently
been added. Each Therblig has a specific colour, symbol and
letter for recording purposes.

Therbligs refer primarily to motions of human body at the

workplace and to the mental activities associated with it.
They permit a much more precise and detailed description of the
work than any other recording techniques.

55
 Therblings
______________________________________________________________

A workplace task
is analyzed by
recording each of
the therbling unit
for a process,
with the results
used for
optimization of
manual labour
by eliminanting
unnecessary
movements.

56
 Therblings
______________________________________________________________

57
 Therblings
______________________________________________________________

58
 Steps Involved in Micro Motion Study
______________________________________________________________

1. Filming the operation to be studied.

2. Analysis of the data from the films.
3. Making recording of the data.

59
 1. Filming the Operation:
______________________________________________________________

• Micro-motion study consists of taking motion

pictures of the activity while being performed by an
operator.
• The equipment required to make a film or video tape
of the operation consists of 16 mm movie camera, 16
mm film, wink counter (micro-chronometer) and
other usual photographic aids.
• Micro-chronometer (or wink counter) is a timing
device placed in the field of view while filming. Time
is recorded in winks. (1 wink =1/2000 of a minute)

60
 2. Analysis of Data from Films:
______________________________________________________________

Once the operation has been filmed and film is processed,

then the film is viewed with help of projector for analysis
of micro-motions. The film is analysed in the following
way:
• Film is run at normal speed so as to get familiar with
the pattern of movement involved.
• A typical work cycle is selected from amongst the
filmed cycles.
• Film is run at a very low speed and is usually stopped
or reversed frequently to identify the motions
(therbligs).
• Therbligs after identification are entered in analysis
sheet.
61
 3. Recording of the Data
______________________________________________________________

62
 SIMO Chart
______________________________________________________________

• Simultaneous Motion Cycle Chart (SIMO chart) is a

recording technique for micro-motion study.

• A SIMO chart is a chart based on the film analysis, used to

record simultaneously on a common time scale the
therbligs or a group of therbligs performed by different
parts of the body of one or more operators.

• It is the micro-motion form of the man type flow process

chart.

• To prepare a SIMO chart, an elaborate procedure and use

of expensive equipment are required and this study is
justified when the saving resulting from study will be very
high.
63
 Example: SIMO Chart
______________________________________________________________

64
 Advantages of Micro Motion Study
______________________________________________________________

• It provide a permanent record of motion study on

films.
• A large number of operators can see the procedure at
any time even after the completion of motion study
work.
• Films can easily reveal the difference between the
present and the proposed technique.
• Films can be demonstrated to large work force at any
desired speed.
• It provides accurate time for each operation or motion
in comparison to stop watch time study.

65
Diagrams

66
 NEED of Diagrams
______________________________________________________________
• The flow process chart shows the sequence and nature of
movement but it does not clearly show the path of movements.

• In the paths of movements, there are often undesirable features

such as congestion, back tracking and unnecessary long
movements.
• To record these unnecessary features, representation of the
working area in the form of diagrams can be made:
(i) To study the different layout plans and thereby select the most
optimal layout.
(ii) To study traffic and frequency over different routes of the
plant.
(iii) Identification of back tracking and obstacles during
movements.
Diagrams are of two types:
1. Flow Diagram 2. String Diagram.
67
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69
70
71
72
 TYPES OF Diagrams
______________________________________________________________

73
 Diagrams
______________________________________________________________

Flow diagram is a drawing, drawn substantially to scale, of the

factory or working area, showing the location of the various
activities.

The path of movements of the product or its components are

traced using the process charts symbols.

All these symbols are connected to each other by line and the
arrows which represents sequence and dependency
relationships (i.e. X must be done before Y)

74
 Steps in Drawing a Flow Diagrams
______________________________________________________________

(i) The Layout of the workplace is drawn to scale.

(ii) Relative positions of the machine tools, work benches,
storage and inspection benches are marked on the scale.
(iii) Path followed by the subject under study is traced by
drawing lines.
(iv) Each movement is serially numbered and indicated by
arrow for direction.
(v) Different colours are used to denote different types of
movements.

75
 Flow Diagrams
______________________________________________________________

76
 Advantages of Flow Diagrams
______________________________________________________________

1) Show the layout of a facility

2) Show the flow of work through that area
3) Show overcrowding areas, crossing worker paths, total travel
etc.
4) Identify how layout can be redesigned to reduce travel,
motion, collisions,
5) Store material near where they are used
6) Increase efficiency and safety.

77
 String Diagrams
______________________________________________________________

• The string diagram is a scale layout drawing on which length

of a string is used to record the extent as well as the pattern
of movement of a worker working within a limited area
during a certain period of time.

• It is especially valuable where the journeys are so irregular

in distance and frequency to see exactly what is happening.

• The primary function of a string diagram is to produce a

record of an existing set of conditions so that the job of
seeing what is actually taking place is made as simple as
possible.

78
 String Diagrams
______________________________________________________________

One of the most valuable features of the string diagram is the

way it enables the actual distance travelled during the period
of study to be calculated by relating the length of the thread
used to the scale of the drawing. Thus it helps to make a very
effective comparison between different layouts or methods of
doing job in terms of the travelling involved.

The main advantage of string diagram compared to flow

diagram is that repetitive movements between work stations
which are difficult to be traced on the flow diagram can be
conveniently shown on string diagram.

79
 Steps to draw string diagram:
______________________________________________________________

(i) A layout of the workplace or factory is drawn to scale on a

soft board.
(ii) Pins are fixed into boards to mark the locations of work
stations, pins are also driven at the turning points of routes.
(iii) A measured length of thread is taken to trace the
movement (path).
(iv) The distance covered by the object is obtained by
measuring the remaining part of the thread and subtracting
it from the original length.

80
 String diagram
______________________________________________________________

81
82
 Applications
______________________________________________________________

(i) It is used for recording the complex movements of

materials or men.
(ii) It is used to check whether the work station is correctly
located.
(iii) Used to record irregular movement
(iv) Used to find out the most economical route.

83
 CYCLE GRAPH AND CHRONOCVCLE GRAPH
______________________________________________________________

• These are the photographic techniques for the study of path

of movements of an operators hands, fingers, etc. These are
used especially for those movements which are too fast to be
traced by human eye.

• A cycle graph is a record of path of movement usually traced

by a continuous source of light on a photograph.

• A small electric bulb is attached to hand, finger or other part

of the body of the operator performing the operation. A
photograph is taken by still camera and the light source
shows the path of the 'motion and the path of the
photograph is called "cycle graph."

84
 CHRONOCYCLE GRAPH
______________________________________________________________

• Cycle graph has a limitation. It will not give the direction

or the speed of movements. This limitation is overcome by
chronocycle graph.

• The chronocycle graph is a special form of cycle graph in

which the light source is suitably interrupted so that the
path appears as a series of pear-shaped dots, the pointed
end indicating the direction of movement and the spacing
indicating the speed of movement.

• The time taken for the movement can be determined by

knowing the rate at which the light source is being
interrupted and by counting the number of dots.

85
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87
 Step 3rd of Method Study : CRITICAL EXAMINATION
______________________________________________________________

The objective of critical examination of recorded facts of an

existing is to determine the true reasons underlying each event
and to make a systematic list of all the possible improvements
for later development in a new and improved method.

The questioning technique is the

means by which the critical
examination is conducted, each
activity being subjected in turn to a
systematic and progressive series
of questions.

88
 Principles to be followed during critical examination
______________________________________________________________

1. Facts should be examined as they are, not as they appear

to be or they should be.
2. Pre-conceived ideas, which often colour the interpretation
of facts should be avoided.
3. Hasty judgements should be avoided.
4. All aspects of the problem must be approached with a
challenging and sceptical attitude.
5. Every detail must be examined logically and no answer
should be accepted until it has been proved correct.

89
 Way of Critical Examination
______________________________________________________________

Critical examination is conducted through a systematic

and methodical questioning process.

The examination is achieved by means of two sets of

detailed questions:
• Primary questions.
• Secondary questions (to indicate the alternatives and
consequently the means of improvements)

90
 Primary Questions
______________________________________________________________

1. Purpose: Analyses whether the job/activity is essential (what

is achieved?).
2. Means: Analyses whether the activity is being done using
right material, right measuring devices and gauges. (How is it
done? why that way?).
3. Sequence: Analyses· the sequence of activities in relation to
other activities is challenged by asking "when it is done" and
why then?
4. Place: Analyses whether the activity is done at right place by
asking "where is it done" and why there?
5. Person: The final question is regarding person performing
the activity by asking "who does it" and why that person.
ELIMINATING
COMBINING
With a view to REARRANGING those activities

Or
91
SIMPLIFYING
 Secondary Questions
______________________________________________________________
The secondary questions seek to establish suitable
alternatives (place, sequence, person and/or means) to
existing methods.

When each of the above questions are applied to any event, it may
suggest a number of possibilities. When these have been
established, it is necessary to ask. The answers to the last
five questions indicate
the line along which a
new method for the
overall process should
be developed. 92
 Critical Examination
______________________________________________________________

93
94
 4th Step in Method Study: DEVELOPMENT AND SELECTION OF NEW METHOD
______________________________________________________________

• Critical examination gives rise to number of creative ideas.

• Since all the ideas are not practicable, some of the ideas
are required to be discarded and others are to be refined
and developed.

For development of the new method, the following

approaches can be considered:
1. Eliminate all unnecessary operations.
2. Combine operations and elements.
3. Change the sequence of operations.
4. Simplify the i:i.ecessary operations.

95
 Steps Involved in Development of New Methods
______________________________________________________________

Development involves the analysis of the three phases:

1. Evaluation
2. investigation and
3. selection.

96
 Steps
______________________________________________________________
1. Evaluation:
• Evaluation phase tests the true worth of each alternative and
thereby decide whether an idea should be pursued or discarded.
• It is therefore, an exercise to short list the creative ideas.

2. Investigation:
• Investigation explores as to how the ideas cleared at the
evaluation stage suitably can be converted into practical
suggestions.
• Investigation usually involves preparation of drawings,
making prototypes, conducting trial runs.
• The aim is to test each idea for its economic and technical
feasibility so that each suggestion is definite and supported by
evidence of practicability.
• Investigation involves the testing technical and economic
feasibility.
97
 Steps
______________________________________________________________

3. Selection:
•Each alternative needs to be evaluated against a set of
specific factors.
•The most commonly selected factors are investment
required, production rate, manufacturing cost per piece,
return on investment.
•Using point system, weights are then assigned to each of
the factors, performance of each factor is then predicted for
each alternative.
•This step is followed by evaluation process of each
alternative against each specific factor.
•To select a preferred alternative, the points scored by each
alternative against each specific factors are added. The
alternative scoring the maximum is selected.

98
99
 5th Step of Method Study: INSTALLATION OF THE PROPOSED METHOD
______________________________________________________________

Installation refers to the implementation of the proposed

method and it serves the following objectives: .

1. Preparation of change proposal to management.

2. Steps to prepare-its implementation on acceptance of
proposal.
3. To get formal approval from management.
4. To implement the accepted proposal.

100
 Steps in installation Phase
______________________________________________________________
Installation is composed of two steps:

1.Recommendation Phase: The formal written report should be

prepared for the changed method, present the-
recommendations to the management. Also provide
information on implementation plan and get the approval of
the management.

2.Implementation Phase: The entire study effort will go waste

if the proposal is not implemented. Though the responsibility of
implementation is that of top management yet the assistance of
method study man is required to:
(i) Tackle problems at implantation phase.
(ii) Minimise delay in implementation process.
(iii) The proposal is implemented in its entirety.
101
 Step 6th of Method Study: MAINTAIN the New Method
______________________________________________________________

• Method changes does not end up with

implementation of the proposal.

• Follow-up after the implementation is equally

important.

• The maintenance of the proposed method involves:

1. Monitoring and control
2. Audit of the savings
3. Review of the approach
4. Evaluation of effectiveness of proposed method

102
Work Measurement

103
 Work Measurement
______________________________________________________________

• Work measurement is also called "Time study"

• Work measurement is absolutely essential for both
the planning and control of operations.
• Without measurement data, we cannot determine the
capacity of facilities or it is not possible to quote
delivery dates or costs.
• Not in a position to determine the rate of
production and also labour utilization and
efficiency.
• It may not be possible to introduce incentive
schemes and standard costs for budgetary control.

104
 Work Measurement
______________________________________________________________

Time study has been defined by British Standard

Institution as "The application of techniques
designed to establish the time for a qualified
worker to carry out a specified job at a defined
level of performance."

105
 OBJECTIVES OF WORK MEASUREMENT
______________________________________________________________

The objectives of work measurement are to provide a

sound basis for:
1. Comparing alternative methods.
2. Assessing the correct initial manning (manpower
requirement planning).
3. Planning and control.
4. Realistic costing.
5. Financial incentive schemes.
6. Delivery date of goods.
7. Cost reduction and cost control.
8. Identifying substandard workers.
9. Training new employees.
106
 TECHNIQUES OF WORK MEASUREMENT
______________________________________________________________

1. Repetitive Work: The type of work in which the main operation

or group of operations repeat continuously during the time spent
at the job. These apply to work cycles of extremely short
duration.
2. Non-repetitive Work: It includes some type· of maintenance
and construction work, where the work cycle itself is hardly ever
repeated identically.

Various techniques of work measurement are:

1. Time study (stop watch technique)
2. Work sampling
3. Synthesis
4. Analytical estimating
5. Predetermined motion and time study

107
 Stop Watch Time study
______________________________________________________________

• Stop watch is the most commonly used

work measurement method.
• This technique was developed by F.W.
Taylor.
• Best suited for short cycle repetitive jobs.
• Most of the production jobs can be easily
timed by a time study.
•It is a work measurement technique for recording the times
and rates of working for the elements of a specified job
carried out under specified conditions and for analyzing the
data so as to determine the time necessary for carrying out
the job at the defined level of performance.

108
 Steps in Making Time Study
______________________________________________________________

Stop watch time is the basic technique for determining accurate

time standards. They are economical for repetitive type of work.
Steps in taking the time study are:
1. Select the work to be studied.
2. Obtain and record all the information available about the job,
the operator and the working conditions likely to affect the time
study work.
3. Breakdown the operation into elements. An element is a
distinct part of a specified activity composed of one or more
fundamental motions selected for convenience of observation and
timing.
4. Measure the time by means of a stop watch, taken by the
operator to perform each element of the operation.

109
 Steps in Making Time Study
______________________________________________________________

5. At the same time, assess the operators effective speed of work

relative to the observer's concept of "Normal" speed. This is
called performance rating.
6. Adjust the observed time by rating factor to obtain normal
time for each element

7. Add the suitable allowances to compensate for fatigue,

personal needs; contingencies, etc., to give standard time for
each element.
8. Compute allowed time for the entire job by adding elemental
standard times considering frequency of occurrence of each
element.

110
111
 PERFORMANCE RATING
______________________________________________________________

Performance rating is the process of adjusting the actual pace

of working of an operator by comparing it with the mental
picture of pace of an operator working at normal speed.

Each worker by nature has different temperament and attitudes

towards the work. Some workers by their nature are fast (above
the speed of the average worker) and some are by nature slow.
Both these workers will not represent a normal worker.

112
 Factors Affecting Performance Rating
______________________________________________________________

The variation in actual times for a particular element may be

due to the factors both internal and external.
External Factors:
•Variation in the quality or other characteristics of the material
used even though it is in prescribed tolerance limit.
•Changes in the operating efficiency of tools and equipment
within their useful life.
•Unavoidable changes in methods or conditions of operations.
•Change in working conditions like heat, light, dust etc.

Internal Factors:
•Acceptable variation in the quality of the product.
•Variation due to operators ability.
•Variation due to his attitude of mind.

113
 Methods of performance rating
______________________________________________________________

1. Speed Rating: In this technique the speed of the movements

of the operator is the only factor considered for performance
rating. The speed rating is found by the observer by
comparing pace of operators working with his own concept of
normal pace. An average worker is rated at 100%, better than
average worker is rated at a figure higher than 100 and below
average worker will be rated below 100. If a worker is rated at
125% it means that the speed is 25% higher than the
observers concept of normal and rating of 80% means the
worker is working 20% below ·the observers concept of a
normal worker.

In speed rating, the process of rating is confined to the

comparison of speed of movements with a concept of normal
speed.
114
 Methods of performance rating
______________________________________________________________

2. Westing House Method of Rating: Westing house system

utilizes a set of criteria to measure the performance of the
operators. The factors are:
1. Skill: Measures the workers proficiency in adhering to a given
method, coordination of proper hand and eye movements, rhythm
of the movements. Divided into six degrees.
2. Effort: Measures the speed with which the skill is applied. The
effort is also divided into six degrees.
3. Consistency: Measures factors which affect the consistency of
the operator to perform the work cycle repeatedly within the same
time.
4. Conditions: Measure the extent to which the conditions like
temperature, vibrations, light and noise affect the operator's
performance.

115
 Methods of performance rating
______________________________________________________________

116
 Steps in Making Time Study
______________________________________________________________

Illustration of Westing House Method: An observed time for an operation is 0.05 minutes
and the ratings are as follows:
Skill (Excellent) B2
Effort (Good) C2
Condition (Good) C
Consistency (Good) C

117
 ALLOWANCES
______________________________________________________________

The normal time for an operation does not contain any

allowances for the worker. It is impossible to work throughout
the day even though the most practicable, effective method has
been developed.
The allowances are categorized as:
(1) Relaxation allowance,
(2) Interference allowance, and
(3) Contingency allowance.

118
 ALLOWANCES
______________________________________________________________

(1) Relaxation allowance: Relaxation allowances are

calculated so as to allow the worker to recover from fatigue.

➢ Fixed Allowances Constitute:

• Personal needs allowance: It is intended to compensate the
operator for the time necessary to leave, the workplace to attend
to personal needs like drinking water, smoking, washing hands.
A fair personal allowance is 5% for men and 7% for women.
• Allowances for basic fatigue: This allowance is given to
compensate for energy expended during working. A common
figure considered as allowance is 4% of the basic time.

➢ Variable Allowance: Variable allowance is allowed to an

operator who is working under poor environmental
conditions that cannot be improved, added stress and
strain in performing the job.
119
 ALLOWANCES
______________________________________________________________

(1) Relaxation allowance: Relaxation allowances are

calculated so as to allow the worker to recover from fatigue.

➢ Fixed Allowances Constitute:

• Personal needs allowance: It is intended to compensate the
operator for the time necessary to leave, the workplace to attend
to personal needs like drinking water, smoking, washing hands. A
fair personal allowance is 5% for men and 7% for women.
• Allowances for basic fatigue: This allowance is given to
compensate for energy expended during working. A common
figure considered as allowance is 4% of the basic time.

➢ Variable Allowance: Variable allowance is allowed to an

operator who is working under poor environmental
conditions that cannot be improved, added stress and strain
in performing the job.
120
 Steps in Making Time Study
______________________________________________________________

(2) Interference Allowance: It is an allowance of time included

into the work content of the job to compensate the operator
for the unavoidable loss of production due to simultaneous
stoppage of two or more machines being operated by him.

(3) Contingency Allowance: A contingency allowance is a small

allowance of time which may be included in a standard time to
meet legitimate and expected items of work or delays, the
precise measurement of which is uneconomical because of
their in frequent or irregular occurrence.

This allowance provides for small unavoidable delays as

well as for occasional minor, extra work.

121
 COMPUTATION OF STANDARD TIME
______________________________________________________________

122
Q1. During the time study of a job the representative time,
the rating and the allowance are observed to be 0.4 min,
120 % and 10 % of standard time respectively.

Find the normal time and standard time in minutes

123
A task involves positioning two metal parts with a rubber gasket sandwiched between
them, inserting two bolts into predrilled holes, threading a nut onto each bolt, and
tightening each bolt with a pneumatic wrench. In a preliminary study, the manager
observed one of his workers performing this task five times. The observations were
made in an air-conditioned, well-lit training facility, at ground level, with all tools and
equipment clean and readily available.

Observation: 1 2 3 4 5

Task time (seconds): 50 54 60 66 56

a. What is the average observed time for this task?

b. What is the normal time for this task if the employee worked at a 10% slower
pace than is typical for adequately trained workers?
c. What is standard time for this task if allowances are 8% constant and 6%
variable?

124
 Problem
______________________________________________________________

125
 Solution
______________________________________________________________

126
 Problem
______________________________________________________________

127
 Solution
______________________________________________________________

128
 Problem
______________________________________________________________

129
 Solution
______________________________________________________________

130
 Problem
______________________________________________________________

131
 Solution
______________________________________________________________

132
 Synthetic data
______________________________________________________________
• A work measurement technique for building up the time for a
job or parts of the job at a defined level of performance by
totaling element times obtained previously from time
studies on other jobs containing the elements concerned or
from synthetic data.

• The full job is first divided into elements (parts)

• The time taken to do each element of the job is found out and
synthesized (total) and gives the total time taken for doing
the full job.
• The time taken to do each element of the job is found out from
previous time studies.
• Standard data is the normal time taken for doing routine jobs.
• Standard data is easily available for routine-jobs like fitting
screws, drilling holes.
• There is no need of calculating these times repeatedly.
133
 Steps in Making Time Study
______________________________________________________________

3. Synthetic Rating: The performance rating under this method

is established by comparing observed time of some of the
manual elements with those of known time values of the
elements from predetermined motion and time studies
(PMTS).
Performance rating factor, (R) is given by:

P = Predetermined time for elements (minutes)

A = Average actual time value (selected time) for the same
element 'P' (minutes)

134
 Work sampling
______________________________________________________________

• Work sampling method was originally developed by Leonard

Henry Caleb Tippet.
• The workers was observed many times at random.
• It is done to find out how much time the worker is actually on
the job.
• It checks how long he is working and how much time he not
working (idle time).

➢ A technique in which a large number of observations are

made over a period of time of one or group of machines,
processes or workers.
➢ Each observation records what is happening at that instant
and the percentage of observations recorded for a particular
activity, or delay, is a measure of the percentage of time
during which that activities delay occurs.
135
 Predetermined Motion Time Study (PMTS):
______________________________________________________________

• A work measurement technique whereby times established

for basic human motions (classified according to the nature
of the motion and conditions under which it is made) are
used to build up the time for a job at the defined level of
performance.

• The most commonly used PMTS is known as Methods Time

Measurement (MTM).

136
 Analytical Estimating
______________________________________________________________

A work measurement technique, being a development of

estimating, whereby the time required to carry out elements of
a job at a defined level of performance is estimated partly
from knowledge and practical experience of the elements
concerned and partly from synthetic data.

137
 Work Measurement
______________________________________________________________

138
 Work Sampling
______________________________________________________________

Work sampling was originally developed by L.H.C. Tippett in

Britain in 1934 for the British Cotton Industry Research Board.

Work sampling is defined as:

"A technique in which a statistically competent number of
instantaneous observations are taken, over a period of time, of
a group of machines, processes or workers. Each observations
recorded for a particular activity or delay is a measure of the
percentage of time observed by the occurrence."

139
 Work Sampling
______________________________________________________________

Work sampling has three main applications:

1. Activity and Delay Sampling: To measure the activities and
delays of workers or machine. e.g., the percentage of time in a day,
a person is working and the percentage that a person is not
working.
2. Performance Sampling: To measure working time and non-
working time of a person on a manual work, and to establish a
performance index or performance level for a person during his
working time.
3. Work Measurement: Under certain circumstances, to measure
a manual task, that is, to establish a time standard for an operation.

140
 Advantages of Work Sampling Compared to Time Study
______________________________________________________________
1. Many operations or activities which are impractical or costly to
measure by time study can be measured by work sampling.
2. A simultaneous work sampling study of several operators or machines
may be made by a single observer.
3. It usually requires lesser man-hours and costs less to make a work
sampling study instead of making a continuous time study.
4. Observations may be taken over a period of days or weeks thus
reducing the chances of day-to-day variations affecting results.
5. Any interruption during study will not affect the results.
6. Work sampling studies are preferred to continuous time studies by the
operators being studied.
8. A stop watch is not needed for work sampling studies
9. Work sampling studies cause less fatigue and are less tedious.

141
 Disadvantages of Work Sampling
______________________________________________________________

1. Work sampling is uneconomical for short cycle jobs.

2. It is also uneconomical for studying a single workman or even small
group of workmen or machines.
4. Workman may change their normal pattern of working on seeing
the observer, making the sampling study of very little value.
5. Insufficient observations are likely to produce inaccurate results.
6. It does not normally account for speed of the operator.

142
 Procedure for Conducting a Work Sampling Study
______________________________________________________________

143
 Procedure for Conducting a Work Sampling Study
______________________________________________________________

In a preliminary work sample of an operation, out of 50

observations the operator was observed idle in 5 observations.
What sample size is required for a work sampling study if the
desired confidence level is 99% and the desired accuracy level
is 5%?

144
 Procedure for Conducting a Work Sampling Study
______________________________________________________________

In a preliminary work sample of an operation, out of 50

observations the operator was observed idle in 5 observations.
What sample size is required for a work sampling study if the
desired confidence level is 98% and the desired accuracy level
is 5%?

145
 Procedure for Conducting a Work Sampling Study
______________________________________________________________

146
 Procedure for Conducting a Work Sampling Study
______________________________________________________________

147
 Procedure for Conducting a Work Sampling Study
______________________________________________________________

148
 Procedure for Conducting a Work Sampling Study
______________________________________________________________

149
 Procedure for Conducting a Work Sampling Study
______________________________________________________________

150
 Procedure for Conducting a Work Sampling Study
______________________________________________________________
Determination of Required Number of Observations when frequency is given

The number of observations at 95% confidence level and accuracy of ± 5 per cent is
given by the statistical formula

151
 Procedure for Conducting a Work Sampling Study
______________________________________________________________
Determination of Required Number of Observations when frequency is given

Q1. For a particular task 15 observations were taken by a time study observer. Check
whether the number of observations is sufficient for 5% limit of accuracy and 95%
confidence level.

152
 Procedure for Conducting a Work Sampling Study
______________________________________________________________

153
 Procedure for Conducting a Work Sampling Study
______________________________________________________________

Setting Performance Standards with Work Sampling:

1. Taking the Study:A work sampling study is carried out for
the operation whose standard time is to be determined.
Observations are made at random intervals of time and are
noted. Whether subject under study is working or idle are
noted. Reasons for delays and interruption are recorded. The
observations of production activity (working) are divided
into machine working and hand working. Operators pace of
performance is noted down when manual working is
observed.
2. Rating Index: Individual performance ratings are averaged
out to obtain an overall rating index.
3. Production Quantity: Number of pieces produced during
the period of study are determined from production reports.

154
 Procedure for Conducting a Work Sampling Study
______________________________________________________________

4. Overall Time Per Unit (T0): It is calculated by dividing

production time (duration of study) by number of pieces
produced.
5. Effective Time Per Unit (Te): Overall time per piece includes
even the time 'spent on unproductive activities. Overall time is
multiplied by percentage of productive activities to get the
effective time per piece.

The effective time per piece (Te) can be compared to observed

time of stop watch study. 155
 Work Sampling
______________________________________________________________

To get the normal time, effective time is broken down into manual and
machine controlled time.

156
 Work Sampling
______________________________________________________________

Problem 2: A work sampling study was conducted to establish the standard time for an
operation. The observations of the study conducted is given below:
Total number of observations = 160
Manual (hand controlled work) = 14
Machine controlled work = 106
Machine idle time = 40
Average performance rating = 80%
No. of parts produced = 36
Allowance for personal needs and fatigue = 10%
Study conducted for 3 days
Available working hours/day = 8 hrs
Calculate the standard time per piece.

157
 Work Sampling
______________________________________________________________

158
 Work Sampling
______________________________________________________________

159
 Work Sampling
______________________________________________________________

Problem 3: A work study was conducted in a machine shop. The data has been recorded.
Total number of observations = 2000
No activity = 500
The ratio between manual to machine = 3 : 1
portion of the activities
Average performance rating = 85%
Total number of pieces produced = 120
during study
Duration of the study = 60 hrs.
Calculate the standard time/piece assuming 15% relaxation allowance.

160
 Work Sampling
______________________________________________________________

161
 PREDETERMINED MOTION TIME ANALYSIS (PMTS)
______________________________________________________________
❖ A predetermined time system consists of a set of time data
and a systematic procedure which analyses and subdivides
any manual operation of human task into motions, body
motions, or either elements of human performance, and
assigns to each the appropriate time value.
❖ This system of time data was originally developed from
extensive studies of all aspects of human performance
through measurement, evaluation and validation procedures.
❖ Predetermined times are the tabulated values of normal times
required to perform individual movements such as moving an
arm from one position to another, etc. The total times needed
to perform the operation is the sum of the times needed for
basic motions. By arranging the basic motions and aggregating
associated times, an existing task can be analysed or-a
proposed operation can be timed without actually performing
it.
162
 PREDETERMINED MOTION TIME ANALYSIS (PMTS)
______________________________________________________________

Types of PMTS

1. Methods Time Analysis (MTA):

• A. B. Segui of Oak Park Illinois was one of the first to establish the
relationship between the time element and the motion itself.
• Segur stated that the method must be well defined before an
attempt is made to time-analyse the motions involved.
• He developed a table of improvement principles involving many of
his basic motions such as hold, grasp, preposition, position,
avoidable delay and balance delay.
• The improvement principle involved here is in the elimination of
the left hand as a holding device.
• In MTA, motion values are given up to fifth decimal.

163
 PREDETERMINED MOTION TIME ANALYSIS (PMTS)
______________________________________________________________

2. Work Factor System (WF):

• This is first system of PMTS to have a general use with· the work
factor system.
• It is possible to determine the work factor time for manual tasks
by the use of predetermined data.
• A detailed analysis of each of the task is made based upon the
identification of major variables of work and the use of work
factor as a unit of measure. Then the standard time from the
table of motion values is applied to each motion.

Four major variables of work factor system are:

1. Body member
2. Distance
3. Manual control
4. Weight or resistance
This system is applicable to highly repetitive system.
164
 PREDETERMINED MOTION TIME ANALYSIS (PMTS)
______________________________________________________________

3. Methods Time Measurement (MTM)

"A procedure which analysis any manual operation or method into

the basic motions required to perform it and assigns to each motion
a predetermined time standard which is determined by the nature of
the motion and the conditions under which it was made."

The primary objective, of MTM is to improve methods of operation

and it establishes methods accurately before production starts by
determining correct times and operations.

165
 PREDETERMINED MOTION TIME ANALYSIS (PMTS)
______________________________________________________________
4. Basic Motion Time study (BMT)
Basic motion time study was developed and is thought by J.P.
Woods and Gordon Limited, Toronto, Canada. Like other
predetermined motion time system, all manual activity has been
divided into basic motions.

A basic motion, according to Woods and Gordon, is defined as "Any

motion which starts from rest, moves through space, and ends at
rest."
(Type 1) Reach
(Type 2) Move
(Type 3) Turn
The body motion and symbols are very similar to the body motions
employed by MTM. The only difference lies in the step, where the
distance measured is the distance the foot travels.

166
 PREDETERMINED MOTION TIME ANALYSIS (PMTS)
______________________________________________________________

Advantages of PMTS
1. Short cycle jobs can be timed accurately.
2. Rating, the most difficult part of time study is not necessary.
3. The results obtained are consistent.
4. A reasonable estimate of work content can be obtained before the
task is actually carried out.

167
 Method Time Measurement (MTM)
______________________________________________________________

The objective of MTM is the establishment of tangible, understandable

and acceptable data for the scientific measurement of human effort.

"A procedure which analyses any manual operation or method into

the basic motions required to perform it and assigns to each motion a
predetermined time standard which is determined by the nature of
the motion and the conditions under which it is made."
Uses of MTM
1. Developing effective methods and plans in advance of beginning
production.
2. Improving existing methods.
3. Establishing time standards.
4. Cost estimating.
5. Training supervisors to become method conscious.
6 Research in the areas like operating methods, performance rating.
168
 Method Time Measurement (MTM)
______________________________________________________________

MTM procedure recognises:

• Eight manual movements.
• Nine pedal and frunk movements.
• Two ocular movements.
Thus .there are nineteen fundamental motions to be considered in
the establishment of any motion pattern. The time for each of these
motions are determined not only by . the physical conditions
involved in the motions performance but also by the nature of the
conditions under which it is made. Thus, the time for a given motion
is affected by a combination of physical and mental conditions.

Unit of MTM is TMU. One TMU = 0.0006 minutes.

169
 Method Time Measurement (MTM)
______________________________________________________________
Conventions for Recording MTM Data
To simplify recording individual MTM methods, a system of MTM conventions has been
developed. By using this system, every detail of the motion can be easily recorded.
For example:
Reach: Reach is the basic element when the predominant purpose is to move the hand or
finger to a destination. The time for making a reach varies with (1) condition (nature of
destination), (2) length of the destination, (3) type of reach.
Classes of reach: There are five classes of reach. The time to perform a reach is affected by
the nature of the object towards the reach is made.
Case A Reach: to object in fixed location or to object in other hand or on which other hand
rests.
Case B Reach: to object whose general location known. Location may vary slightly
from cycle to cycle.
Case C Reach: to object jumbled with other objects in group.
Case D Reach: to very small object or where accurate grasp required.
Case E Reach: to indefinite location to get hand into position for body balance or next
move or out of the way.
The length of a motion is the true path, not just the straight line distance between the two
terminal points.
For example, R 8 C represent Reach 8 inches, case C.
R 12 A represent Reach. 12 inches, case A.
170
 PREDETERMINED MOTION TIME ANALYSIS (PMTS)
______________________________________________________________
MTM Versions
MTM-1 is the most accurate. Provides the most detailed method
detailed description but requires the longest time for analysis.
MTM-2 was developed by constructing motion combinations from
basic motion of
MTM-1. The analysis can be done more quickly than MTM-1.
MTM-3 is the simplest of the MTM systems and is intended for use
with long cycle
short run operations.
Speed of analysis is seven times faster than MTM-1.
MTM-3 should not be used for analysing manual motions with a
frequency higher
than 10 or sequence of eye motions.
The MTM should be used with caution. A sufficient training is
essential to take up the MTM measurement.

171
 PREDETERMINED MOTION TIME ANALYSIS (PMTS)
______________________________________________________________

172
173
174
175
176
 PREDETERMINED MOTION TIME ANALYSIS (PMTS)
______________________________________________________________

177
178
Problem: Ramson Naidu, a marketing surveyor, takes an
average of 10 minutes to complete a particular questionnaire.
Carolyn's performance rating (pace) is 110% and there is an
allowance of 15%.What is the Normal time for completing this
questionnaire? What is the Standard time forcompleting this
questionnaire?

179
ERGONOMICS

180
 ERGONOMICS
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The word Ergonomics has its origin in two Greek words

Ergon meaning work and
Nomos meaning laws.
So it is the study of the human capabilities in relation to his work
demand.
The word ergonomics is used commonly in Europe.
In USA and other countries it is called by the name
human engineering or human factors engineering.

Definition:
“The application of human biological sciences along with
engineering sciences to achieve optimum mutual adjustment of
men and his work, the benefits being measured in terms of
human efficiency and well-being."
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OBJECTIVES OF Ergonomics
1. To enhance the efficiency and effectiveness with which the
work is carried out so as to increase the convenience of use,
reduced errors and increase in productivity.
2. To enhance certain desirable human values including safety,
reduced stress and fatigue and improved quality of life.

Thus in general the scope and objective of ergonomics is

"designing for human use and optimizing working and living
conditions.“

Thus ergonomics discovers and applies information about human

behaviour, abilities and limitations and other characteristics to
the design of tools, machines, systems, tasks, jobs and
environment for productive, safe, comfortable andeffective
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ERGONOMICS IS MULTIDISCIPLINARY
The various disciplines that are going to have influence on human factors
are:
1.Engineering: Design of work system suitable to worker,
2.Physiology: Study of man and his working environment
3.Anatomy: Study of body dimensions and relations for work design
4.Psychology: Study of adaptive behavior and skills of people
5.Industrial hygiene: Occupational hazards and workers health

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Benefit of Ergonomics

• Increased Productivity and efficiency

• Reduce Fatigue and discomfort
• Help to prevent injuries
• Improve quality of work and life
• Improved moral and job satisfaction

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ERGONOMICS, PRODUCTIVITY AND WORKING ENVIRONMENT

Ergonomics is concerned with man· and his working conditions.
Ergonomics aims at providing comfort and improved working
conditions so as to channelize the energy, skills of the workers
into constructive productive work. This accounts for increased
productivity, safety and reduces the fatigue. This helps to increase
the plant utilisation.

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Types of Ergonomics

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Types of Ergonomics

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Types of Ergonomics

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MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM

• The man-machine system is a

combination of one or more
human beings and one or
more physical components
interacting to bring about some
desired output from given
inputs,
• Man-machine system consists of
any type of physical object,
device, equipment, facility and
activities performed by man.
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The machine interacts with the human operator

through its interface and controls:

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Types of Man-Machine System

1. Manual system: A manual system consists of hand tools and
other aids which are coupled by a human operator who controls the
operation. Operators use their own physical energy as the power
source.
2. Mechanical system: These systems are semiautomatic, consist
of well integrated physical part such as powered machine tools.
They are generally designed to carry out their functions with little
variation. Power is typically provided by a machine and operators
function is mainly of control by the use of controlling devices.
3. Automated system: When the system is fully automated, it
performs all operational functions without human intervention.
Automated system require human to install, programme, re-
programme and maintain the system.

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Man-Machine System

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Types of Man-Machine System

1. Manual system: A manual system consists of hand tools and
other aids which are coupled by a human operator who controls the
operation. Operators use their own physical energy as the power
source.
2. Mechanical system: These systems are semiautomatic, consist
of well integrated physical part such as powered machine tools.
They are generally designed to carry out their functions with little
variation. Power is typically provided by a machine and operators
function is mainly of control by the use of controlling devices.
3. Automated system: When the system is fully automated, it
performs all operational functions without human intervention.
Automated system require human to install, programme, re-
programme and maintain the system.

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Man in a Control Loop System
Except for the automated systems, the man-machine system must
include human as an operator and a system with machine and
operator forms the close loop system.

A typical man-machine control loop is shown in Fig. In display

communication channel, information is sent to the operator from a
display element through display communication channel. A display is
any source of information which aids the operator in the control
process. Typical displays include dial gauges, digital displays, warning
lights, etc.

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The Functions Performed by Man and Machines
Machines are unique and better:
(i) Routine processing and storage of large amounts of facts and
details
(ii) For repetitive and monotonous operation
(iii) For monitoring men and machines
(iv) In operating under conditions that are stressful
(v) Rapid response to signals
(vi) For rapid and complex situations
(vii) For concurrent operations
(viii) In sensing stimuli beyond the range of human sensitivity

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The Functions Performed by Man and Machines
Man is unique and better.
(i) At discriminating relevant from irrelevant signals
(ii) At innovation and creative in problem-solving
(iii) In reasoning
(iv) Ability to select his own inputs
(v) In improving, adopting flexible procedures, exercising
judgement based on minimal information
(vi) Sensitive to wide variety of stimuli
(vii). In selective recall of old information

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THREE ASPECTS OF A MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM

1. Design of information displays

2. Design of controls
3. Environmental factors

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1. Design of information displays

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2. DESIGN OF CONTROLS

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3. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

The role that ergonomics plays in the environmental man-

machine interface is essentially three fold.
1. First, identifying the effects that the environment has on man's
physiological and psychological process.
2. Second, ensuring that work patterns, equipment and
machine interfaces are designed to minimise the individual
variation in performance.
3. Third, ensuring that all the necessary protective systems are
designed to take an account of physiological and psychological
variations in man.

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3. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Illumination: When human activities are carried out indoors or
at night, it is necessary to provide some sort of artificial
illumination the type of lighting or illumination depends upon
the type of work being performed, the size of the objects,
accuracy, speed and duration of the work, etc.
The lighting system should provide
• Sufficient brightness.
• Uniform illumination.
• A contrast between brightness of the job and of background.
• No direct or reflected glare.
Vibration: Ideally vibrations should be minimised at source.
Thermal conditions: Poor heat and humid conditions produce thermal
stresses in the workers which affect their efficiency, concentration and
dexterity of their members of the body.
Ventilation: A good ventilation system provides fresh air. 201
 WORKPLACE DESIGN
• The ideal design
of any workplace
should begin with
the operator in
mind.
• The design should
ensure that the
operator will have
adequate and
comfortable
posture that he
can see what he
must and he can
operate his
controls in an
effective manner.

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