Mathematics Learning Centre

Logarithmic Functions
and the Log Laws

Christopher Thomas

1998
c University of Sydney
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 1

1 Logarithms

1.1 Introduction
Taking logarithms is the reverse of taking exponents, so you must have a good grasp on
exponents before you can hope to understand logarithms properly.
We begin the study of logarithms with a look at logarithms to base 10. It is important
that you realise from the beginning that, as far as logarithms are concerned, there is
nothing special about the number 10. Indeed, the most natural logarithms are logarithms
to base e, and they are introduced in section 1.4. Logarithms to base 10 are in common
use only because we use a decimal system of counting, and this is probably a result of the
fact that humans have ten fingers. We have begun with logarithms to base 10 only to be
definite, and we could just as easily have started with logarithms to any other convenient
base.

1.2 Logarithms to base 10 (Common Logarithms)

We will begin by considering the function y = 10x , graphed in Figure 1.
y
20

15

10

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 x

Figure 1: Graph of f (x) = 10x

We know that, given any number x, we can raise 10 to the power of x to obtain another
number which we write as 10x .
What of the reverse procedure? Suppose we begin with a number and we wish to find the
power to which 10 must be raised to obtain that number.
For example, suppose we begin with the number 7 and we wish to find the power to which
10 must be raised to obtain 7.
This number is called the logarithm to the base 10 of 7 and is written log10 7. Similarly,
log10 15 is equal to the power to which 10 must be raised to obtain 15.
For a general number x, log10 x is equal to that power to which 10 must be raised to obtain
the number x.
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When we see an expresion like log10 29 we can think of it as a sort of a question.

The question we have in mind is this: to what power must we raise 10 to get 29? Or,
10? = 29.

The answer to this question is a number, and we call that number log10 29.

The definition of the logarithm to base 10 is the basis on which the remainder of this
section rests, and it is extremely important that you understand it properly.

Again: log10 x is equal to that power to which 10 must be raised to obtain the number x.

As an example, let’s calculate log10 103 . According to the definition, log10 103 is equal to
that power to which 10 must be raised to obtain 103 . To what power must we raise 10 to
obtain 103 ? Or, 10? = 103 . Surely the answer is 3. Notice that 103 = 1000, so we have
worked out log10 1000, and without using a calculator! We have been able to work this
out because we have understood the meaning of the logarithm of a number. We will need
to use a calculator to work out the logarithms of most numbers, but it is very important
that we understand what it is that the calculator is working out for us when we push the
buttons.

Without a calculator we can work out the logarithms of many numbers.

Examples:

log10 100 = log10 102 = 2

log10 0.1 = log10 10−1 = −1
√
log10 10 10 = log10 101.5 = 1.5

Can we take the logarithm of any number? In other words, given any number x can we
find a power to which 10 may be raised to obtain the number x?

Look at the graph of y = 10x in Figure 1. We see that 10x is never negative and indeed
never even takes the value 0. There is no power to which we may raise 10 to obtain a
number less than or equal to 0. This means that we cannot take the logarithm of a number
less than or equal to zero. We say that log10 x is undefined for x ≤ 0.

The graph of 10x gives us another important piece of information. If x > 0 then there is
only one power to which we may raise 10 to get x. Our definition of log10 x is unambiguous.
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The graph of y = log10 x is shown in Figure 2.

y
1

0.5

x
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

-0.5

-1

Figure 2: Graph of f (x) = log10 x

You should pay attention to several important features of this graph.

The graph intercepts the x-axis at x = 1. In other words, log10 1 = 0. We should expect
this because we know that 100 = 1.
The graph does not extend to the left of the y-axis, and in fact never even intercepts the
y-axis. We have already commented on the fact that the logarithm of a number less than
or equal to zero is not defined.
The function y = log10 x gets as large as we like as x gets large. By this we mean that
we can make log10 x as large as we choose by choosing x to be sufficiently large. The
graph does not stay below a certain height as x gets large (it does not have a horizontal
asymptote). However the function y = log10 x increases very slowly as x increases.
The fact that we bother to specify the base as being 10 suggests that we can take loga-
rithms to other bases. We can, and we shall say more about this later, but for now let us
stick with base 10.
You should be aware that many writers may not mention the base of the logarithms they
are referring to if it is obvious from the context what that base is, or if it does not matter
which base is used. They may just write ‘the logarithm of x’ or log x.
Because logarithms to base 10 have been used so often they are called common logarithms.
If you have a calculator it probably has a Log button on it. You could use it to find, for
example, log10 7 and log10 0.01.
From the examples above you should be able to see that if we express a number as a
power of 10 then we can read off the logarithm to base 10 of that number from the power.
Let’s try to make this precise.
Suppose that x is any real number. What is log10 10x ? Well, log10 10x is that power to
which 10 must be raised to obtain the number 10x . To what power must we raise 10 to
obtain the number 10x ? Or, to put this question another way, 10? = 10x . The answer
must be x. Thus log10 10x = x. This is our first rule of logarithms.

Rule A: For any real number x, log10 10x = x.

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Examples
log10 103.7 = 3.7
log10 0.0001 = log10 10−4 = −4
√ 1 3 23
log10 104 103 = log10 104 × (103 ) 5 = log10 104+ 5 =
5

Rule A tells us what happens if we first raise 10 to the power x and then take the logarithm
to base 10 of the result. We end up with what we started with.
What happens if we do things in the reverse order?
Consider the number log10 7. If you have a calculator with a Log button on it you can see
that this number is approximately 0.8451. Now suppose we raise 10 to the power log10 7.
What do you think the result is? In symbols, what is 10log10 7 ?
Well, remember that log10 7 is equal to that power to which 10 must be raised to give the
number 7. So if we raise 10 to that power then we must get 7.
The same reasoning applies to show that if x > 0 then 10log10 x = x. The number log10 x
is that power to which 10 must be raised to obtain x. So if we raise 10 to this power we
must get x. We will write this down as the second of our rules of logarithms.

Rule B: For any real number x > 0, 10log10 x = x.

Examples
10log10 π = π
2 2
10log10 (x +y ) = x2 + y 2
3x3 3
10log10 10 = 103x

Rules A and B express the fact that the functions y = 10x and y = log10 x are inverse
functions of one another. If you have not come across the concept of inverse functions
before then do not worry about what this means. If you have, then you will probably
remember that the graph of an inverse function is obtained by reflecting the graph of
the original function in the line y = x, that is the line which runs in the north-east and
south-west direction. Take another look at Figures 1 and 2.
We can use the rules of exponents to work out more rules for logarithms.
If x and y are numbers greater than zero then, by rule B, x = 10log10 x and y = 10log10 y ,
so
xy = 10log10 x × 10log10 y
= 10log10 x+log10 y (by the rules for exponents).
This equation tell us that if we raise 10 to the power log10 x+log10 y then we get the number
xy. In other words it tells us that log10 x + log10 y is the answer to the question 10? = xy.
But the answer to this question is also log10 xy. Thus log10 xy = log10 x + log10 y. This
we will call our third rule of logarithms.

Rule C: For any real numbers x > 0 and y > 0, log10 xy = log10 x + log10 y.
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So much for multiplication. What of division? If x > 0 and y > 0 then

x 10log10 x
= (by rule B)
y 10log10 y

= 10log10 x−log10 y (by the rules for exponents).

This equation tells us that if we raise 10 to the power log10 x − log10 y then we get the
number xy . In other words, log10 xy = log10 x−log10 y. This is our fourth rule of logarithms.

Rule D: For any real numbers x > 0 and y > 0, log10 ( xy ) = log10 x − log10 y.

If x is a number, x > 0, and n is any number at all then:

xn = (10log10 x )n (by rule B)

= 10n×log10 x (by the rules for exponents).

This equation tells us that if we raise 10 to the power n log10 x then we get the number
xn . In other words, log10 xn = n log10 x. This is our fifth rule of logarithms.

Rule E: For real numbers x and n, with x > 0, log10 xn = n log10 x

Examples
xy
log10 = log10 x + log10 y − log10 z
z

log10 x3 y −2 = 3 log10 x − 2 log10 y

y2
2 log10 y − 4 log10 (x − z ) = log10
2 3
(x2 − z 3 )4

1.3 Logarithms to Base b

As we mentioned above, we can take logarithms to other bases. If b is a real number,
b > 1, and if x is a real number, x > 0, then we define the logarithm to base b of x to be
that power to which b must be raised to obtain the number x.
You may also think of logb x as the answer to the question b? = x. You should notice that
if b = 10 then this definition agrees with the one given earlier for log10 x.
Again: the logarithm to base b of a number x > 0 (written logb x) is that power to which
b must be raised to obtain the number x.

Examples:
log5 125 = log5 53 = 3
1 1
log16 2 = log16 16 4 =
4
1
log7 = log7 7−2 = −2
49
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We have required the base of our logarithms, b, to be greater than 1. In fact we can take
logarithms to any base b provided b > 0 and b = 1. It is more usual though to use b > 1,
and in this booklet we will always use a base b > 1.

y
2 y = log x
2
y = log x
e

y = log x
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x

-1

-2

Figure 3: Graph of f (x) = logb x for various values of b.

Figure 3 shows graphs of the functions y = logb x for various values of b. As you can see
from these graphs, the logarithm functions behave in a similar fashion for different bases
b, providing b > 1.
All of what we said earlier remains true for logb x if 10 is replaced by b. In particular the
five rules of logarithms remain true. Let us restate these to be applicable to logb x.
For a real number b > 1:
Rule 1: For any real number x, logb bx = x
Rule 2: For any real number x > 0, blogb x = x
Rule 3: For any real numbers x > 0 and y > 0, logb xy = logb x + logb y
Rule 4: For any real numbers x > 0 and y > 0, logb x
y
= logb x − logb y
Rule 5: For real numbers x and n, with x > 0, logb xn = n logb x
Now that we have shown how to define logarithms to any base b > 1, let us see how these
logarithms are related to each other. We will consider logarithms to two bases a > 1 and
b > 1. By rule 2,
x = aloga x .
Taking logarithms to base b of both sides of this equation yields

logb x = logb (aloga x )

= loga x × logb a (by rule 5).

This, our sixth rule of logarithms, tells us how logarithms to different bases are related.

Rule 6: For numbers x > 0, a > 1 and b > 1, logb x = logb a × loga x.
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From this rule we see that logb a × loga b = logb b = 1, and so

1
logb a = .
loga b
This fact enables us to calculate the logarithm of a number to any base from a calculator
which calculates logarithms to one base only.
Example: If your calculator only has logarithms to base 10 on it, how can you find
log7 9?

Solution: By rule 6,
log7 9 = log7 10 × log10 9
1
= × log10 9
log10 7
and the last expression can be evaluated by any calculator which can evaluate logarithms
to base 10.

1.4 Logarithms to base e (Natural Logarithms)

Logarithms to the base 10 are commonly used, because we use a decimal number system
and not a base 8 system, or a base 2 system. If humans were born with 3 toes (or if sloths
could count) then logarithms to base 3 might be in common use. Apart from the fact that
we use a decimal number system, there is no reason for us to prefer logarithms to base
10 over logarithms to any other base. Indeed, the function y = ex is a very important
function in mathematics, and it is therefore reasonable to expect that logarithms to base
e will also assume special importance.
They do, and are given the name ‘Natural Logarithms’ or ‘Napierian Logarithms’. They
are even given a special symbol, ln, so that ln x = loge x. One of the graphs in Figure 3
is a plot of the function y = loge x = ln x. Notice that the function y = ln x behaves in a
similar fashion to the function y = log10 x. This comes as no surprise to us since that the
functions ex and 10x are very similar to each other.

1.5 Exponential functions revisited

In a previous lecture, we saw how much the exponential functions resemble each other. If
b > 1 then the exponential function bx looks very much like any of the other exponential
functions with base greater than 1, and if b < 1 then bx looks a lot like any of the
exponential functions with base less than one. We will now be able to see more clearly
what is going on here.
Consider the function y = 2x . Now 2 = eloge 2 , so we can write

2x = (eloge 2 )x = ex loge 2 .

We have been able to write the function 2x as a function involving the base e, though the
exponent is now not simply x, but x multiplied by some fixed number, namely loge 2.
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Similarly, we could write

5x = ex loge 5
19−x = e−x loge 19
7−x = 4−x log4 7
ex = 13x log13 e

We can write all exponential functions in the form y = ekx , where k is some constant
which may be negative.

1.6 Summary

For any real number b > 1 and any x > 0, logb x is equal to that number to which b must
be raised to obtain the number x. One can think of logb x as the answer to the question
b? = x. The number logb x is called the logarithm to base b of x.
The function logb x satisfies the following rules:
Rule 1: For any real number x, logb bx = x
Rule 2: For any real number x > 0, blogb x = x
Rule 3: For any real numbers x > 0 and y > 0, logb xy = logb x + logb y
Rule 4: For any real numbers x > 0 and y > 0, logb x
y
= logb x − logb y
Rule 5: For real numbers x and n, with x > 0, logb xn = n logb x
Rule 6: For numbers x > 0, a > 1 and b > 1, logb x = logb a × loga x.
Logarithms to base 10 are in common use and for this reason they are called Common
Logarithms.
Logarithms to base e are of special importance. They are often called natural logarithms
or Napierian logarithms, and the symbol ln x is often used for them. Thus ln x = loge x.
Any exponential function may be written in the form ekx , where the constant k may be
negative.

1.7 Exercises

1. By expressing these numbers as powers of 10, and without using a calculator, calculate
the logarithms to base 10 of the following numbers.
1
a. 10000 b. 100
c. 0.001 d. 1012.3
√ √ 1
√ 1
e. 10 f. 10 4 10 g. ( 1000 ) 3 10 h. 0.001

2. Simplify the following expressions.

2y x)
√ x
a. 10log10 37.23 b. log10 10x c. 10log10 (10 d. log10 10 2y
log10 x x+y 3xy 2x
e. 1010 f. log10 10 z g. 10log10 ( z
)
h. log10 1010
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3. Rewrite the following expressions so that they involve just one logarithm.
a. log10 x3 − 2.5 log10 y b. log10 6 + log10 x−2
c. 5 log10 3x − 4 log10 (xy + z 2 ) d. 2 log10 xy + 3 log10 (z 2 − y 2 )
e. log10 (x + y) − 3 log10 4 f. log10 xy − 1.7 log10 y 2

4. Simplify these expressions.

x+y u
a. log2 2x 2x+y b. 5log5 3 c. log7 49uv d. 3log9 3w

5. Rewrite the following expressions so that they involve only one logarithm.
a. 2 log3 (x + y) − 3 log3 (xy) + log3 x2 b. log6 xy − 4 log6 (x + y)
c. 4 log17 xy 2 + log17 (x2 + y 2 ) − 2.5 log17 x

6. Using a calculator, find the following logarithms.

a. log3 17 b. log5 2 c. log22 14 d. log4 8

7. Write each of the following functions in the form y = ekx for a suitable constant k.
a. y = 10x b. y = 7.5−x c. y = 4−x d. y = ( 14 )x

Without using a calculator, find the following numbers.

√
8. log10 10−19 9. loge e 5 e 10. log2 16
173 2 ln e7
11. log17 √
17
12. ln ee21 13. log11 121
√
9
ln 3 27
14. 5log5 32.7 15. eln 2 16. e

Rewrite the following expressions using the rules of logarithms, and simplify where pos-
sible.
2 −3 −1.3 7
17. log10 100x
9y
18. ln xy
e1.37
19. log4 4 x2 y3z
x3 y 2
20. log3 1 21. ln(e−2.4 x6 ) 22. log5 125x3
0.2y 2
27z 2

Using the rules of logarithms, rewrite the following expressions so that just one logarithm
appears in each.
23. 3 log2 x + log2 30 + log2 y − log2 w 24. 2 ln x − ln y + a ln w
25. 12(ln x + ln y) 26. log3 e × ln 81 + log3 5 × log5 w
27. log7 10 × log10 x2 − log7 49x 28. log10 0.1 × log6 x − 2 log6 y + log6 4 × log4 e

Given that loge 5 ≈ 1.6094, and loge 7 ≈ 1.9459, find the following numbers without using
a calculator except to perform multiplication or division.
29. log5 e 30. log5 7 31. log5 72 32. log49 5 33. log49 25 34. loge 25
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1.8 Solutions to exercises

1. a. log10 10000 = log10 104 = 4
b. log10 1
100
= log10 10−2 = −2
c. log10 0.001 = log10 10−3 = −3
d. log10 1012.3 = 12.3
√ 1
e. log10 10 = log10 10 2 = 12
√ 1 1
f. log10 10 4 10 = log10 10 × 10 4 = log10 101+ 4 = 5
4
√
) 3 10 = log10 10−3+ 3 = − 83
1 1
g. log10 ( 1000
1
h. log10 0.001
= log10 103 = 3
2. a. 10log10 37.23 = 37.23 by rule B.
2y
b. log10 10x = x2 y by Rule A.
x
c. 10log10 (10 ) = 10x , since log10 (10x ) = x by rule A.
√ x
d. log10 10 2y = log10 (10 2 ) 2y = log10 10 2 × 2y = 4y
1 x 1 x
x
by rule A.
log10 x
e. 1010 = 10x , since 10log10 x = x by rule B.
x+y
x+y
f. log10 10 z = z
by rule A.
3xy
3xy
g. 10log10 z = z
by rule B.
102x
h. log10 10 = 102x by rule A.
x3
3. a. log10 x3 − 2.5 log10 y = log10 x3 − log10 y 2.5 = log10 y 2.5

b. log10 6 + log10 x−2 = log10 6x−2

(3x)5
c. 5 log10 3x − 4 log10 (xy + z 2 ) = log10 (3x)5 − log10 (xy + z 2 )4 = log10 (xy+z 2 )4

d. 2 log10 xy + 3 log10 (z 2 − y 2 ) = log10 (xy)2 + log10 (z 2 − y 2 )3 = log10 (xy)2 (z 2 − y 2 )3

e. log10 (x + y) − 3 log10 4 = log10 (x + y) − log10 43 = log10 x+y
64
f. log10 xy − 1.7 log10 y 2 = log10 xy − log10 (y 2 )1.7 = log10 yxy
3.4 = log10 xy −2.4

4. a. log2 2x 2x+y = log2 2x+x+y = 2x + y

x+y
x+y
b. 5log5 3 = 3
c. log7 49uv = log7 (72 )uv = log7 72uv = 2uv
1
d. 3log9 3w = (9 2 )log9 3w = 9 2 ×log9 3w = 9log9 ( 3w ) 2 = ( 3w
u 1 u 1 u u u 2 1
)
5. a.
2 log3 (x + y) − 3 log3 (xy) + log3 x2 = log3 (x + y)2 − log3 (xy)3 + log3 x2
((x + y)2 x2 )
= log3
(xy)3
b.
log6 xy − 4 log6 (x + y) = log6 xy − log6 (x + y)4
xy
= log6
(x + y)4
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c.
4 log17 xy 2 + log17 (x2 + y 2 ) − 2.5 log17 x = log17 (xy 2 )4 + log17 (x2 + y 2 ) − log17 x2.5
x4 y 8 (x2 + y 2 )
= log17
x2.5
6. a. log3 17 = log3 10 × log10 17 = log10 17
log10 3
≈ 1.2304
0.4771
≈ 2.5789
b. log5 2 = log5 10 × log10 2 = log10 2
log10 5
≈ 0.3010
0.6990
≈ 0.4306
c. log22 14 = log22 10 × log10 14 = log10 14
log10 22
≈ 1.1461
1.3424
≈ 0.8538
log10 8
d. log4 8 = log4 10×log10 8 = log10 4
≈ 0.9031
0.6021
≈ 1.5 (in fact log4 8 is exactly 1.5 because
3
8=4 ) 2

7. a. y = 10x = (eln 10 )x = e(ln 10)x

b. 7.5−x = (eloge 7.5 )−x = e−(loge 7.5)x
c. 4−x = (eloge 4 )−x = e−(loge 4)x
1
d. ( 14 )x = (eloge 4 )x = e−(loge 4)x

8. log10 10−19 = −19

√ 6 6
9. loge e 5 e = loge e 5 = 5

10. log2 16 = log2 24 = 4

173 1 5
11. log17 √
17
= log17 173− 2 = 2

2
12. ln ee21 = ln e2−21 = −19
ln e7 7 7
13. log11 121
= log11 112
= 2

14. 5log5 32.7 = 32.7

9 9
15. eln 2 = 2
√
3 √
16. eln 27
= 3
27 = 3
100x2
17. log10 9y
= log10 100 + log10 x2 − log10 9y = 2 + 2 log10 x − log10 9 − log10 y
−3
18. ln( xy
e1.37
) = ln x − 3 ln y − ln e1.37 = ln x − 3 ln y − 1.37
−1.3 7
19. log4 ( 4 x2 y3z ) = −1.3 + 7 log4 z − 2 log4 x − 3 log4 y

x3 y 2
20. log3 1 = 3 log3 x + 2 log3 y − log3 27 − 12 log3 z = 3 log3 x + 2 log3 y − 3 − 12 log3 z
27z 2

21. ln(e−2.4 x6 ) = −2.4 + 6 ln x

125x3
22. log5 0.2y 2
= log5 53 + 3 log5 x − log5 15 − 2 log5 y = 4 + 3 log5 x − 2 log5 y

30x3 y
23. 3 log2 x + log2 30 + log2 y − log2 w = log2 w
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2 a
24. 2 ln x − ln y + a ln w = ln x2 − ln y + ln wa = ln x yw

25. 12(ln x + ln y) = ln(xy)12

26. log3 e × ln 81 + log3 5 × log5 w = log3 81 + log3 w = 4 + log3 w

x2
27. log7 10 × log10 x2 − log7 49x = log7 x2 − log7 49 − log7 x = −2 + log7 x
= −2 + log7 x

28. log10 0.1 × log6 x − 2 log6 y + log6 4 × log4 e = −1 × log6 x − log6 y 2 + log6 e = log6 e
xy 2

29. log5 e = 1
loge 5
≈ 1
1.6094
≈ 0.6213

30. log5 7 = log5 e × loge 7 = loge 7

loge 5
≈ 1.9459
1.6094
≈ 1.2091

31. log5 72 = log5 e × 2 loge 7 = 2 loge 7

loge 5
≈2× 1.9459
1.6094
≈ 2.4182

32. log49 5 = log49 e × loge 5 = loge 5

loge 49
= loge 5
loge 72
≈ 1.6094
2×0.9459
≈ 0.4135
loge 52
33. log49 25 = log49 e × loge 52 = loge 72
≈ 2×1.6094
2×1.9459
≈ 0.8271

34. loge 25 = loge 52 ≈ 2 × loge 5 ≈ 2 × 1.6094 ≈ 3.2188