BY MR.

AKETCH – A TVET TRAINER KCNP 11/10/2019

FUNDIMENTALS OF ROBOTS
Robots are devices that are programmed to move parts, or to do work with a tool. Robotics is a
multidisciplinary engineering field dedicated to the development of autonomous devices,
including manipulators and mobile vehicles. Any of the following statements below defines a
robot
1. A robot is a re-programmable multi-functional manipulator designed to move
materials, parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for
the performance of a variety of tasks.
2. A robot is an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulator
programmable in three or more axes, which may be either fixed in place or mobile for use
in industrial automation applications.
3. A robot is any automatically operated machine that replaces human effort, though it
may not resemble human beings in appearance or perform functions in a humanlike
manner.
4. A robot is an electric machine which has some ability to interact with physical objects
and to be given electronic programming to do a specific task that may also have some
ability to perceive and absorb data on physical objects or on its local physical
environment, or to process data, or to respond to various stimuli.
5. A robot is a mechanical device that sometimes resembles a human and is capable of
performing a variety of often complex human tasks on command or by being
programmed in advance.
Robotics is a branch of artificial intelligent (AI), which is composed of Electrical Engineering,
Mechanical Engineering, and Computer Science for designing, construction, and application of
robots.

This field overlaps with electronics, computer science, artificial intelligence, mechatronics, nanotechnology
and bioengineering.

What is Artificial Intelligence?

According to the father of Artificial Intelligence John McCarthy, it is “The science and
engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs”. Artificial
Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer-controlled robot, or a software think
intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent humans think. AI is accomplished by studying
how human brain thinks, and how humans learn, decide, and work while trying to solve a
problem, and then using the outcomes of this study as a basis of developing intelligent software
and systems.

What is Intelligence? The ability of a system to calculate, reason, perceive relationships and analogies,
learn from experience, store and retrieve information from memory, solve problems, comprehend
complex ideas, use natural language fluently, classify, generalize, and adapt new situations.

Applications of AI
AI has been dominant in various fields such as:
 Gaming AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tic-tac-toe, etc.,
where machine can think of large number of possible positions based on heuristic
knowledge.
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  Natural Language Processing It is possible to interact with the computer that understands
natural language spoken by humans.
 Expert Systems There are some applications which integrate machine, software, and
special information to impart reasoning and advising. They provide explanation and advice
to the users.
 Vision Systems These systems understand, interpret, and comprehend visual input on the
computer. For example,
o A spying aeroplane takes photographs which are used to figure out spatial
information or map of the areas.
o Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.
o Police use computer software that can recognize the face of criminal with the stored
portrait made by forensic artist.
 Speech Recognition Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing and comprehending
the language in terms of sentences and their meanings while a human talks to it. It can
handle different accents, slang words, noise in the background, change in human’s noise
due to cold, etc.
 Handwriting Recognition The handwriting recognition software reads the text written on
paper by a pen or on screen by a stylus. It can recognize the shapes of the letters and
convert it into editable text.
 Intelligent Robots Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a human. They have
sensors to detect physical data from the real world such as light, heat, temperature,
movement, sound, bump, and pressure. They have efficient processors, multiple sensors
and huge memory, to exhibit intelligence. In addition, they are capable of learning from
their mistakes and they can adapt to the new environment.

Classes of Robot
Most of physical robots fall into one of the three categories:
• Manipulators/robotic arms which are anchored to their workplace and built usually from
sets of rigid links connected by joints.
• Mobile robots which can move in their environment using wheels, legs, etc.
• Hybrid robots which include humanoid robots are mobile robots equipped with
manipulators.

Laws of Robotics
Asimov proposed the three "Laws of Robotics" and later added a 'Zeroth law' as given below:
 Law Zero:
A robot may not injure humanity, or, through inaction, allow humanity to come to harm.
 Law One:
A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human being to
come to harm, unless this would violate a higher order law.
 Law Two:
A robot must obey orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders would
conflict with a higher order law.
 Law Three:
A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with a
higher order law.

Aspects of Robotics

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  The robots have mechanical construction, form, or shape designed to accomplish a
particular task.
 They have electrical components which power and control the machinery.
 They contain some level of computer program that determines what, when and how a
robot does something.

Basic Elements of Robotics System

Consider the robot structure showing different components of robots are:

The following are the key components of robotics:

o Power Supply - The working power to the robot is provided by batteries, hydraulic, solar
power, or pneumatic power sources.
o Actuators - Actuators are the energy conversion device used inside a robot. The major
function of actuators is to convert energy into movement.

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 o Electric motors (DC/AC)- Motors are electromechanical component used for converting
electrical energy into its equivalent mechanical energy. In robots motors are used for
providing rotational movement.
o Sensors - Sensors provide real time information on the task environment. Robots are
equipped with tactile sensor it imitates the mechanical properties of touch receptors of
human fingerprints and a vision sensor is used for computing the depth in the environment.
o Controller - Controller is a part of robot that coordinates all motion of the mechanical
system. It also receives an input from immediate environment through various sensors. The
heart of robot's controller is a microprocessor linked with the input/output and monitoring
device. The command issued by the controller activates the motion control mechanism,
consisting of various controller, actuators and amplifier.

Robot Locomotion
Locomotion is the method of moving from one place to another. The mechanism that makes a
robot capable of moving in its environment is called as robot locomotion.
There are many types of locomotion's:-
o Wheeled
o Legged
o Tracked slip/skid
o Combination of legged and wheeled locomotion
Legged locomotion
o It comes up with the variety of one, two, four, and six legs. If a robot has multiple legs then
leg coordination is required for locomotion.
o Legged locomotion consumes more power while demonstrating jump, hop, walk, trot,
climb up or down etc.
o It requires more number of motors for accomplish a movement. It is suited for rough as
well as smooth terrain where irregular or too smooth surface makes it consume more
operational power. It is little difficult to implement because of stability issues.
The total number of possible gaits (a periodic sequence of release and lift events for each of the
total legs) a robot can travel depending upon the number of robot legs.

If a robot has K legs, then the number of possible events is,

In case of a two-legged robot (K=2), therefore the number of possible events is

Hence, there are six possible different events:-

o Lifting the Right leg
o Lifting the Left leg
o Releasing the right leg
o Releasing the left leg
o Releasing both the legs together
o Lifting both the legs together
In case of K=4 legs, there are 5040 possible events. Hence the complexity of robots is dependent
on number of legs of robots. On increasing legs of a robot the complexity of robotic system
increases.

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Wheeled Locomotion
It requires less number of motors for accomplishing a movement. It is little easy to implement as
there are lesser stability issues in case of more number of wheels. It is more power efficient as
compared to legged locomotion.
o Castor wheel - It rotates around the offset steering joint and wheel axle.
o Standard wheel - It rotates around the contact and the wheel axle.
o Ball or spherical wheel - This wheel is technically difficult to implement due to
architectural complexity. It is an Omni directional wheel with only one directional
movement is allowed.
o Swedish 45 and Swedish 90 wheels - It is an Omni-wheel, which rotates around the
contact point, around the wheel axle, and around the rollers.

Slip/Skid Locomotion
In Slip/Skid locomotion the vehicles use tracks as available in a tank. The robot is steered by
moving tracks with different speeds in the same or opposite direction. It offers stability because of
large contact area of ground and track.

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Industrial Robot
An industrial robot contains several electrical and mechanical components acting together as
a system. The controller contains an operating system and software that dictates how the system
operates and communicates. Sensors work together for gathering information (Localization and
positioning).

Controller
The controller is the part of a robot that coordinates all movements of the mechanical system. It
also receives input from the immediate environment through various sensors. The heart of the
robot’s controller is generally a microprocessor linked to input/output and monitoring devices. The
commands issued by the controller activate the motion control mechanism, consisting of various
controllers, amplifiers, and actuators.

An actuator is essentially the prime movers providing linear force and motion. Conventional:
Pneumatics, hydraulics. It can be a motor or valve that converts power into robot movement. This
movement is initiated by a series of instructions, called a program, stored in the controller’s
memory.

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Manipulator:
The manipulator consists of segments that may be jointed and that move about, allowing the robot
to do work. The manipulator is the arm of the robot which must move materials, parts, tools, or
special devices through various motions to provide useful work. A manipulator can be identified by
method of control, power source, actuation of the joints, and other factors. These factors help
identify the best type of robot for the task at hand. For example, you would not use an electric
robot in an environment where combustible fumes exist and a spark could cause an explosion.

End Effector
The end effector acts as the hand of the robotic arm. It is often composed of two claws, though
sometimes three, that can open or close on command. It can also spin on the wrist, making
maneuvering material and equipment easy.

It is a device attached to the wrist of the manipulator for the purpose of grasping, lifting,
transporting, maneuvering, or performing operations on a workpiece. The end effector is one of the
most important components of a robot system. The robot’s performance is a direct result of how
well the end effector meets the task requirements. The area within reach of the robot’s end effector
is called its work envelope.

The wrist provides one, two, or three axes of motion relative to the arm itself. The motions are:
• Pitch - motion in the vertical plane
• Yaw - motion in the horizontal plane
• Roll - a rotary motion
Additionally, the wrist serves as the mounting point for a variety of devices. These 'end effectors'
are either hand, or gripping devices, or job specific tools.

Sensors
- Sensors are the parts that sense and can detect objects or things like heat and light and
convert the object information into symbols or in analog or digital form and then robot
reacts according to the information provided by the sensory system. The sensors used in
robotics are;
o Vision Sensors: Camera, Frame Grabber, Image processing unit
o Proximity Sensors: distance is estimated between the robot and the object.
o Proprioceptive Sensors: are responsible for monitoring self-maintenance and
controlling internal status. This includes battery monitoring, current sensing, and
heat monitoring.
o Logical Sensors
Drives
Drives are essentially the motors in between joints that control the movement and maneuvers. They
typically use belts similar to what is found in car engines.
A variety of electric motors provide power to robots making them move with various programmed
motions. AC /DC motors can be used

Power Supply
The power supply provides the energy to drive the controller and actuators. It may convert ac
voltage to the dc voltage required by the robot’s internal circuits, or it may be a pump or
compressor providing hydraulic or pneumatic power. The three basic types of power supplies are
electrical, hydraulic, and pneumatic.
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The most common energy source available, where industrial robots are used, is electricity. The
second most common is compressed air, and the least common is hydraulic power. These primary
sources of energy must be converted into the form and amount required by the type of robot being
used. The electronic part of the control unit, and any electric drive actuator, requires electrical
power.

A robot containing hydraulic actuators requires the conversion of electrical power into hydraulic
energy through the use of an electric, motor-driven, hydraulic pump. A robot with pneumatic
actuators requires compressed air, which is usually supplied by a compressor driven by an electric
motor.

Means for Programming

The means for programming is used to record movements into the robot’s memory. A robot may be
programmed using any of several different methods. The teach pendant, also called a teach box or
handheld programmer, Figure 2-8, teaches a robot the movements required to perform a useful
task. The operator uses a teach pendant to move the robot through the series of points that describe
its desired path. The points are recorded by the controller for later use.

The following programming languages are used:

 VAL - Variable Assembly Language
 Robo ML - Robotic Mark-up Language
 ROBOFORTH
 ROSSUM
 XRCL - Extensible Robot Control Language
 Scripting language such as RoboLogics
 Visual Programming Languages is written by Labview

Configuration of Industrial Robot

Over the years robot manufacturers have developed many types of robots of differing configurations and
mechanical design, to give a variety of spatial arrangements and working volumes.

The majority of these manipulators fall into one of six configurations

1. Cartesian Type Configuration (PPP),( X Y Z )

It is form by 3 prismatic joints, whose axes are coincident with the X, Y and Z planes. These robots move in
three directions, in translation, at right angles to each other. Cartesian manipulator is useful for table-
top assembly applications and, as gantry robots for transfer of material and cargo

Advantages
- 3 linear axes
- Easy to visualize
- Rigid structure

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 - Easy to program off-line
Disadvantage:
- Can only reach in front of itself
- Requires large floor space for size of work envelop
- Axes hard to seal

2. Cylindrical Type Configuration (RPP), ( θ, r, z )

For cylindrical type manipulator, its first joint is revolute which produces a rotation about the based,
while its second and third joints are prismatic. The robot arm is attached to the slide so that it can be
moved radially with respect to the column.

Advantages
- 2 linear axes, 1 rotating axis
- Can reach all around itself
- Reach and height axes rigid
Disadvantages
- Cannot reach above itself
- Base rotation axis is less rigid than a linear axis
- Will not reach around obstacles

3. Spherical Type Configuration (RRP), ( θ, β, z )

The first two joints of this type of manipulators are revolute, while its third Joint is prismatic (relating to or
having the form of a prism or prisms). It used for a small number of vertical actions and is adequate for
loading and unloading of a punch.

Advantages
- 1 linear axis, 2 rotating axes
- Long horizontal reach
Disadvantages
- Cannot reach around obstacles
- Generally has short vertical reach

4, Scara Type Configuration (RRP or PRR), ( θ, φ, z )

The word SCARA stands for Selective Compliant Articulated Robot for Assembly. There are two type of
SCARA robot configuration: either the first two joints are revolute with the third joint as prismatic, or
the first joint is revolute with the second and third Joints as prismatic. Although some of the SCARA robots
have the RRP structure.
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Advantages:
- 1 linear axis, 2 rotating axes
- Height axis is rigid
- Large work area floor space
- Can reach around obstacles
- Two ways to reach a point
Disadvantage:
- Difficult to program off-line
- Highly complex arm

5. Revolute Type Configuration (RRR), ( θ, β, α )

Also called articulated manipulator that looks like an arm with at least three rotary joints. They
are used in welding and painting; gantry and conveyor systems move parts in factories.

Advantages:
- 3 rotating, axes
- Can reach above or below obstacles
- Largest work area for least work space
- Two or four ways to reach a point
Disadvantage:
- Difficult to program off-line
- The most complex manipulator

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6 Parallel Type Configuration (RRR), ( θ, β, α )
It is a complex mechanism which is constituted by two or more kinematics chains
between, the base and the platform where the end-effectors are located.

Advantages:
- Motors can be proximal:
- higher bandwidth,
- easier to control
Disadvantage:
- Generally less motion
- kinematics can be challenging

Work Envelope
- The work envelope or work volume is defined as the space within which the robot cans
manipulator the end of its wrist. The shape of work volume is determined by the type of robot
configuration.

The work envelope defines the space around a robot that is accessible for the end effector or
gripper. As a robot moves around the limits of its reaches it traces out a specific shape. The
Cylindrical robot in the last image has a visible work area of a cylinder. A Cartesian robot sweeps
out a rectangular volume, a polar a partial sphere

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Motion systems
1. Point-to-point (PTP) control robot: is capable of moving from one point to another
point. The locations are recorded in the control memory. PTP robots do not control the
path to get from one point to the next point. Common applications include component
insertion, spot welding, hole drilling, machine loading and unloading, and crude assembly
operations.
2. Continuous-path (CP) control robot: with CP control, the robot can stop at any
specified point along the controlled path. All the points along the path must be stored
explicitly in the robot’s control memory. Typical applications include spray painting,
finishing, gluing, and arc welding operations.
3. Controlled-path robot: the control equipment can generate paths of different
geometry such as straight lines, circles, and interpolated curves with a high degree of
accuracy. All controlled- path robots have a servo capability to correct their path.

Robot Classification
Robots are classified based on the following:
1. Arm Configuration: And this includes
o Cartesian Coordinate.
o Cylindrical Coordinate.
o Spherical Coordinate.
o Scara Coordinate.
o Revolute Coordinate.

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 2. Level of Technology:
o Low Technology: (material handling, using simple assemble 2-4 axes of movement,
stop at extremes).
o Medium Technology: (pick & place, material handling, 4-6 axes).
o High Technology: (material handling, pick and place, loading, painting and
welding, 6-9 axes).

3. Field of Applications:
o Industrial Robot.
o Medical Robot
o Space Robot
o Military Robot
o Aerial Robot
o Etc
4, Tooling Application
o Painting Robot
o Welding Robot
o Gluing Robot
o Deburring Robot
o Etc

Motors and Actuators Technologies

Actuators and Motors are devices that make robot move “robot muscle “. For most
industrial robots, the actuators are coupled to the respective robot link through a, gear train.
The effect of the gear reduction is largely to decoupled the system by reducing the coupling
among the joints. However, the present of gears introduces friction, backlash and drive train
compliance. The commonly used actuators are:
1. Pneumatic
- Energy efficient
- Hard for feedback control
2. Electric
- Clean
- Choice of today
3. Hydraulic
- Can deliver large forces
- Bulky leakage problem

Electric Drives
Small and medium size robots are usually powered by electric drives via gear trains using
servomotors and stepper motors. Most commonly used are dc motors, although for larger robots,
ac motors may be utilized. A new design based on direct drives (without gear trains) is being
developed.

Advantages:
- Better accuracy & repeatability
- Require less floor space
- More towards precise work such as assembly applications

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Disadvantage:
- Generally not as speedy and powerful as hydraulic robots
- Expensive for large and powerful robots, can become fire hazard

Hydraulic Drives
Larger robots are usually powered by hydraulic drives . Hydraulic drive system can provide
rotational motion (rotary vane actuators) and linear motion (hydraulic pistons).

Advantages:
- More strength-to-weight ratio
- Can also actuate at a higher speed
Disadvantage:
- Require large floor space
- Tendency to oil leakage

Pneumatic Drive
Generally used For smaller robots that possess fewer degrees of freedom (2- 4 joint motions). They
are limited to pick-and-place tasks with fast cycles. Pneumatic drive system can be applied to the
actuation of piston devices to provide linear motions. Rotational motions can be achieved by rotary
actuators
Advantages:
- Cheaper & lower technology options for control of speed.
- Safe to use and Light in weight

Disadvantage:
- Require large floor space
- Tendency to oil leakage

Technical Features of an Industrial Robot

The features of an industrial robot determine its efficiency and effectiveness at
performing a given task. The following are some of the most important among these
technical features.
1. Degree of Freedom (D.O.F)
This is the number of axes that a robot (robotic arm) is able to freely move in three-dimensional
space. It defines the number of independent parameters that define the configuration of a
mechanical system. Specifically, the body can move in three dimensions, on the X, Y and Z axes,
as well as change orientation between those axes though rotation usually called pitch, yaw and
roll.

Each joint on the robot introduces a degree of freedom. Each of can be a slider, rotary, or
other type of actuator. Robots have 5 or 6 degrees of freedom: 3 of the degrees of
freedom allow positioning in 3D space, while the other 2or 3 are used for orientation of
the end effector. 6 degrees of freedom are enough to allow the robot to reach all positions
and orientations in 3D space. 5 D.O.F requires a restriction to 2D space, or else it limits
orientations. 5 D.O.F robots are used for handling tools such as arc welders.

The robot tends to have a fixed and limited geometry. The work envelope is the boundary of

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positions in space that the robot can reach. For a Cartesian robot (like an overhead crane) the
workspace might be a square, for more sophisticated robots the workspace might be a shape that
looks like a ‘clump of intersecting bubbles’.
2. Precision Movement
The precision with which the robot can move the end of its wrist is a critical consideration in
most applications. A portion of a linear positioning system axis, with showing control resolution,
accuracy and repeatability is required. In robotics, precision of movement is a complex issue,
and we will describe it as consisting of three attributes:
i). Control resolution
ii). Accuracy
iii). Repeatability
i. Control Resolution
This is the smallest change that can be measured by the feedback sensors, or caused by the
actuators, whichever is larger. If a rotary joint has an encoder that measures every 0.01 degree of
rotation and a direct drive servo motor is used to drive the joint, with a resolution of 0.5 degrees,
then the control resolution is about 0.5 degrees (the worst case can be 0.5+0.01).
ii. Accuracy
This is determined by the resolution of the workspace. If the robot is commanded to travel to a
point in space, it will be off by some amount, the maximum distance should be considered the
accuracy.
iii. Repeatability
The robot mechanism will have some natural variance in it. This means that when the robot is
repeatedly instructed to return to the same point, it will not always stop at the same position.

5. Speed
Refers either to the maximum velocity that is achievable by the TCP, or by individual joints.
This number is not accurate in most robots, and will vary over the workspace as the geometry of
the robot changes.
6. Weight Carrying Capacity (Payload)
The payload indicates the maximum mass the robot can lift before either failure of the robots, or
dramatic loss of accuracy. It is possible to exceed the maximum payload, and still have the robot
operate, but this is not advised. When the robot is accelerating fast, the payload should be less
than the maximum mass. This is affected by the ability to firmly grip the part, the robot structure
and the actuators. The end of arm tooling should be considered part of the payload.
Key features of Robots
i. Quality-offer a characteristic property that defines the apparent individual nature of
something or service rendered. They offer high quality services.
ii. Serviceability- The quality of being able to provide good service.
iii. Safety- The state of being certain that adverse effects will not be caused by some
agent under defined conditions. It a device designed to prevent injury or accidents.
iv. Modularity- Constructed with standardized units or dimensions for flexibility and
variety in use.
v. Dexterity- Skillful performance or ability without difficulty and without using hands.
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Robot Drive Systems
There are three basic drive system used in available robots:
1. Hydraulic drive:
They give a robot great speed and strength. These systems can be designed to actuate
linear or rotational joints. The main disadvantage of a hydraulic system is that it occupies
floor space in addition to that required by the robot.
2. Electric drive:
An electric system provides a robot with less speed and strength and that is why electric
drive systems are adopted for smaller robots and thus robots supported by electric drive
systems are more accurate, exhibit better repeatability, and are cleaner to use.
3. Pneumatic drive:
They are generally used for smaller robots. These robots, with fewer degrees of freedom,
carry out simple pick-and-place material handling operations.

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Review Questions
1. Identify the five major components of a robot and explain the purpose of each.
2. What is the technical name for the robot’s hand?
3. Name the three types of power supplies used to power robots. List the advantages and disadvantages of
each.
5. List and explain the six degrees of freedom used for robots.
6. Servo robots can be classified as intelligent or highly intelligent. Explain the difference between these
two classifications.
8. Servo robots are considered closed-loop. Sketch a diagram of a closed-loop system and explain how it
works.
9. What determines the shape of the robot’s work envelope?
10. Why should you be concerned about the work envelope shape when installing a robot for a particular
application?
11. What are the common work configurations used by robots? List some advantages and disadvantages of
each.

Assignment
a) Read and make notes of the following
i) Generating the path of motion for the manipulator
ii) Robot feedback devices
iii) Co-ordinate transformation
iv) Safety controls
b) Discuss the following key features of Robots
i) Serviceability
ii) Safety
ii) Quality

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 PROGRAMMING A ROBOT
There are various methods which robots can be programmed to perform a given work cycle and
theyof four categories as follows;
1. Manual method
2. Walkthrough method
3. Lead through method
4. Off-line programming method
1. Manual method
This method is not really programming in its sense but more like setting up a machine rather than
programming. It is the procedure used for the simpler robots and involves setting mechanical
stops, cams, switches or relays in the robots control unit. For these low technology robots used
for short work cycles (e.g., pick and place operations), the manual programming method is
adequate.

2. Walkthrough method
In this method the programmer manually moves the robots arm and hand through the motion
sequence of the work cycle. Each movement is recorded into memory for subsequent playback
during production. The speed with which the movements are performed can be controlled
independently so that the programmer does not have to worry about the cycle time during the
walk through. The main concern is getting the position sequence correct. The walk through
method would be appropriate for spray painting and arc welding.

3. Lead-through method
The lead-through method makes use of a teach pendant to power drive the robot through its
motion sequence. The teach pendant is a small hand held device with switches and dials to
control the robots physical movements. Each motion is recorded into memory for future
playback during work cycle. The lead through method is very popular among robot programming
methods because of its ease and convenience.
Advantages of this programming include:
- It is easy and no special programming skills or training
Disadvantages of this programming include:
- it is not practical for large or heavy robots
- High accuracy and straight-line movements are difficult to achieve
- it is difficult to edit out unwanted operator moves
- it is difficult to incorporate external sensor data
- it is difficult to synchronization with other machines or equipment in the work cell
- A large amount of memory is required

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4. Off- line programming method
This method involves the preparation of the robot program off-line. Off-line robot programming
is accomplished on a computer terminal. After the program has been prepared, it is entered in to
the robot memory for use during the work cycle. The advantaged of off-line robot programming
is that the production time of the robot is not lost to delay in teaching the robot a new task.
Programming off-line can be done while the robot is still in production on the preceding job. This
means higher utilization of the robot and the equipment with which it operates. Another benefit
associated with off-line programming is the prospect of integrating the robot into the factory
CAD/CAM data base and information system.

Robot Programming Languages

Non-computer controlled robots do not require programming language. They are programmed by
the walkthrough or lead through methods while the simpler robots are programmed by manual
methods. With the introduction of computer control for robots, came the opportunity and the
need to develop a computer oriented robot programming language that include;
1. The VALTM Language
• The VAL language was developed for PUMA robot
• VAL stands for Victors Assembly Language
• It is an off-line language in which program defining the motion sequence.
• VAL statements are divided into two categories;
a) Monitoring command
b) Programming instructions.
• Monitor command are set of administrative instructions that direct the operation of the
robot system.
• Examples for monitor commands are: EDIT, EXECUTE, SPEED, HERE etc.
• Program instructions are a set of statements used to write robot programs. One
statement usually corresponds to one movement of the robots arm or wrist.
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 • Example for program instructions are :- Move to point, Move to a point in a straight line
motion, open gripper, close gripper. (MOVE, MOVES, APPRO, APPROS, DEPART,
OPENI, CLOSEI, AND EXIT).

2. The MCL Language

• MCL stands for Machine Control Language developed by Douglas.
• The language is based on the APT and NC language.
• MCL is enhancement of APT which possesses additional options and features needed to
do off-line programming of robotic work cell.
• Provides the supplementary capabilities intended to be covered by the MCL. These
capability include Vision, Inspection and Control of signals
• MCL permits the user to define MACROS like statement that would be convenient to
use for specialized applications.
• MCL program is needed to compile to produce CLFILE.
• Some commands of MCL programming languages are DEVICE, SEND, RECEIV,
WORKPT, ABORT, TASK, REGION, LOCATE etc.

Textual Statements
Language statements include basic motion statement lke:
MOVE P1
Commands the robot to move from its current position to a position and orientation defined by
the variable name P1.The point p1 must be defined. The most convenient method way to define
P1 is to use either powered lead through or manual leads through to place the robot at the desired
point and record that point into the memory.
HERE P1 OR LEARN P1
These are used in the lead through procedure to indicate the variable name for the point. What is
recorded into the robot’s control memory is the set of joint positions or coordinates used by the
controller to define the point. For example, (236,157,63,0,0,0). The first values give joint
positions of the body and arm and the last three values (0,0,0) define the wrist joint positions.
MOVES P1
It denotes movement that is to be made using straight line interpolation. The suffix‘s’ designates
a straight line motion.
DMOVE (4,125)
Suppose the robot is presently at a point defined by joint coordinates (236,157,63,0,0,0) and it
is desired to move joint 4from 0 to 125. DMOVE represents a delta move. Approach and depart
statements are useful in material handling operations.

APPROACH P1, 40 MM; MOVE P1

Command to actuate the gripper.

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 DEPART 40 MM
The destination is point p1 but the approach command moves the gripper to a safe
distance(40mm) above the point. Move statement permits the gripper to be moved directly to the
part for grasping. A path in a robot program is a series of points connected together in a single
move. A move statement is used to drive the robot through the path. A path is given a variable
name;
DEFINE PATH123=PATH (P1,P2,P3)
MOVE PATH123

SPEED 75 the manipulator should operate at 75% of the initially commanded velocity where the
initial speed is given in a command that precedes the execution of the robot program. For
example,
SPEED 0.5 MPS
EXECUTE PROGRAM1
This indicates that the program named PROGRAM1 is to be executed by the robot at a speed of
0.5m/sec.

Interlock and Sensor Statements

The two basic interlock commands used for industrial robots are WAIT and SIGNAL. The
wait command is used to implement an input interlock. For example,
WAIT 20,ON
This would cause program execution to stop at this statement until the input signal coming into
the robot controller at port 20 was in “ON” condition. This might be used in a situation where the
robot needed to wait for the completion of an automatic machine cycle in a loading and
unloading application. The SIGNAL statement is used to implement an output interlock. This is
used to communicate to some external piece of equipment. For example,
SIGNAL 20, ON
The above interlock commands represent situations where the execution of the statement
appears. There are other situations where it is desirable for an external device to be continuously
monitored for any change that might occur in the device. For example, in safety monitoring
where a sensor is setup to detect the presence of humans who might wander into the robot’s work
volume, the sensor reacts to the presence of humans by signaling the robot controller.

REACT 25, SAFESTOP

This command would be written to continuously monitor input port 25 for any changes in the
incoming signal. If and when a change in the signal occurs, regular program execution
isinterrupted and the control is transferred to a subroutine called SAFESTOP. This subroutine
would stop the robot from further motion and/or cause some other safety action to be taken.

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Commands for controlling the end-effectors .Although end effectors are attached to the wrist of
the manipulator, they are very much like external devices. A Special command is written for
controlling the end effector. Basic commands are;
OPEN (fully open)
and
CLOSE (fully close)
For grippers with force sensors that can be regulated through the robot controller, a command
such as ,
CLOSE 2.0 N
This controls the closing of the gripper until a 20.N force is encountered by the grippers. A
similar command would be used to close the gripper to a given opening width is,
CLOSE 25 MM
A special set of statements is often required to control the operation of tool type end
effectors.(such as spot welding guns, arc welding tools, spray painting guns and powered
spindles).

End Effectors
An End effector can be defined as a device which is attached to the robot’s wrist to perform a
specific task. The task might be work part handling, spot welding, spray painting, or any of a
great variety of other functions. The possibilities are limited only by the imagination and
ingenuity of the application engineers who design robot systems. The end effectors are the
special purpose tooling which enables the robot to perform a particular job. For purpose
organization, we will divide the various types of end effectors into two categories: grippers and
tools.
1. Grippers:
- These are used to grasp and hold an object and place it at a desired location. Grippers can
be classified as;
 Mechanical grippers
 Vacuum or suction cups
 Magnetic grippers
 Adhesive grippers
 Hooks, Scoops, and so forth.
2. Tools:
- A robot is required to manipulate a tool to perform an operation on a work part. Here the
tool acts as end-effectors. Spot-welding tools, arc-welding tools, spray painting nozzles,
and rotating spindles for drilling and grinding are typical examples of tools used as end-
effectors.

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Work Cell Control and Interlocks

1. Work cell control

Industrial robots work with other things: processing equipment, work parts, conveyors, tools and
perhaps human operators. A means must be provided for coordinating all of the activities which
are going on within the robot workstations. Some of the activities occur sequentially, while
others take place simultaneously to make certain that the various activities are coordinated and
occur in the proper sequence, a device called the work cell controller is used. The work cell
controller resides within the robots and has overall responsibility for regulating the activities of
the work cell components. Functions of work cell controller include the following;
1. Controlling the sequence of activities in the work cycles
2. Controlling simultaneous activities
3. Making decisions to proceed based on incoming signals
4. Making logical decisions
5. Performing computations
6. Dealing with exceptional events
7. Performing irregular cycles, such as periodically changing tools

2. Interlocks
An interlock is the feature of work cell control which prevents the work cycle sequence from
continuing until a certain conditions or set of conditions has been satisfied. In a robotic work
cell, they are two types: outgoing and incoming. The outer going interlock is a signal sent from
the workstation controller to some external machine or device that will cause it to operate or not
to operate for example this would be used to prevent a machine from initiating its process until it
was commanded to process by the work cell controller, an incoming interlock is a single from
some external machine or device to the work controller which determines whether or not the
programmed work cycle sequence will proceed.

Robotic Sensors
The robot must take on more human like senses and capabilities in order to perform the task in a
satisfactory way. These senses and capability includes vision and hand eye coordination, touch,
and hearing. The types of sensors used in robotics are grouped into three categories;
1. Vision sensors

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 2. Tactile and proximity sensors
3. Voice sensors
1. Vision sensors
Robot vision is made possible by means of video camera a sufficient light source and a computer
programmed to process image data. The camera is mounted either on the robot or in a fixed
position above the robot so that its field of vision includes the robots work volume. The
computer software enables the vision system to sense the presence of an object and its position
and orientation. Vision capability would enable the robot to carry out the following kinds of
operations.
- Retrieve parts which are randomly oriented on a conveyor.
- Recognize particular parts which are intermixed with other objects.
- Perform assembly operations which require alignment.

2. Tactile and proximity sensor

Tactile sensors provide the robot with the capability to respond to contact forces between itself
and other objects within its work volume. Tactile sensors can be divided into two types:
a). Touch sensors
Touch sensors are used simply to indicate whether contact has been made with an object. A
simple micro switch can serve the purpose of a touch sensor.
b). Stress sensors
Stress sensors are used to measure the magnitude of the contact force. Strain gauge devices are
typically employed in force measuring sensors.

3. Proximity sensors
Proximity sensors are used to sense when one object is close to another object. On a robot, the
proximity sensors would be located n or near the end effectors. This sensing capability can be
engineered by means of optical proximity devices, eddy-current proximity detectors, magnetic
field sensors, or other devices. In robotics, proximity sensors might be used to indicate the
presence or absence of a work part or other object.

4. Voice sensors
Voice programming can be defined as the oral communication of commands to the robot or other
machine. The robot controller is equipped with a speech recognition system which analyzes the
voice input and compares it with a set of stored word patterns. When a match is found between
the input and the stored vocabulary word the robot performs some actions which correspond to
the word. Voice sensors could be useful in robot programming to speed up the programming
procedure.

Robot Applications
There is a need to replace human labour by robots in:
• Work environment hazardous for human beings

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 • Repetitive tasks, Boring and unpleasant tasks
• Multi shift operations, Infrequent changeovers
• Performing at a steady pace
• Operating for long hours without rest
• Responding in automated operations
• Minimizing variation

Industrial Robot Applications can be divided into:

a). Material-handling applications:
• Involve the movement of material or parts from one location to another.
• It includes part placement, palletizing and/or depalletizing, machine loading and
unloading. This category includes the following:
1. Part Placement
2. Palletizing and/or depalletizing
3. Machine loading and/or unloading
4. Stacking and insertion operations
1. Part Placement:
• The basic operation in this category is the relatively simple pick-and-place operation.
• This application needs a low-technology robot of the cylindrical coordinate type.
• Only two, three, or four joints are required for most of the applications.
• Pneumatically powered robots are often utilized.
2. Palletizing and/or Depalletizing:
• The applications require robot to stack parts one on top of the other, that is to palletize
them, or to unstack parts by removing from the top one by one, that is depalletize them.
• Example: process of taking parts from the assembly line and stacking them on a pallet or
vice versa.
3. Machine loading and/or unloading:
• Robot transfers parts into and/or from a production machine.
• There are three possible cases example: bin picking, die casting and plastic molding:
_ Machine loading in which the robot loads parts into a production machine, but the
parts are unloaded by some other means.
Example: a press working operation, where the robot feeds sheet blanks into the press,
but the finished parts drop out of the press by gravity.
_ Machine loading in which the raw materials are fed into the machine without robot
assistance. The robot unloads the part from the machine assisted by vision or no vision.
_ Machine loading and unloading that involves both loading and unloading of the work
parts by the robot. The robot loads a raw work part into the process ad unloads a finished
part. Example: Machine operation difficulties
• Difference in cycle time between the robot and the production machine. The cycle time of
the machine may be relatively long compared to the robot’s cycle time.

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 4. Stacking and insertion operation:
• In the stacking process the robot places flat parts on top of each other, where the
vertical location of the drop-off position is continuously changing with cycle time.
• In the insertion process robot inserts parts into the compartments of a divided carton.
The robot must have following features to facilitate material handling:
- The manipulator must be able to lift the parts safely.
- The robot must have the reach needed.
- The robot must have cylindrical coordinate type.
- The robot’s controller must have a large enough memory to store all the programmed
points so that the robot can move from one location to another.
- The robot must have the speed for meeting the transfer cycle of the operation.
b). Processing Operations:
• Requires the robot to manipulate a special process tool as the end effectors.
• The application include spot welding, arc welding, riveting, spray painting, machining,
metal cutting, debarring, polishing.
• Robot performs a processing procedure on the part.
• The robot is equipped with some type of process tooling as its end effector.
• Manipulates the tooling relative to the working part during the cycle.
• Industrial robot applications in the processing operations include:
_ Spot welding and Continuous arc welding
_ Spray painting
_ Metal cutting and deburring operations
_ Various machining operations like drilling, grinding, laser and water jet cutting,
and riveting.
_ Rotating and spindle operations
_ Adhesives and sealant dispensing
c). Assembly Applications:
• Involve part-handling manipulations of a special tools and other automatic tasks and
operations.
• The applications involve both material-handling and the manipulation of a tool.
• They typically include components to build the product and to perform material
handling operations.
• Are traditionally labor-intensive activities in industry and are highly repetitive and
boring. Hence are logical candidates for robotic applications.
• These are classified as:
_ Batch assembly: As many as one million products might be assembled.
_ The assembly operation has long production runs.
_ Low-volume: In this a sample run of ten thousand or less products might be
made.
_ The assembly robot cell should be a modular cell.

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d). Inspection Operations:
• Require the robot to position a work part to an inspection device.
• Involve the robot to manipulate a device or sensor to perform the inspection.
• Some inspection operation requires parts to be manipulated, and other applications require
that an inspection tool be manipulated.
• Inspection work requires high precision and patience, and human judgment is often needed
to determine whether a product is within quality specifications or not.
• The robot may be in active or passive role.
_ In active role robot is responsible for determining the part is good or bad.
_ In the passive role the robot feeds a gauging station with the part.

Advantages of Robots
• Robotics and automation can increase productivity, safety, efficiency, quality, and
consistency of Products
• Robots can work in hazardous environments
• Robots need no environmental comfort
• Robots work continuously without any humanity needs and illnesses
• Robots have repeatable precision at all times
• Robots can be more accurate than humans at milli or micro inch accuracy.
• Robots and their sensors can have capabilities beyond that of humans.
• Robots can process multiple stimuli or tasks simultaneously, humans can only one.
• Robots replace human workers who can create economic problems.

Disadvantages of Robots
• Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies, this can cause:
_ Inappropriate and wrong responses
_ A lack of decision-making power
_ A loss of power
_ Damage to the robot and other devices
_ Human injuries
• Robots may have limited capabilities in;
_ Degrees of Freedom
_ Dexterity
_ Sensors
_ Vision systems
_ Real-time Response
• Robots are costly, due to;
_ Initial cost of equipment and Installation Costs
_ Need for peripherals and Need for training
_ Need for Programming

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