K.Madhavi,Dept.

ofECE,Vignan Women’s college(A),

Visakhapatnam,

Unit-II
Physical Layer: Digital to Digital Conversion: Line coding, line coding schemes,
Block coding, scrambling, analog to digital conversion: PCM and Delta
Modulation. Transmission modes: serial& parallel, Digital to Analog
Conversion, Frequency Division Multiplexing, Time Division Multiplexing,
Code Division Multiplexing, Transmission Media- guided and unguided.
COURSEOBJECTIVES:
TheobjectivesofstudyingUnit-2PhysicalLayerisasfollows
 UnderstandthefunctioningofPhysicalLayerinOSIModel
COURSEOUTCOMES
UponthecompletionoftheUnit-2thestudentswillbeableto

 UnderstanddifferentTransmissionmediaandmultiplexingtechniques

DigitalTransmission
1. Digital-to-DigitalConversion
2. Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Digital-to-Digital Conversion
Involves three techniques:
Linecoding(alwaysneeded),blockcoding,andscrambling

Linecoding:
 Linecodingistheprocessofconvertingdigitaldatatodigitalsignals
 Linecodingconvertsasequenceofbitstoadigital signal.
 Atthesender,digitaldataare encodedinto adigitalsignal;atthe receiver,thedigitaldata are
recreated by decoding the digital signal.

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Signal Element and DataElement

 Dataelementsarewhatweneedtosend;signalelementsarewhatwecansend

DataRateVersusSignalRate

 Dataratedefinesthenumberofdataelements(bits)sentin1s:bps
 Signalrateisthenumberofsignalelementssentin1s:baud
 Datarate=bitrate,signalrate=pulse rate,modulationrate,baudrate
 S=cxNx1/r,whereNisthedaterate;cisthecasefactor,Sisthenumberofsignal
elements;risthenumberofdataelementscarriedbyeachsignalelement
 Althoughtheactualbandwidthofadigitalsignalisinfinite,theeffectivebandwidthisfinite
 Thebandwidthisproportionaltothesignalrate(baudrate)
 Theminimumbandwidth:Bmin=cxNx1/r
 Themaximumdatarate:Nmax=1/cxBxr
DesignConsiderationforLineCodingScheme
• Baselinewandering

– In decoding a digital signal,the receiver calculates a running average of the received

signal power. This average is called the baseline.
– Longstringof0sand1scancauseadriftinthebaseline
• DCcomponents
– Whenthevoltage level ina digital signal is constantfor a while,thespectrum creates
very low frequencies
– These frequencies around zero, called DC (direct-current) components, present
problemsforasystemthatcannotpasslowfrequenciesorasystemthatuseselectrical
coupling
– DCorlowfrequenciescannotpassatransformerortelephoneline(below200Hz)

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• Self-synchronization
Tocorrectlyinterpretthesignalsreceivedfromthesender,thereceiver’sbitintervalsmust correspond
exactly to the sender’s bit intervals.
LackofSynchronization

• Built-inerrordetection
It is desirable to have a built-in error-detecting capability in the generated code to detect
some of or all the errors that occurred during transmission.
• Immunitytonoiseandinterference
Anotherdesirablecodecharacteristicisacodethatisimmunetonoiseandotherinterferences
• Complexity
Acomplexschemeismorecostlytoimplementthanasimpleone.
LineCodingSchemes

UnipolarScheme

• Onepolarity:onelevelofsignalvoltage

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• UnipolarNRZ(None-Return-to-Zero)issimple,but
– DCcomponent:Cannottravelthroughmicrowaveortransformer

– Synchronization:Consecutive0’sand1’sarehardtobesynchronized Separate line

for a clock pulse
– Normalizedpowerisdouble that forpolarNRZ

PolarScheme

• Twopolarity:twolevelsofvoltage
• ProblemofDCcomponentisalleviated(NRZ,RZ)oreliminated(Biphaze)

PolarNRZ

• NRZ-L(NonReturntoZero-Level)
– Levelofthevoltagedeterminesthevalueofthebit
• NRZ-I(NonReturntoZero-Invert)
– Inversionorthelackofinversiondeterminesthevalueofthebit

PolarNRZ:NRZ-LandNRZ-I

• Baselinewandering problem
– Both,butNRZ-Listwicesevere

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• SynchronizationProblem
– Both,butNRZ-Lismoreserious
• NRZ-LandNRZ-IbothhaveanaveragesignalrateofN/2Bd
• BothhaveaDCcomponentproblem
RZ

• Providessynchronizationforconsecutive0s/1s
• Signalchangesduringeachbit
• Threevalues(+,-,0)areused
– Bit1:positive-to-zerotransition,bit0:negative-to-zerotransition

Biphase

• CombinationofRZandNRZ-Lideas
• Signaltransitionatthemiddleofthebitisusedfor synchronization
• Manchester

– UsedforEthernetLAN
– Bit1:negative-to-positive transition
– Bit0:positive-to-negative transition
• DifferentialManchester

– UsedforToken-ringLAN
– Bit 1: no transition at the beginning of a bit
Bit 0: transition at the beginning of a bit
Polar Biphase
Minimumbandwidthis2timesthatofNRZ

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BipolarScheme

• Threelevelsofvoltage,called“multilevelbinary”
• Bit0:zerovoltage,bit 1:alternating +1/-1
– (Note)InRZ,zerovoltagehasnomeaning
• AMI(AlternateMarkInversion)andpseudoternary
– AlternativetoNRZwiththesamesignalrateandnoDCcomponentproblem

MultilevelScheme

• To increase the number of bits per baud byencoding a pattern of m data elements into a
pattern of n signal elements
• InmBnLschemes,apatternofmdataelementsisencodedasapatternofnsignalelementsin which
2m≤ Ln
• 2B1Q(twobinary,onequaternary)
• 8B6T(eightbinary,sixternary)
• 4D-PAM5(four-dimensionalfive-levelpulseamplitudemodulation)

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2B1Q:forDSL

8B6T

• Usedwith100Base-4Tcable
• Encodeapatternof8bitsasapatternof6(three-levels)signalelements
• 222redundantsignalelement=36(478among729)-28(256)
• Theaveragesignalrateistheoretically,Save=1/2xNx6/8;inpracticetheminimum
bandwidth is very close to 6N/8

4D-PAM5:forGigabitLAN

MultilineTransmission:MLT-3

• ThesignalrateforMLT-3isone-fourththebitrate

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• MLT-3 whenwe need to send 100Mbpsona copperwire thatcannotsupportmore than

32MHz

SummaryofLineCodingSchemes

BlockCoding
• Blockcodingcangiveredundancyandimprovetheperformanceoflinecoding.
• Blockcoding isnormallyreferred to asmB/nB coding; it replaceseach m-bitgroupwith an n- bit
group

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4B/5B

• SolvethesynchronizationproblemofNRZ-I
• 20%increasethesignalrateofNRZ-I(Biphaseschemehasthesignalrateof2timesthatof NRZ-I
• StillDCcomponentproblem

4B/5BMappingCodes

8B/10B

• 210–28=768redundantgroupsusedfordisparitycheckinganderrordetection

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Scrambling
• Biphase:notsuitableforlongdistancecommunicationduetoitswidebandwidthrequirement
• CombinationofblockcodingandNRZ:not suitableforlongdistanceencodingduetoitsDC
component problem
• BipolarAMI:synchronizationproblemScrambling
• Scramblingisatechniquethatdoesnotincreasethenumberofbitsanddoesprovide
synchronization.

B8ZS

• CommonlyusedinNorthAmerica
• UpdatedversionofAMIwithsynchronization
• Substituteseightconsecutivezeroswith000VB0VB
• Vdenotes“violation”,Bdenotes“bipolar”

HDB3

• High-densitybipolar3-zero
• CommonlyusedoutsideofNorthAmerica
• HDB3substitutesfourconsecutivezeroswith000VorB00Vdependingonthenumberof
nonzero pulses after the last substitution

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Visakhapatnam,

Analog-to-DigitalConversion
TwotechniquesforAnalogtoDigitalConversion
• PulseCodeModulation(PCM)and
• DeltaModulation(DM)

Analoginformation(e.g.,voice)digitalsignal (e.g.,10001011…) Codec(Coder/Decoder):

A/D converter

PCM

• PulseCodeModulation
• Themostcommontechnique tochangeananalog signaltodigitaldata (digitization)iscalled
pulse code modulation (PCM).
• Threeprocesses
– Theanalogsignalissampled
– Thesampledsignalisquantized
– Thequantizedvaluesareencodedasstreamsofbits
• Sampling:PAM(PulseamplitudeModulation)
– The first step in PCM is sampling. The analog signal is sampled every Ts s, where Ts is
the sample interval or period.
– Theinverseofthesamplingintervaliscalledthesamplingrateorsamplingfrequency
anddenotedbyfs,wherefs=l/Ts.
– Therearethreesamplingmethods—ideal,natural,andflat-top—asshown

– AccordingtotheNyquisttheorem,thesamplingratemustbeatleast2 timesthe
highest frequency contained in the signal.

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ComponentsofPCMEncoder

DifferentSamplingMethodsforPCM
NyquistSamplingRate

SamplingRate

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Quantization
• Theresultofsamplingisaseriesofpulseswithamplitudevaluesbetweenthemaximumand
minimum amplitudes of the signal.
• Thesetofamplitudescanbeinfinitewithnonintegralvaluesbetweenthetwolimits.These
values cannot be used in the encoding process.
Thefollowingarethestepsinquantization:
1 Weassumethattheoriginalanalogsignalhasinstantaneousamplitudesbetween
Vmin and Vmax
2 WedividetherangeintoLzones,eachofheightA(delta).

3. Weassignquantizedvaluesof0toL-1tothemidpointofeachzone.
4. Weapproximatethevalueofthesampleamplitudetothequantizedvalues.
Asasimpleexample,assumethatwehaveasampledsignalandthesampleamplitudesarebetween
-20and+20V.Wedecidetohaveeightlevels(L- 8).ThismeansthatA=5V.

• Quantizationlevel(L)
• Quantizationerror:dependingonL(ornb)
– SNRdB=6.02nb+1.76dB

• Nonuniformquantization:
– Compandingandexpanding

– EffectivelyreducetheSNRdB

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OriginalSignalRecovery:PCMDecoder

PCMBandwidth

• Themin.bandwidthofaline-encodedsignal
– Bmin=cxNx1/r=cxnbxfsx1/r
=cxnbx2xBanalogx1/r
=nbxBanalogwhere1/r=1,c=1/2

• Max.data rateofachannel
– Nmax=2xBxlog2Lbps

• Min.requiredbandwidth
Bmin=N/(2xlog2L)Hz

DeltaModulation
• ToreducethecomplexityofPCM,thesimplestisdeltamodulation.
• PCMfindsthe valueofthe signalamplitude foreachsample;DM findsthe changefromthe
previous sample.

DeltaModulationComponents

• The modulatorisusedatthe sendersiteto createastream of bitsfrom ananalog

signal.

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• Theprocessrecordsthesmallpositiveornegativechanges,calleddelta∆.Ifthedelta
ispositive,theprocessrecordsa1;ifitisnegative,theprocessrecordsa0.
• However,theprocessneedsabaseagainstwhichtheanalogsignaliscompared.
• The modulator builds a second signal that resembles a staircase. Finding the change
isthen reduced to comparing the input signal with the gradually made staircase
signal.

• Themodulator,ateachsamplinginterval,comparesthevalueoftheanalogsignalwith the
last value of the staircase signal. If the amplitude of the analog signal is larger,
the next bitin the digitaldata is 1;otherwise, it is 0.
• Theoutputofthecomparator,however,alsomakesthestaircaseitself.Ifthenextbitis 1, the
staircase maker moves the last point of the staircase signal ∆ up; it the next bit is 0, it
moves it ∆ down.
Demodulator

• The demodulator takes the digital data and, using the staircase maker and the delay
unit, creates the analog signal.
• Thecreatedanalogsignal,however,needstopassthroughalow-passfilterfor
smoothing.
DeltaDemodulationComponents

TransmissionModes
• The transmissionof binarydata acrossa link can be accomplished in
eitherparallel or serial mode.
• Inparallelmode,multiplebitsaresentwitheachclocktick.
• Inserialmode,1bitissentwitheachclocktick.

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ParallelTransmission
• The mechanism for parallel transmission is a conceptually simple one: Use n wires to
send n bits at one time synchronously
• That way each bit has its own wire, andall nbits of one group can be transmitted with
each clock tick from one device to another.
• Advantage:speed
• Paralleltransmissioncanincreasethetransferspeedbyafactorofnoverserialtransmissio
n
• Disadvantage:costLimitedtoshortdistances
• Parallel transmission requires n communication lines (wires in the example) just to
transmit the data stream. Because this is expensive, parallel transmission is usually
limited to short distances

SerialTransmission
• Inserial transmission one bit follows another,so we needonly one communication
channel rather than n to transmit data between two communicating devices
• Advantage: reduced cost: Theadvantageof serialoverparalleltransmissionisthatwithonly one
communication channel, serial transmission reduces the cost of transmission over
parallel by roughly a factor of n

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• Parallel/serial converter is required : Sincecommunicationwithin devices is parallel,

conversion devices are required at the interface between the sender and the line
(parallel-to-serial)andbetweenthelineandthereceiver(serial-to-parallel).
• Serial transmission occurs in one ofthree ways: asynchronous, synchronous, or
isochronous

AsynchronousTransmission
• Usestartbit(0)andstopbits(1s):

• Toalertthereceivertothearrivalofanewgroup,therefore,anextra
bitisaddedtothebeginningofeachbyte.Thisbit,usuallya0,iscalledthe
startbit
• To let the receiver know that the byte is finished, 1 or more additional bits are
appended to the end of the byte. These bits, usually 1s, are called stop bits.
• Bythismethod,eachbyteisincreasedinsizetoatleast 10bits,ofwhich8bitsis
information and 2 bits ormore are signals to the receiver.
• A gap between two bytes: idle state or stop bits: The transmission of each byte may
then be followed by a gap of varying duration. This gap can be represented either
byan idle channel or by a stream of additional stop bits
• Itmeansasynchronous atbyte level:Thestartandstopbitsandthegapalertthereceiver to
the beginning and end of each byte and allow it to synchronize with the data stream.
This mechanismis called asynchronous because, at the byte level, the sender and
receiver do not have to be synchronized.
• Muststillbesynchronizedatbitlevel

• Good for low-speed communications (terminal):it

ischeapandeffective,twoadvantages that make it an attractive choice for
situations such as low-speed communication.

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SynchronousTransmission
• Bit stream is combined into “frames”: In synchronous transmission, the bit stream is
combined into longer “frames,” which may contain multiple bytes.
• In synchronoustransmission,we send bitsone afteranotherwithoutstartor stop bitsor gaps. It is
the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits
• Specialsequenceof1/0betweenframes:Nogap
• Timingisimportantinmidstream
• Bytesynchronizationinthedatalinklayer

• Advantage: speed high-speed transmission: The advantage of synchronous transmission is

speed. With no extra bits or gaps to introduce at the sending end and remove at the receiving
end, and, by extension, with fewerbits to move across the link, synchronous transmission is faster
than asynchronous transmission.

Isochronous
• In real-time audio and video,in which uneven delays between framesare notacceptable,
synchronous transmission fails.
• For example, TV images are broadcast at the rate of 30 images per second; they must be viewed
at the same rate.
• Theisochronoustransmissionguaranteesthatthedataarriveatafixedrate.
AnalogTransmission
1. Digital-to-AnalogConversion
2. Analog-to-AnalogConversion

Converting digital data to a bandpass analog signal .is traditionally called digital-to-analog
conversion. Converting a low-pass analog signal to a bandpass analog signal is traditionally
called analog-to-analog conversion.

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Digital-to-AnalogConversion
• Digital-to-analog conversionistheprocessofchanging oneofthecharacteristicsofananalog
signal based on the information in digital data
• asinewaveisdefinedbythreecharacteristics:amplitude,frequency,andphase.

TypesofDigital-to-AnalogModulation

Anyof thethreecharacteristicscanbealteredinthiswaygivingthreemechanismsformodulating
digitaldataintoanalogsignal:amplitudeshiftkeying(ASK),frequencyshiftkeying(FSK),and
phase shift keying (PSK).
AspectsofD/AConversion

• Dataelementversussignalelement
• Datarate(bitrate)versussignalrate(baudrate)
– S=Nx1/rbaud
S(signalrate),N(datarate),
r(numberofdataelementinonesignalelement)

– Bitrate:bitspersecond(inbps)
– Baudrate:signalelementspersecond(inbaud)

– Bitratebaudrate

• Carriersignal(carrierfrequency)
– High-frequencysignalusedtomodulatetheinformation
Modulatedsignal:informationmodulatedbythecarriersignal

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ASK:BinaryASK
In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal elements.
Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes.
BASKor OOK(on-offkeying)
BandwidthforASK:B=(1+d)xS

ImplementationofBinaryASK

FSK:BinaryFSK
In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent data. The
frequency of themodulatedsignal is constant for the duration of one signal element, but changes for
the next signal element if the data element changes. Both peak amplitude and phase remain
constant for all signal elements.

BandwidthforASK:B=(1+d)xS+2Δf

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ImplementationofBinaryFSK

PSK:BinaryPSK
Inphaseshiftkeying,thephaseofthecarrierisvariedtorepresenttwoormoredifferentsignal
elements.Bothpeakamplitudeandfrequencyremainconstantasthephasechanges.
Bandwidth:thesameasBASK,B=(1+d) xS Less
than that for BFSK

ImplementationofBinaryPSK

Analog-to-AnalogModulation
 Analog-to-analogconversionistherepresentationofanaloginformationbyananalogsignal
 Modulationisneededifthemediumisbandpassinnatureorifonlyabandpasschannelis
available to us. An example is radio.
 Analog-to-analogconversioncanbeaccomplishedinthreeways:amplitudemodulation(AM),
frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM)

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AmplitudeModulation
In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with the changing
amplitudesof themodulatingsignal. The frequencyand phase of thecarrierremainthesame;only the
amplitude changes to follow variations in theinformation.
ThetotalbandwidthrequiredforAMcanbedeterminedfromthebandwidthoftheaudiosignal:BAM
=2B.

FrequencyModulation
In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage
level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and phase of the carrier signal
remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of the carrier
changes correspondingly.
The total bandwidth required for FM can be determined from the bandwidth of the audio signal: B FM=
2(1 + β)B.

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FMBandAllocation

 Bandwidthofanaudiosignal(speechandmusic)broadcastinstereoisalmost15kH
 FCCallows200kHzforeachstation(β=4withsomeextraguardband)
 Separatedbyatleast200kHz

PhaseModulation
In PM transmission,the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage level
(amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remain
constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the phase of the carrierchanges
correspondingly.
The total bandwidth required for PM can be determined from the bandwidth and maximum amplitude
of the modulating signal: BPM= 2(1 + β)B.

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BandwidthUtilization:MultiplexingandSpreading
1. Multiplexing:Sometimesweneedtocombineseverallow-bandwidthchannelstomakeuseof one
channel with a larger bandwidth.
2. SpreadSpectrum:Sometimesweneedtoexpandthebandwidthofachanneltoachievegoals such
as privacy and antijamming.
BandwidthUtilization

• Bandwidthutilizationisthewiseuseofavailablebandwidthtoachievespecificgoals.
• Twocategories:multiplexingandspreading
• Efficiencycanbeachievedbymultiplexing
• Privacyandanti-jammingcanbeachievedbyspreading.
Multiplexing

• Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devicesisgreater than the bandwidth needs
of the devices, the link can be shared.

• Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple
signals across a single data link.
• Inamultiplexedsystem,nlinessharethebandwidthofonelink.Figureshowsthebasicformat
ofamultiplexedsystem.Thelinesontheleftdirecttheirtransmissionstreamstoamultiplexer
(MUX),whichcombinesthemintoasinglestream(many-to-one).
• Atthereceivingend,thatstreamisfedintoademultiplexer(DEMUX),whichseparatesthe
streambackintoitscomponenttransmissions(one-to-many)anddirectsthem totheir
corresponding lines.

CategoriesofMultiplexing

FrequencyDivisionMultiplexing

• FDMisananalogmultiplexingtechniquethatcombinesanalogsignals

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• In FDM,signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier frequencies. These
modulated signalsare then combined into a single composite signalthatcan be transported by
thelink.Carrierfrequenciesareseparatedbysufficientbandwidthtoaccommodatethe
modulated signal.
• Signalsmodulate differentcarrierfrequencies
• Modulatedsignalsarecombinedintoacompositesignal
• Channel-Bandwidthrangetoaccommodateamodulatedsignal
• Channelscanbeseparatedbystripsofunusedbandwidth(guardband)toprevent
overlapping of signals

FDMProcess

• Figure is a conceptual illustration ofthe multiplexing process. Each source generates a signal of a
similar frequency range.
• Insidethemultiplexer,thesesimilarsignalsmodulatesdifferentcarrierfrequencies(f1,f2andf3).
• Theresultingmodulatedsignalsarethencombinedintoasinglecompositesignalthatissent outover a media
link that has enough bandwidth to accommodate it.

FDMDemultiplexingProcess
Thedemultiplexerusesaseriesoffilterstodecomposethemultiplexedsignalintoitsconstituent
component signals. The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them from
their carriers and passes them to the output lines.

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TimeDivisionMultiplexing
Time-divisionmultiplexing(TDM)is adigitalprocessthatallows severalconnectionstosharethehighbandwidth
of a link
• Digitalmultiplexingtechniqueforcombiningseverallow-ratechannelsintoonehigh-rateone
• InsteadofsharingaportionofthebandwidthasinFDM,timeisshared.Eachconnectionoccupiesa portion
of time in the link.

TDM:TimeSlotsandFrames
• InsynchronousTDM,thedatarateofthelinkisntimesfaster,andtheunitdurationisntimes shorter
• In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment in output even it is not sending the
data.
• InsynchronousTDM, thedata flowof each inputconnectionisdivided into units, where
eachinputoccupiesoneinputtimeslot.
• Thedurationofanoutputtimeslotisntimesshorterthanthedurationofaninputtimeslot.If aninput
time slot is T s, theoutput time slot is T/n s, where n is thenumber of connections.
• InsynchronousTDM,aroundofdataunitsfromeachinputconnectioniscollectedintoaframe
• Ifwehavenconnections,aframeisdividedintontime slotsandoneslotisallocatedforeach
unit,oneforeachinputline.IfthedurationoftheinputunitisT,thedurationofeachslotisT/n

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andthedurationofeachframeisT.

Interleaving
• TDM can be visualized as two fast rotating switches, one on the multiplexing side and the other on
the demultiplexing side.
• Theswitchesaresynchronizedandrotateatthesamespeed,butinoppositedirections.Onthe
multiplexingside,astheswitchopensinfrontofaconnection,thatconnectionhastheopportunityto send a
unit onto thepath. This process is called interleaving.
• Onthedemultiplexingside,astheswitchopensinfrontofaconnection,thatconnectionhasthe
opportunity to receive a unit from the path.
• Interleavingcanbedonebybit,bybyte,orbyanyotherdataunit
• Theinterleavedunitisofthesamesizeinagivensystem

TDM:Example2

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EmptySlots
SynchronousTDMisnotasefficientasitcouldbe.Ifasourcedoesnothavedatatosend,the
correspondingslotin theoutput frameisempty.Figureshowsacaseinwhichoneof theinputlineshas
nodatatosendandoneslotinanotherinputlinehas discontinuousdata.
• SynchronousTDMisnotefficientinmanycases
• StatisticalTDMcanimprovetheefficiencybyremovingtheemptyslotfromthe frame

DataRateManagement

• Tohandleadisparityintheinputdatarates
• Multilevelmultiplexing,multiple-slotallocationandpulsestuffing

• Multilevelmultiplexing

FrameSynchronizing

• SynchronizationbetweenthemultiplexinganddemultiplexingisamajorissueinTDM

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StatisticalTDM

• AddressingisrequiredinStatisticalTDM
• Slotsize:theratioofthedatasizetoaddresssizemustbereasonabletomaketransmission
efficient
• Nosynchronizationbit:noneedforframe-levelsync.
• Bandwidth:normallylessthanthesumofthecapacitiesofeachchannel

SpreadSpectrum
• Combine signals from different sources to fit into a larger bandwidth to prevent
eavesdropping and jamming by adding redundancy

CDM

• Onechannelcarriesalltransmissionssimultaneously
• Letusassume we have four stations1,2, 3,and 4 connected to the same channel. The data
from station 1 are d1, from station 2 are d2,and so on. The code assigned to the first station
isc1,tothesecondisc2,andsoon.Weassumethattheassignedcodeshavetwoproperties.
1. Ifwemultiply eachcodebyanother,weget0.
2. Ifwemultiplyeachcodebyitself,weget4(thenumberofstations).

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• Two properties: If we multiply each code by another,we get 0. If we multiplyeach codeby

itself, we get 4

• Data=(d1.c1+d2.c2+d3.c3+d4.c4).c1
=d1.c1.c1+d2.c2.c1+d3.c3.c1+d4.c4.c1=4.d1

CDMA:Chips
• Sequenceofnumberscalledchips

• Orthogonalsequenceshavethefollowingproperties:
– EachsequenceismadeofNelements,whereNisthenumberofstations
– Ifwemultiplyasequencebyanumber,everyelementinthesequenceismultipliedby that
element (scalar multiplication)

– If we multiplytwo equalsequence, elementbyelement, and add theresults, weget N

(inner product)
– If we multiply two different sequence, element byelement, and add the results, we get
0
– Adding twosequence meansaddingthe corresponding elements.Theresultisanother
sequence
• DatarepresentationinCDMA

CDMA:EncodingandDecoding

• Showhowfourstationssharethelinkduringa1-bitinterval

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CDMA:SignalLevel
• DigitalsignalcreatedbyfourstationsinCDMAusingNRZ-Lforsimplicity

CDMA:Decoding

• Showhowstation3candetectthedatabystation2byusingthecodeforstation2
• DecodingofthecompositesignalforoneinCDMA

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TransmissionMedia
1. GuidedMedia
2. UnguidedMedia:Wireless
TransmissionMedium&PhysicalLayer
• A transmission medium can be broadly defined asanything that can carry information froma
source to a destination.
• Electromagnetic energy, a combination of electric and magnetic fields vibrating in relation to each
other, includes power, radio waves, infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet light, and X, gamma, and
cosmic rays. Each of these constitutes a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

ClassesofTransmissionMedia
Intelecommunications,transmissionmediacanbedividedintotwobroad categories:guidedand
unguided.Guidedmediaincludetwisted-paircable,coaxialcable,andfiber-opticcable.Unguided
medium is free space.

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Twisted-pairCable
Atwistedpairconsistsoftwoconductors(normallycopper),eachwithitsownplasticinsulation,twisted
together, as shown in Figure

• Oneofthewiresisusedtocarry signals tothereceiver, andtheotherisusedonlyasa ground

reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.
• Inadditiontothesignalsentbythesenderononeofthewires,interference(noise)andcrosstalk may
affect both wires and create unwanted signals.
ParallelFlatWire
Ifthe two wiresare parallel,the effectofthese unwanted signalsisnotthe same in both wiresbecause
theyareatdifferentlocationsrelativeto thenoiseor crosstalksources(e.g.,one is closer andthe other is
farther). This results in a difference at the receiver. By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained.
• Electromagneticinterferencecancreatenoise
• Thenoiseoverparallelwiresresultsinanunevenloadandadamagedsignal

NoiseEffectonTwisted-Pair

• Cumulativeeffectofnoiseisequalonboth sides
• Twistingdoesnotalwayseliminatethenoise,butdoessignificantlyreduceit

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UTPandSTPCables

Themostcommontwisted-paircableusedincommunicationsisreferredtoasunshieldedtwisted-pair
(UTP). IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use called shielded twisted pair
(STP).STPcablehasametalfoilorbraided-meshcoveringthatencaseseachpairofinsulated
conductors. Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise
or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.
CategoriesofUTPCables

UTPConnector

• RJ45(RJstandsforregisteredjack)

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UTPPerformance

• One way to measure the performance of twisted-pair cable is to compare attenuation

versus frequency and distance. A twisted-pair cable can pass a wide range of frequencies.
• Figure shows that with increasing frequency, the attenuation, measured in decibels per kilometer
(dB/km),sharplyincreaseswithfrequenciesabove100kHz.Notethatgaugeisameasureofthe
thickness of the wire.
Applications
• Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. The
local loop-—the line that connects subscribers to the central telephone office—commonly
consists of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
• TheDSLlinesthatareusedbythetelephonecompaniestoprovidehigh-data-rateconnectionsalso use
the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
• Local-areanetworks,suchaslOBase-Tand100Base-T,alsousetwisted-paircables.
CoaxialCable

• Carriessignalsofhigherfrequencyrangesthanthoseintwisted-paircable
• Instead ofhaving two wires, coaxhasa central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually
copper)enclosedinaninsulatingsheath,whichis,inturn,encasedinanouterconductorofmetal foil,
braid, or a combination of the two.
• Theoutermetallicwrappingservesbothasashieldagainstnoiseandasthesecondconductor, which
completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the
wholecableisprotectedbyaplasticcover

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CategoriesofCoaxialCables

BNCConnectors
Bayone-Neil-Concelman(BNC)connector

CoaxialCablePerformance

• Theattenuationismuchhigherincoaxialcablesthanintwisted-paircable.
• Coaxial cable hasa much higher bandwidth, the signal weakensrapidly and requires the frequent
use of repeaters

OpticalFiber

• Opticalfiberismadeofglassorplastic
• Ittransmitssignalsintheformoflight
TheNatureofLight

• Thespeedof light
– 300,000Km/secinavacuum
– Dependsonthedensityofthemediumthroughwhichitistraveling
• Otherpropertiesoflight

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Refraction, Critical angle, Reflection

Bending of Light Ray

OpticalFiber

Aglassorplasticcoreissurroundedbyacladdingoflessdenseglassorplastic.Thedifferencein
densityofthetwomaterialsmustbesuchthatabeamoflightmovingthroughthecoreisreflectedoff the
cladding instead of being refracted into it.
PropagationModes

Modes
• Currenttechnology supportstwo modes (single mode and multimode) for propagating lightalong
optical channels, each requiring fiber with different physical characteristics.
• Multimode:Multimodeissonamedbecausemultiplebeamsfromalightsourcemovethroughthe core
in different paths.
• In multimodestep-indexfiber, the density ofthe core remainsconstantfrom thecenterto the
edges.Abeamof light moves throughthis constant densityin a straight lineuntil itreaches theinterface
of thecoreandthecladding.Attheinterface,thereisanabruptchangeduetoalowerdensity;this
alterstheangleof thebeam’smotion. Theterm step indexreferstothe suddennessof thischange,
whichcontributestothedistortionofthesignalasitpassesthroughthefiber.
• A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this distortion of the
signal through the cable. The word index here refers to the index of refraction. A graded-index

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fiber,therefore,isonewithvaryingdensities.Densityishighestatthecenterofthe coreand decreases

gradually to its lowest at the edge.
• Single-Mode usesstep-indexfiberandahighlyfocusedsourceoflightthatlimitsbeamstoasmall range
of angles, all close to the horizontal.

FiberTypes

FiberConstruction

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Fiber-opticCableConnectors
SC(subscriberchannel)connectorusedforcableTV.Itusespush/pulllockingsystem
ST(straight-tip)connectorusedfor connectingcabletonetworkingdevice.Itusesareliablebayonet locking
system
MT-RJisthesamesizeasRJ45

OpticalFiberPerformance

Advantages/DisadvantagesofOpticalFiber
• Advantages

– Higherbandwidth
– Lesssignalattenuation
– Immunitytoelectromagneticinterference
– Resistancetocorrosivematerials
– Lightweight
– Greaterimmunityto tapping

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• Disadvantages
– Installationandmaintenance
– Unidirectionallightpropagation
– Cost
UnguidedMedia

• Unguidedmediatransportelectromagneticwaveswithoutusingaphysicalconductor.Thistypeof
communicationisoftenreferredtoaswirelesscommunication.
• Signalsare normallybroadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone who has a
device capable of receiving them.
ElectromagneticSpectrumforwireless

PropagationMethods
Unguidedsignalscantravelfromthe source todestinationinseveralways:groundpropagation,sky
propagation, and line-of-sight propagation, as shown in Figure

In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the
earth. These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the transmitting antenna and follow
thecurvatureoftheplanet.Distancedependsontheamountofpowerinthesignal:Thegreaterthe power,
the greater the distance.
Inskypropagation,higher-frequencyradiowavesradiateupwardintotheionosphere(thelayer of
atmospherewhereparticlesexistasions)wheretheyarereflectedbacktoearth. Thistypeof
transmission allows for greater distances with lower output power.

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In line-of-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from
antennatoantenna.Antennasmustbedirectional,facingeachother,andeithertallenoughorclose enough
together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth.
Bands

WirelessTransmissionWaves

• Electromagneticwavesranginginfrequenciesbetween3kHzand1GHzarenormallycalled
radiowaves;wavesranginginfrequenciesbetween1and300GHzarecalledmicrowaves

• Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television, and paging
systems
• Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves,
they are propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do
not have to be aligned. A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving
antenna.

• Radio waves, particularly thosewavesthatpropagateintheskymode,cantravel long

distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting such as
AM radio.
• Radiowaves,particularlythoseoflowandmediumfrequencies,canpenetratewalls.

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• This characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is an advantage

because,forexample,anAMradiocanreceivesignalsinsideabuilding.Itisadisadvantage
becausewecannotisolateacommunicationtojustinsideoroutsideabuilding.
Applications
The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting, in which there is one
sender but many receivers. AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging
are examples of multicasting.
Microwaves

• Electromagneticwaveshavingfrequenciesbetween 1and300GHzarecalledmicrowaves.
• Microwavesareunidirectional.Whenanantennatransmitsmicrowavewaves,theycanbe
narrowlyfocused.Thismeansthatthesendingandreceivingantennasneedtobealigned.
• The unidirectional propertyhas an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned
without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
• Thefollowingdescribessomecharacteristicsofmicrowavepropagation:
Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas need
tobeindirectsightofeachother,towersthatarefarapartneedtobeverytall.Thecurvature
oftheearthaswellasother blockingobstaclesdo notallow two shorttowersto communicate by
using microwaves. Repeaters are often needed for long distance communication.
• Veryhigh-frequencymicrowavescannotpenetratewalls.
• Themicrowavebandisrelativelywide,almost299GHz,ahighdatarateispossible
• Useofcertainportionsofthebandrequirespermissionfromauthorities.
• Microwavesareusedforunicastcommunicationsuchascellulartelephones,satellitenetworks, and
wireless LANs
Omnidirectional&UnidirectionalAntennas

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Applications
• Microwaves,duetotheirunidirectionalproperties,areveryusefulwhenunicast(one-to-one)
communication is needed between the sender andthe receiver.
• Theyareusedincellularphones,satellitenetworks,andwirelessLANs
Infrared

• Infraredsignalscanbeusedforshort-rangecommunicationinaclosedareausingline-of-sight
propagation
• Infrared waveswith frequenciesfrom300 GHzto 400 THzfor short-range communication in a
closed area using line-of-sight propagation

• Havinghighfrequencies,itcannotpenetratewalls
• IrDA(InfraredDataAssociation)forstandards
• Example:IrDAportforwirelesskeyboard
– Originallydefinedadatarateof 75 kbpsforadistanceupto 8m
– Recentstandard foradatarateof 4Mbps
• Thisadvantageouscharacteristicpreventsinterferencebetweenonesystemandanother;a
short-rangecommunicationsysteminoneroomcannotbeaffectedbyanothersysteminthe next
room.

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