Respiratory System

Introduction
• Breathing is an involuntary event that helps organisms exchange oxygen (O2) and carbon
dioxide (CO2).
• The respiratory center in the brain regulates the frequency and volume of breaths.
• On average, humans breathe approximately 15 times per minute.

Respiratory Cycle
• A respiratory cycle consists of inhalation and exhalation.
• Inhalation: Oxygenated air fills the lungs.
• Exhalation: Deoxygenated air is expelled from the lungs.
• Oxygen crosses the lung tissue, enters the bloodstream, and travels to organs and tissues.
• Carbon dioxide is released as a by-product and must be eliminated through exhalation.

Function of the Respiratory System

• The primary function is to deliver oxygen to the body's cells and remove carbon dioxide.
• Main structures: nasal cavity, trachea, and lungs.
• All aerobic organisms require oxygen for metabolic functions.

Evolutionary Adaptations
• Different organisms have evolved different methods of obtaining oxygen from the atmosphere.
• The environment and size of the organism influence the complexity of the respiratory system.
• Diffusion is sufficient for small organisms, while larger organisms require specialized
respiratory tissues (gills, lungs, respiratory passages) and a complex circulatory system.

Direct Diffusion
For small multicellular organisms, diffusion across the outer membrane is sufficient to meet their
oxygen needs.

Gas Exchange by Direct Diffusion

Gas exchange occurs across surface membranes through direct diffusion. This process is efficient for
organisms less than 1 mm in diameter. In simple organisms, such as cnidarians and flatworms, every
cell in the body is close to the external environment. Their cells are kept moist so that gases diffuse
quickly via direct diffusion. Flatworms are small, literally flat worms, which 'breathe' through diffusion
across the outer membrane. The flat shape of these organisms increases the surface area for diffusion,
ensuring that each cell within the body is close to the outer membrane surface and has access to oxygen.
If the flatworm had a cylindrical body, then the cells in the center would not be able to get oxygen.
Diffusion is a process in which material travels from regions of high concentration to low concentration
until equilibrium is reached. In the case of oxygen transport in animals, such as fish and insects,
diffusion plays a crucial role.

Skin, Gills, and Tracheal Systems

Respiration can occur using a variety of respiratory organs in different animals, including skin, gills,
and tracheal systems.

Skin
Gas exchange is an essential process for animals to obtain oxygen. Different animals use different
methods for this. In mammals, air is taken in through the external environment and passes into the lungs
for gas exchange. However, some animals, like earthworms and amphibians, rely on their skin
(integument) as a respiratory organ. Their skin has a network of capillaries just beneath it, allowing for
gas exchange between the external environment and the circulatory system. To support this exchange,
the respiratory surface must stay moist so that gases can dissolve and diffuse across cell membranes.
Gills
Animals that live in water face a similar need for oxygen. While water does contain some dissolved
oxygen, it is present at a lower concentration compared to the atmosphere, which has about 21 percent
oxygen. To extract oxygen from water, fish and many other aquatic organisms have evolved gills. Gills
are thin tissue filaments that are highly branched and folded, providing a large surface area for efficient
gas exchange. When water passes over the gills, oxygen rapidly diffuses from the water into the
bloodstream. The circulatory system then carries the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. In
animals that have coelomic fluid instead of blood, oxygen diffuses across the gill surfaces into the
coelomic fluid. Gills are found in various aquatic animals, including mollusks, annelids, crustaceans,
and fish. Let's take the common carp as an example. This fish, like many other aquatic organisms, relies
on its gills to extract oxygen from the water. The folded surfaces of the gills provide a large surface
area to ensure that fish can obtain enough oxygen to meet their needs.

Oxygen Transport in Fish

In fish, blood with a low concentration of oxygen molecules circulates through the gills. The
concentration of oxygen molecules in water is higher than in the gills. As a result, oxygen molecules
diffuse from water (high concentration) to blood (low concentration). Similarly, carbon dioxide
molecules diffuse from the blood (high concentration) to water (low concentration). This exchange of
gases helps in respiration and provides oxygen to the fish's body.

Tracheal Systems
Insects, on the other hand, have a specialized respiratory
system called the tracheal system. Unlike fish, insect
respiration is independent of their circulatory system. The
tracheal system consists of a network of small tubes made of
a material called chitin. These tubes carry oxygen directly to
the entire body of the insect. Insects have openings called
spiracles, located along the thorax and abdomen. These
spiracles connect to the tubular network of the tracheal system.
Air enters and leaves the tracheal system through these
spiracles, allowing for the exchange of gases and the
regulation of CO2 and water vapor diffusion. The tracheal
system in insects is very efficient and allows for direct oxygen
transport without the need for blood. Some insects can even
ventilate their tracheal system through body movements,
ensuring a constant supply of oxygen to their bodies.
Amphibian Respiration
• Young Amphibians:
• Tadpoles use gills to breathe.
• They need to stay in the water.
• Transition to Adult:
• Tadpoles grow lungs and lose their gills.
• Some amphibians keep their gills for life.
• Adult amphibians have primitive lungs.
• They lack or have a reduced diaphragm.
• Breathing Methods:
• Amphibians can breathe through their lungs.
• Diffusion across the skin is another method.
• Skin and Respiration:
• Amphibian skin must remain moist.
• Moist skin aids in gaseous exchange.
• This is beneficial underwater.
• Moist skin can be a challenge on land.

Avian Respiration
Birds have a unique respiratory system that sets them apart from other vertebrates.

Small Lungs and Air Sacs

Birds have relatively small lungs compared to their body size. Additionally, they have nine air sacs that
play a crucial role in respiration. These air sacs help with air circulation and act as reservoirs of fresh
air, ensuring efficient oxygen exchange.

Gas Exchange in Birds

Unlike mammals, birds do not have alveoli in their lungs for gas exchange. Instead, gas exchange occurs
between air capillaries and blood capillaries. This allows for the transfer of oxygen from the air to the
bloodstream and the removal of carbon dioxide.

Respiration and Flight

Flight requires a significant amount of energy, so birds need plenty of oxygen to sustain their metabolic
processes. To meet this demand, birds have evolved a specialized respiratory system. Like mammals,
they have lungs that facilitate gas exchange. During inhalation, oxygenated air enters the lungs and
diffuses into the bloodstream. Carbon dioxide, a waste product, diffuses from the blood into the lungs
and is then expelled during exhalation. The details of bird respiration differ from those of mammals.
Mammalian Respiratory System
Pulmonary Ventilation
In mammals, the process of breathing begins with inhalation, where air enters the body through the
nasal cavity. The air is warmed to body temperature and humidified as it passes through the nasal cavity.
The respiratory tract is protected by mucus, which helps to trap particulates and prevent damage to the
trachea and lungs.

Airway Passage
From the nasal cavity, the air passes through the pharynx and the larynx before reaching the trachea.
The trachea serves as a pathway for inhaled air to reach the lungs and exhaled air to leave the body.

Lung Structure
As air enters the lungs, it travels through a series of branching tubes called bronchi. The bronchi divide
into smaller bronchioles, which further divide within the lungs. At the end of these divisions are the
alveoli, which are tiny air sacs surrounded by capillaries. The thin walls of the alveoli allow for efficient
gas exchange between the air and the bloodstream.

Protective Mechanisms
To protect the lungs from harm, both birds and mammals have certain mechanisms in place. These
include sneezing and coughing, which help to expel foreign particles from the respiratory system. In
the nasal cavity, hairs and mucus trap small particles, viruses, bacteria, dust, and dirt, preventing them
from entering further into the respiratory system. Additionally, the lungs produce mucus to trap
particulates, and cilia help move the mucus and particles out of the bronchi and bronchioles. These
protective mechanisms ensure that the respiratory system remains healthy and free from potential
damage.