Name __________________________________ Date _________

Algebra 2 Unit 7: Polynomial Functions Notes

Polynomial Identities

Polynomials are expressions consisting of addition and subtraction of variables and coefficients all raised to
non-negative, integer powers. As in the last few lessons, there can be a single variable or multiple variables.

Example 1 Which of the following is not a polynomial expression? Explain why your choice fails to be a
polynomial.
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(1) x 3 +2 x 2 y+ y 3 (2) x 7 + y 7 (3) x−4 y 2 +2 x y 2 (4) x 2− y 2

Because polynomials consist of basic operations on variables, they can be manipulated using the associative,
commutative, and distributive properties (as you have done many times). These operations can result in what
are known as polynomial identities. An identity is defined more broadly below:

IDENTITIES

An identity is an equation that is true for all values of the replacement variable or variables.

Example 2 One identity that you should be familiar with is: x 2− y 2=( x− y )( x + y ) . This is the factoring
method called “Difference of Perfect Squares” (DPS).

(a) Test this identity with the pair x = 10 and y = 3. HINT: Plug in x = 10 and y = 3, make sure left side =
right side.

(b) Prove this identity by manipulating the right side of the equation.

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 2 2
(c) Use this identity only (no calculator) to evaluate the difference: 50 −49

(d) Use this identity only (no calculator) to simplify and then evaluate the product: (51)(49).

Example 3 Prove the identity: ¿ and use it only (no calculator) to evaluate 352 . HINT: Manipulate the left
side to equal the right side.

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Sometimes identities can have geometric connections as well as algebraic. The Pythagorean Theorem gives us
ample identities.

Example 4 A right triangle is shown below whose sides are 2 x , x 2−1 ,∧x 2 +1.

(a) Show that these will be the side lengths of a right triangle
as long as x >1. HINT: Show that
2 2 2 2 2
(2 x) +(x −1) =( x +1) is an identity.
x2 + 1
2x

x2 – 1

(b) Based on your work from (a) and on the triangle shown, explain why any even integer (other than 2)
must be part of a Pythagorean triple (a set of 3 integers that could be the sides of a right triangle).
Generate a Pythagorean triple that has 10 in it and a separate one that has 14 in it.

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Example 5 Consider the polynomial identity: (a+ b)3=a 3+3 a2 b +3 a b2 +b 3 .

(a) Prove this identity by expanding the left-hand side of the equation.

(b) Use your calculator to find the value of 113 . Then, use the identity only (no calculator) to show the
same result. Carefully consider your choice of a and b.

Example 6 Algebraically prove that the difference of the squares of any two consecutive integers is an odd
integer. HINT: Remember that consecutive integers increase by 1 (x, x + 1, x + 2…)

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 Binomial Theorem and a French Triangle?

The Binomial Theorem is a quick way (okay, it's a less slow way) of expanding (or multiplying out) a binomial
expression that has been raised to some (generally large) power. For instance, the expression (3x – 2)10 would be
very painful to multiply out by hand. Thankfully, somebody figured out a formula for this expansion, and we
can plug the binomial 3x – 2 and the power 10 into that formula to get that expanded (multiplied-out) form. So,
what does this have to do with a French Triangle…everything. Enter (drumroll please)…Blaise Pascal! This
French mathematician (philosopher, physicist, etc, alive in the mid-1600’s) found a numerical pattern,
called Pascal's Triangle, for quickly expanding a binomial like the ones above. It is illustrated below:

The first row is one 1. Then we have two 1s. After that, things get interesting. The outsides of the triangle are
always 1, but the insides are different. To find the number on the next row, add the two numbers above it
together. See, 2 = 1 + 1; for the row under that, we have 1 (outer edge), 3 (2 + 1 from above), 3 (ditto), and 1
(the other edge). Every row is built from the row above it.

Pascal's Triangle gives us the coefficients for an expanded binomial of the form (a + b)n, where n is the row of
the triangle. The Binomial Theorem tells us we can use these coefficients to find the entire expanded binomial.

What about the variables and their exponents, though? The Binomial Theorem has us covered. At the left side
of the triangle, we have anb0 = an. As we move to the right, we subtract 1 from a's exponent and add it to b's. It's
like b keeps stealing exponents from a, one at a time, until he's got them all.

Pascal doesn't tell us about the sign of each term, though. So, when a binomial has a "+" sign, such as
(a + b)2, all of the terms of the expansion are positive. When we expand a binomial with a "–" sign, such as
(a – b)5, the first term of the expansion is positive and the successive terms will alternate signs.

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Example 7 Expand (x – y)4

Example 8 (n + 2m)5

Example 9 What is the 4th term in the expansion of (x + 3y)8 ? Do we really have to expand it all out…?

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 Power Functions

b
A power function is any function of the form f ( x )=ax where a and b are real numbers not equal to zero.

The characteristics of power functions depend on both the value of a and the value of b. The most important,
though, is the exponent (the a is simply a vertical stretch or compression of the power function). For this unit
we will stay with the exponent, b, being a whole number.

Example 10 Fill in the following table for the values of the most common power functions. Don’t forget to
2 2
put negative numbers in parenthesizes before applying an exponent. −3 ≠(−3 )

Example 11 Use your calculator along with example 7 to make a quick sketch of each power function below.

(a) y= x (b) y=x 2 (c) y=x 3

(d) y=x 4 (e) y=x 5

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Example 12 Use example 7 and 8 to answer the following.
Remember:
EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS
A function is known as even if f (−x )=f ( x ) for every value of x in the domain of f ( x ) . Symmetry with y-axis
A function is known as odd if f (−x )=−f ( x ) every value of x in the domain of f ( x ) . Symmetry with origin.

(a) Which power functions are even functions? Why? What do you notice about their exponents?

(b) Which power functions are odd functions? Why? What do you notice about their exponents?

Example 13 Answer each of the following.

(a) If the point (2 ,−7 ) lies on the graph of a power function with an even exponent, which of the following
points must also lie on its graph? Explain.

(1) (−2,−7) (3) (2 ,7 )

(2) (−2 ,7 ) (4) (−7 , 2)

(b) If the point (2 ,−7) lies on the graph of a power function with an odd exponent, which of the following
points must also lie on its graph? Explain.

(1) (−2,−7) (3) (2 ,7 )

(2) (−2,7) (4) (−7, 2)

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 End Behavior
What happens to the y-values of the function as the x-values increase to very large, both positive and negative,
numbers is known as a function’s end behavior.
When we talk about x-values increasing to very large positive numbers, we say: “As x goes to positive infinity”.
Notation: x → ∞
When we talk about x-values decreasing to very large negative numbers, we say: “As x goes to negative
infinity”. Notation: x →−∞
End behavior is what the y-values are doing at the ends.
Are the y-values going to positive infinity? Notation: y → ∞ or
Are the y-values going to negative infinity? Notation: y →−∞

Example 14 Notice from example 8 and 9 that even functions have the same end behavior and odd functions
have the same end behavior. What is it? Write your response in the table below.

End Behavior Even Functions Odd Functions

As x goes to positive infinity,

x →∞

As x goes to negative infinity,

x →−∞

Example 15 Use your calculator to make a quick sketch of each power function below.

(a) y=x 3 (b) y=− x3 (c) y=3 x 3

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Example 16 Use your graphs from example 12 to answer the following.

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(a) How does y=− x compare to y=x 3 ? Be specific, including the correct transformation vocabulary
and end behavior.

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(b) How does y=3 x compare to y=x 3 ? Be specific, including the correct transformation vocabulary
and end behavior.

Example 17 Which of the following power functions have the same end behavior? Categorize them in the
table below. Do this without the use of your calculator. Explain your process. Afterwards, use
your calculator to verify.

1 1
3 y=− x2 5 y= x 4
y=3 x 3 y=x 2 y=−2 x 5
y=− x 4 y=5 x 6 y=− x3 y=−2 x 4 y=x 7
As x goes to positive and As x goes to positive and As x goes to positive As x goes to positive
negative infinity, y goes negative infinity, y goes infinity, y goes to infinity, y goes to
to positive infinity. to negative infinity. positive infinity and as x negative infinity and as
goes to negative infinity, x goes to negative
As x → ∞ , y → ∞ and As x → ∞ , y →−∞ and y goes to negative infinity, y goes to
as x →−∞ , y → ∞ . as x →−∞ , y →−∞ . infinity. positive infinity.

As x → ∞ , y → ∞ and As x → ∞ , y →−∞ and

as x →−∞ , y →−∞ . as x →−∞ , y → ∞ .

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 Polynomial Function
A polynomial function is a function consisting of terms that all have whole number powers. In its most general
form, a polynomial can be written as:
y=an x n +an−1 x n−1 +. ..+a1 x+a0
n is the degree of the polynomial (highest exponent).
a n ,an−1,... are the coefficients on the variable terms and a 0 is the constant.
A linear function is a degree one polynomial function.
A quadratic function is a degree two polynomial function.

In this lesson you will explore cubic (degree 3) and quartic (degree 4) functions.

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Example 18 The graph of the cubic function f ( x )=x −5 x +2 x +8 is shown below.

(a) Using your calculator (Menu ANALYZE GRAPH), label the

zeros (x-intercepts) and the turning points (vertices) on the graph of f (x).
Round to the nearest tenth if necessary.

(b) On what interval(s) is f (x) increasing? (HINT: y’s going up.)

(c) On what interval(s) is f (x) decreasing? (HINT: y’s going down.)

(d) On what interval(s) is f (x) positive? (HINT: Above the x-axis.)

(e) On what interval(s) is f (x) negative? (HINT: Below the x-axis.)

(f) Describe the end behavior of f (x).

(g) Does f (x) have any absolute maximums and/or minimums? Explain.

(h) State all the x-coordinates of the relative maximums and relative minimums.

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 NOTE: The end behavior of any polynomial function is dictated by its highest-powered term!

Graphs and Zeros of Polynomial Functions

Example 19 For each of the following cubic functions, use your calculator to sketch the graph and circle its
x-intercepts. HINT: Set your calculator windows to that of the graphs below.

(a) y=x 3−3 x 2−6 x+8 (b) y=2x 3 −8 x+9 (c) y=2x 3 −12x 2 +18x

Clearly, a cubic may have one, two, or three real roots and can have two turning points.
Just as with parabolas, there exists a tie between a polynomial’s factors and its roots (x-intercepts).

Example 20 Consider the cubic whose equation is y=x 3 −x 2 −12 x .

(a) Algebraically determine the zeros of this function. HINT: Set y equal to 0, factor completely, and solve.

(b) Sketch a graph of this function on the axes below to verify your answer to part a. Circle the x-intercepts.
Again, set your calculator windows to that of the graph below.

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 3 2
Example 21 The largest root of x −9 x +12 x +22=0 falls between what two consecutive integers? HINT:
Graph the cubic on your calculator and look for where the graph crosses the x-axis. Practice
finding zeros in the analyze graph menu.

Example 22 Consider the quartic function y=x 4 −5x 2 +4 .

(a) Algebraically, determine the x-intercepts of this function. HINT: Set y equal to 0, factor completely and
solve. If the factoring is too difficult, do part b first and use the connections you have seen today.

(b) Sketch a graph of this function on the axes below illustrating your answer to part a. Circle the
x-intercepts. Set your calculator windows to that of the graph below.

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Don’t forget the calculator allows you to find the roots of any polynomial function (polyroot finder). See
calculator notes from Unit 3. Practice with Example 19.

4 3 2
Example 23 Consider the quartic function y=x +3 x −35 x −39 x +70 .
(a) Sketch a graph of this quartic on the axes below. Set your calculator windows to that of the graph below.
Identify all the x-intercepts and circle them on your graph.

4 3 2
(b) Based on your graph from part a, write the expression x +3 x −35 x −39 x+70 in its factored form.

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 The connection between the zeros of a polynomial and its factors should now be clear. State it below:

Creating Polynomial Equations

The Factored Form of a Polynomial

If the set {
r 1 ,r 2 , r 3 , .. . ,r n }
represent the roots (zeros) of a polynomial, then the polynomial can be written as:

y=a( x−r 1 )( x−r 2 )( x−r 3 )⋅¿⋅( x−r n ) where a is some constant determined by another point

Example 24 Determine the equation of a quadratic function whose roots are -3 and 4 and which passes
2
through the point (2, - 50). Express your answer in standard form y=ax +bx +c . Verify your
answer by creating a sketch of your function on the axes below. Set your calculator windows to
that of the graph below.

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It’s important to understand how the a-value effects the graph of the polynomial. This is easiest to explore if the
polynomial remains in factored form. You should see from the next example, the value of a does not change the
zeros of the function, but does vertically stretch the function.

Example 25 Consider quadratic polynomials of the form y=a( x +2)( x−5 ) where a≠0 .
(a) What are the x-intercepts of this parabola?

(b) Use your calculator to sketch and label on the axes given the following equations. Find and label each
vertex. Set your calculator windows to that of the graph below.

y=( x+2)( x−5 )

y=2(x +2 )( x−5)
y=4 (x +2 )( x−5)

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 3 2
Example 26 Create the equation of the cubic, in standard form, y=ax +bx +cx +d , which has x-intercepts
of -4, 2, and 5 and passes through the point (6, 20). Verify your answer by sketching the cubic’s
graph on the axes below. Set your calculator windows to that of the graph below.

Example 27 Create the equation of a cubic in standard form that has a double zero at -2 and another zero at 4.
The cubic has a y-intercept of 16. Sketch your cubic on the axes below to verify your result. Set
your calculator windows to that of the graph below. HINT: Remember a double root is a root
that appears twice and the y-intercept is the point where x = 0.

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Remember, at a double root (or zero), the graph is tangent to the x-axis. In other words, it touches the x-axis,
but does not cross it at a double zero.

Polynomial Long Division

We have worked in the last unit to simplify rational expressions (polynomials divided by polynomials). In this
lesson, we will look more closely at the division of two polynomials and how it is analogous to the division of
two integers.

1519
Example 28 Consider the division problem 1519 ¿ 7, which could also be written as 7 and 7|1519 .

(a) Find the result of this division using the standard long division algorithm. Is there a remainder in this
division? Label each part with: divisor, dividend, quotient, and remainder.

7|1519

(b) Rewrite your result from part a as an equivalent multiplication equation.

1522 b
a+
(c) Now evaluate 7 using long division. Write your answer in a + Rb form and in c form, where a
is the quotient, b is the remainder, and c is the divisor.

7|1522

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 (d) Write your answer from part c as an equivalent multiplication equation.

Example 29 Now let's see how this works out when we divide two polynomials.

2 x 2 +15 x +18
(a) Simplify x+ 6 by performing polynomial long division.

x+6|2 x2 +15x+18

(b) Rewrite the result you found in part a as an equivalent multiplication equation.

2 x 2 +15 x +20 r
q ( x )+
(c) Write x+ 6 in the form ( x+6) , where q (x) is the quotient and r is the remainder, by
performing polynomial long division. Also, write the result an equivalent multiplication equation.

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So, when we divide two polynomials, we always get another polynomial and a remainder. This is known as
r
q ( x )+
writing the rational expression in quotient-remainder form: ( x−a ) .
q (x) is the quotient (a polynomial), r is the remainder (a constant), and (x – a) is the divisor.

r
q ( x )+
Example 30 Write each of the following rational expressions in the form ( x−a ) .

x2 +2 x −5
(a) x−3

2 x 2 −23 x+17
(b) x−10

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Example 31 Now we will divide by a method called synthetic division. Synthetic division is a shorthand, or
shortcut, method of polynomial division in the special case of dividing by a linear factor.

Here are the steps:

Step 1: Arrange the coefficients in descending order as the dividend. Remember to include placeholders
(0’s) for any missing terms.
Step 2:Use the constant, r, as the divisor x – r. Remember, if the divisor is x – 3, then r is 3, if the
3
divisor is x + 3, then r is -3, and if the divisor is 2x – 3, then r is 2 .
Step 3:Bring down the first coefficient.
Step 4:Multiply the first coefficient by r and place the product under the second coefficient.
Step 5:Add the column, then multiply that sum by r.
Step 6:Repeat step 5 for all coefficients.
Step 7:The final sum represents the remainder. The other numbers are the coefficients of the quotient
polynomial which has a degree one less than the dividend.

Note: If the lead coefficient of the linear divisor is something other than 1, you need to divide the
quotient polynomial by the lead coefficient.

2
Divide 2 x +15 x+18 by x +6 using synthetic division. Write your answer in quotient-
remainder form.

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 3 2
Example 32 Divide 2 x −3 x + x by x−1 using synthetic division. Write your answer in quotient-
remainder form.

3 2
Example 33 Divide 3 x +7 x −18 x +8 by 3x – 2 using synthetic division. Write your answer in quotient-
remainder form.

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 Remember synthetic division can only be used when the divisor is a first degree polynomial (linear).

The Remainder Theorem

In our last class, you saw how two polynomials, when divided, resulted in another polynomial or constant and a
remainder. The remainder has a remarkable property in certain types of division. We will explore this
relationship in the first example.

Example 34 In each of the following let p( x ) be the polynomial in the numerator and ( x−a ) be the binomial
in the denominator.
p( x)
Consider each of the following scenarios where we have x−a . In each case, simplify the division using
polynomial long division or synthetic division and then evaluate p(a) . What conclusion can you draw?

x2 −8 x +18
(a) x−2

x2 −2 x−25
(b) x−7

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 2 x 2 +11 x +11
(c) x +3

Conclusion?

x2 −11 x +22 r
q ( x )+
Example 35 If the ratio x −9 was placed in the form x−9 , where q(x) is a linear function,
then which of the following is the value of r ? Use the Remainder Theorem to answer this
question. Show your work.

(1) -3 (3) -9
(2) 5 (4) 4

In the past, the remainder theorem was used primarily to aid in evaluating polynomials. These days it is the
primary justification for telling if a linear expression is a factor of a polynomial.

By definition ( x−a ) is a factor of p( x ) if when p( x ) is divided by ( x−a ) the remainder is zero.

In other words, ( x−a ) is a factor of p( x ) if the remainder, p(a ) = 0.

p ( x ) 3 x 2 + 7 x−20
Example 36 Consider the following scenario where we have x−a : x+ 4

(a) Simplify the division using polynomial long division. (b) Evaluate p(a).
.
x+4|3x 2+7 x−20

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 2
(c) Is x + 4 a factor of 3 x +7 x−20 ? Explain. .

Example 37 Determine if each of the following are factors of the listed polynomials by using your recently
found information. Justify your answers.

2
(a) Is x – 3 a factor of p( x )= x −11 x +24 ?

2
(b) Is x + 5 a factor of p( x )=2 x +9 x−2 ?

3 2
(c) Is x + 1 a factor of p( x )= x −7 x −11 x−3 ?

Example 38 p( x )= x3 +3 x 2−18 x−40 is divided by x – a. For which value of a would x – a be a factor?

Explain.

(1) -2 (3) 3
(2) 2 (4)-3

3 2
Example 39 Is 3x – 2 a factor of 3 x +7 x −18 x +8 ? Justify your answer.
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