CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION This chapter gives insight about the content, focus and expectation of

this study, thus it serves as a pathway to the entire thesis. The chapter is divided into sections in the
following order; section 1.1 gives an overview of the study background while sections 1.2, 1.3 and
1.4 highlight the study’s problem, the aim and objectives, and the study’s questions respectively. The
scope of the study is discussed in section 1.5, while the methodology, the study structure is covered
in sections 1.6 and 1.7. 1.1. BACKGROUND Cities are home to more than half of the world’s
population and much of the world’s industry. All through history, influential cities were located near
rivers and oceans for transportation and connectivity purposes. Coastal cities have always attracted
humans because of their rich resources, as they offer access points to marine trade and transport
which enrich the ecosocial and cultural transfer. Today, it is no longer an advantage as such cities are
under high risk to be swiped out from the map because of the Sea Level Rise (SLR) due to the drastic
climate change which has enormous impact on urban settlements all over the globe. By 2050, more
than 70% of the population; which is expected to be 6.4 billion, is projected to live in urban areas
(UN, 2014). Clearly, climate change will have significant and severe impacts on human societies in
several aspects both now and into the future (Alley et al., 2003; Schneider & Lane, 2006; Stern,
2006). Hundreds of millions of urban inhabitants in low and middle-income nations are at risk from
the direct and indirect impacts of climate change. Surprisingly, it may contribute in forcing
migration, conflicts, hunger and destroy infrastructure across the world. The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) declared in 2001 that the latter part of the twentieth century, the
earth’s average temperature rose 0.6° C, stating that projections for further increases in the twenty-
first century vary considerably, from a minimum of 1.4°C to a maximum of 5.8°C. Accordingly, the
change will be consequent accelerated by SLR (Michael, 2007), that will be posing serious threat to
low-lying coastal communities (S. Dasgupta, Laplante, Murray, & Wheeler, 2009). For this reason,
the issue of rising sea-level has become very crucial 2 where governments and environmentalists
must work closely to ensure safe environmental conditions for coastal zones. However, the nations
of the world do not stand equal in front this challenge. The global north is capable to deal with the
consequences of climate change, far outstrip those of the global south. Despite the fact, developing
countries do not have a history of large emissions of greenhouse gases produced from industrial
activities, which indicates that they have not contributed significantly to the causes of climate
change, some researchers disagree. They claim that there are several factors lead to high
vulnerability of developing communities, among these; lack of relevant technical knowledge
required in building design, materials and processes, developing world is at higher risk as most of the
cities are not ready to adopt the climatic change impacts. In addition, the existing development
challenges such as poverty, weak infrastructure, environmental degradation, and limited resources
and capacity constraints. Hence, global south communities are the most vulnerable. The major
hazards of the climate change are; urban flooding, sea level rise, heat stress, more frequent and
stronger cyclones and storms and increased precipitation. Globally, around 360 million residents
who are living in coastal areas where the lands are less than 10 meters above sea level, are
vulnerable to flooding and storm surges (Moser & Satterthwaite, 2008). Despite these risks, many
cities have not yet addressed climate change. The reasons include; “lack of city policies and action
plans; existence of regulations on urban planning and environment which have not been adjusted to
manage climate change; slow response to climate disasters due to lack of capacity and resources;
and lack of public awareness on climate variability and climate change-induced hazard mitigation”
(UNHABITAT, 2016). Despite this unfortunate unfolding disaster, small number of research data and
activities are accessible on climate change baseline scenario, forecast, trends and magnitude of its
impacts on the vulnerable coastal communities and specifically in the academia (Lami, 2014). Some
of the researchers agreed that, carbon dioxide (CO2) dominates the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
and it contributes with about 72% of all GHG emissions in 2016 (NCEI, 2017), for this reason, it is
 vital to have a deeper understanding on their sources (Lami, 2014). Other studies suggest that,
buildings are the major sources of emissions, especially in the developing nations (Janda, 2011). 3
The substantial lack of relevant technical knowledge required in building design, material and
processes, are the major reasons (Lami, 2014). Addressing the impacts of climate change in the
country, it is important to mention that Egypt is ranked third on the list of countries that may have
the worst effect of climate change (World Bank, 2009). The effects will include; higher temperature,
change in rain patterns, rise of sea level, and increase in catastrophic weather events. The impact on
Egyptian cities will be affecting human health, infrastructure and services, economic activities and
social systems. The extent of these impacts will depend on the level of the city’s preparation, as well
as on its ability to adopt both anticipated and unanticipated effects. As for many projected climatic
studies, the major natural threats that are facing Egypt are; floods resulted from SLR and heat stress
resulted from the greenhouse gases and other emissions. It has been mentioned in recent report by
the UNDP that 3.3% of total land area of the Nile Delta, approximately 16 km2 of valuable cultivated
land will be lost in the absence of adaptive action (UNDP, 2014). Alexandria, one of the most
significant Egyptian coastal cities, is listed among the 15 of the world’s 20 coastal megacities that are
at risk from SLR and coastal surges (World Bank, 2009). The threats can be minimized through;
‘mitigation’ where the causes of climate change can be controlled and ‘adaptation’ where cities are
protected from the negative impact. Recently, researchers, and governments are investigating how
cities and communities can mitigate and adapt to this drastic change. One of the fundamental
requirements of buildings is the protection of the people who live and work within them from
weather and provide comfort space. Understanding the climate and its changes shall support
engineers to successfully design buildings, retrofit old and existing buildings, select material, and
assist in policies formulation to control the drastic impacts of climate change on coastal cities and
their communities. 1.2. PROBLEM STATEMENT Alexandria and Delta regions are the most vulnerable
regions to SLR. Alexandria, the second largest city after Cairo and one of the significant historical
Egyptian cities, is listed among the global coastal megacities that will be affected by SLR. The impact
of SLR will affect the sustainability of the city in terms of; socio-economic and environmental
aspects. Based on the UN 4 Demographic projections, the population of Alexandria will grow by 67%
to reach 6.5 million by 2050 (Bigio, 2009). Such growth will be reflected on the urbanization of the
surrounding areas and threaten natural resources. Urban development plans along this coastal area
face a lack of proper strategies and practices to deal with the impacts of SLR, specially floods which
will increase the vulnerability of the population living there as well as the entire city’s built
environment. 1.3.RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES The main aim is to establish recommendations
that can support in designing guideline to assist architects and engineers in designing sustainable
buildings in coastal cities while considering climatic challenges at local level. In addition, provide
policy makers with insight that reinforce Climate Change Strategy for the Building sector in Egypt.
More specifically these research objectives are: Identify the gaps in Egypt Climate Change Strategy
that triggers the sustainability of coastal city like Alexandria Uncover the negative impacts and
threats of climate change on coastal cities and its built environment globally, in Egypt and
particularly in Alexandria. Identify the vulnerability of Alexandria’s residents and explore their level
of awareness for the implications of climate change Explore design parameters and enhanced
materials that promote sustainable design for buildings in coastal cities particularly in one of the
Egyptian coastal cities, Alexandria. Assess the perception and knowledge of architects,
professionals and policy makers on issues related to climate change and buildings that reflect on the
sustainability of coastal cities Establish a list of recommendation for design guide for coastal cities
built environment and buildings in high risk coastal zone, like Alexandria. 5 1.4. RESEARCH
QUESTIONS To meet the research’s aim and objectives the following questions will be addressed in
order to synchronize and focus the study. These questions are; 1. What is the impact of the climate
 change on coastal cities’ buildings and built environment? 2. What is the evidence of climate change
in Egyptian coastal city like; Alexandria? How does it affect the city’s-built environment? 3. What are
the Egyptian government efforts to address climate change in coastal cities and their built
environment? 4. What are the gaps in the Egypt Climate Change Strategy? 5. What design
parameters and enhanced material that are required suiting the projected climate change in coastal
city like Alexandria? 6. What level of knowledge exists amongst design professionals and how they
reflect their knowledge in their designs? 7. What level of awareness exists amongst residents of
Alexandria? 1.5. SCOPE OF THE STUDY The study’s scope covers the Egyptian coastal city, Alexandria,
with the key purpose of proposing a potentially sustainable design guide for the built environment,
mainly new residential buildings. With the anticipation that, the proposed guideline will support
professionals in designing sustainable coastal residential projects that have in its consideration
climate change implications, specifically the SLR. Moreover, the study will support policy makers
with recommendations related to the adaptation and mitigation that can help in the implementation
of Egypt Climate Change Strategy in more effective way. 1.6. METHDOLOGY The adopted
methodology is based on literature review, and practical work. An extensive literature review has
been conducted on climate change and sustainability, with focus on its impacts on the built
environment and buildings. Also, an intensive review on adaptation and mitigation strategies and
practices have been covered to support in examining Egypt Climate 6 Change Strategy. The practical
work includes; 2 questionnaires for different target groups; residents of Alexandria, and architects
and engineers, as well as one to one interview with experts, governmental and NGOs
representatives who are related to the topic. Chapter 5 gives detailed information on the
undertaken work. 1.7.THESIS STRUCTURE This thesis consists of nine chapters with each of these
chapters supports in answering the thesis’s questions and fulfilling its objectives. The chapters are
summarized below; Chapter 1 “Introduction”, which gives an insight into the study’s problem,
questions, aim and objective, etc... in other words, all the entire work. Chapter 2 “Literature
Review”, presents an extensive review of relevant literature that have been undertaken in the
subject area of this research. Chapter 3 “Climate change Impacts on the Built Environment of the
Coastal Cities”, this chapter is a continuation of the literature review that reflects significance of
coastal cities, and develop the understanding towards the challenges of the city. Also, the effect of
climate change on its built environment. Adaptation and mitigation as supportive tools are also
discussed in the chapter. Chapter 4 “Research Context”, provides a brief about Egypt and its context
in terms socioeconomic, environmental, expected climatic threats and the government’s response.
Chapter 5 “Applied Research”, presents the methodological approach employed as well as explaining
the method selected, sampling technique and how the data is analyzed. Chapter 6 “Case Study”,
provides a detailed study on Alexandria, since it is the selected city and gives an overview about the
challenges and threats the city is having due to the climate change, and the expected SLR. Chapter 7
“Key Findings”, presents the findings from the data collection and analysis including citations from
the interviews Chapter 8 “Analysis and Discussion”, discussion of the findings and why they are
relevant to the conducted work and the literature. Chapter 9 “Recommendations”, which draws
together the conclusions from the study and explores to what extent the findings fulfilled its own
aim and objectives as well as answered the questions, then suggesting recommendations.