Study guide

Academic Literacy for Health Science

ELH 121

Unit for Academic Literacy

Lecturers:
Avasha Rambiritch
Racheal Johnston
Melissa Sutton
Retha Alberts
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ELH 121
Academic Literacy for
Health Sciences

Avasha Rambiritch
2023
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ORGANISATIONAL COMPONENT 5 -14

THEME 1: COMMUNICATION FOR UNIVERSITY

STUDENTS 15- 22
UNIT 1: Why Communication?
The skills you need to be a successful student
Communicating across cultures and languages
Sending your lecturer an email
Social medial etiquette

THEME 2: LITERACY 23 - 30
UNIT 1: Multi, Academic and Scientific Literacy
Literacy
Academic Literacy
Multi-Literacy
Scientific Literacy
What is a poster presentation and why is it valuable for you
Characteristics of a good poster
Getting started

THEME 3: AN INTRODUCTION TO ACADEMIC

LANGUAGE 31 - 44

UNIT 1: An Introduction to Academic Language

Why Academic Language?
The Academic Word List
The Meaning of Academic Words
Prefixes, Suffixes, Combining Forms and Collocations
Using a Medical Dictionary

THEME 4: UNDERSTANDING ACADEMIC

TEXTS 45 - 56

UNIT 1: The Characteristic of Academic Texts

Register
Genre
Rhetorical Function

THEME 5: READING ACADEMIC TEXTS

UNIT 1: Your reading background 57

The Value of Reading
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Reading at University as a HCS

How do you read?
Reading Speed

UNIT 2: Reading strategies 62

Reading strategie
Scanning
Skimming
Prediction

UNIT 3: Reading to Understand 69

The role of comprehension in the reading process
Why read for understanding?
Finding the main idea in a paragraph
Summarising
Paraphrasing

UNIT 4: Critical Reading 73

What is critical reading?
Characteristics of critical reading
Evidence and Argument
Seven critical reading strategies

UNIT 5: Reading a Scientific Article 75

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ORGANISATIONAL COMPONENT
_______________________________________________________________________________

Purpose of ELH 121

The main purpose of this module is to help you succeed at university. Our main aim is to assist
you to develop a range of academic literacy skills and abilities to help you cope with the
vocabulary, reading and writing you will encounter at university level. It is hoped that you will
be able to apply the academic literacy skills you learn to your other university subjects.

Why Academic Literacy?

One of the first things you will realise, as early as your first week at university, is that the
reading and writing you will be expected to engage in here at university is quite different to
what you had done at school. And while you have already developed a number of very valuable
skills during your schooling career, these need to be developed further to help you achieve
academic success. So what are these academic literacy skills that you need? If we break up the
term academic literacy:

academic - related to education, educational institutions;

literacy - the ability to read and write.

Thus a very basic definition of academic literacy would be the reading and writing that one
encounters or engages in at university or during their academic (university) career.
Academic literacy is however a journey and not a destination – it is not something can be
achieved overnight by studying textbooks and learning notes about it. Academic literacy can
only be developed with practice as it is made up of a number of different skills and abilities that
must be developed and then, importantly, applied to the reading, writing, tasks, assessments
and examinations you are expected to complete as a university student.

Weideman (2003:61) outlines clearly the skills and abilities that encompass academic literacy:
• understand a range of academic vocabulary in context;
• interpret and use metaphor and idiom, and perceive connotation, word play
and ambiguity;
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• understand relations between different parts of a text, be aware of the

logical development of (an academic) text, via introductions to conclusions,
and know how to use language that serves to make the different parts of a
text hang together;
• interpret different kinds of text type (genre), and show sensitivity for the
meaning that they convey, and the audience that they are aimed at;
• interpret, use and produce information presented in graphic or visual
format;
• make distinctions between essential and non-essential information, fact and
opinion, propositions and arguments; distinguish between cause and effect,
classify, categorise and handle data that make comparisons;
• see sequence and order, do simple numerical estimations and computations
that are relevant to academic information, that allow comparisons to be
made, and can be applied for the purposes of an argument;
• know what counts as evidence for an argument, extrapolate from
information by making inferences, and apply the information or its
implications to other cases than the one at hand;
• understand the communicative function of various ways of expression in
academic language (such as defining, providing examples, arguing); and
• make meaning (e.g. of an academic text) beyond the level of the sentence.

Learning outcomes of the module

The learning outcomes for this module are therefore tied in closely to the skills and abilities
listed above. Once you have successfully completed ELH 121 you should be able to:
• use and understand a range of academic vocabulary in context;
• use and understand a range of discipline-specific vocabulary in context;
• know the features that set texts from academic genres apart from other text
types: register, genre, rhetorical function and text structure.
• demonstrate effective academic reading skills to achieve various purposes,
such as finding specific information, getting an overview of a text,
understanding a text in depth, and critically evaluating what you have read;
• read, understand and critically evaluate texts from important academic
genres, such as academic articles;
• summarise and paraphrase what you have read to indicate that you
understand the text and are able to extract the main argument.
• Read critically a range related texts with the view to presenting your
view/argument in response to a particular question;
• Present this/these views in the form of a poster presentation.
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Learning time
Students registered for ELH 121 have to attend ONE DOUBLE lecture per week.
You need to spend at least 120 hours of learning (including lectures, homework assignments
and preparation for tests and examinations) to complete the module successfully. Do note
that class attendance is compulsory.

Purchases and downloads for ELH 121

There is no prescribed textbook to purchase for this module. All students will receive a copy
of this study guide which you are expected to bring to every lecture. Additional notes, articles
and tasks will be uploaded on clickUP. You are also strongly advised to invest in a good
dictionary which will assist you throughout your university career. We recommend the
following:
Pearson Education. 2004. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. 5th edition. Harlow:
Pearson Education Limited.
You should also download the academic wordlist below:
The Coxhead academic word list. Available from the clickUP site for this module, or from the
following URL (Internet address):
http://web.up.ac.za/default.asp?ipkCategoryID=6583&sub=1&parentid=748&subid=2388&ipklo
okid=9

Educational approach
As stated earlier, academic literacy cannot be developed overnight. In light of this, this module
sees the development of your academic literacy as a process that can be mastered only through
practise. The educational approach taken in this module then can be considered an academic
literacies, task-based approach, for it will be in practising these skills and abilities through a
number of tasks that you will effectively develop your academic literacy. Some of the tasks
given will be for practise, others for assessment purposes. These tasks may require that you
work alone, in pairs or in groups. You will be expected to read a number of medical-related
texts to complete these tasks. These will be available on clickUP. You will be expected to print
out and read the texts before the lecturer. All information pertaining to this will be available
on clickUP. Please be aware, as well, that you will be expected to regularly access the clickUP
page for the module for additional resources, readings and assignment instructions. Should
there, for any reason, be no face-to-face contact with your lecturer it is assumed that you will
continue to access the module page on clickUP to ensure the completion of the module.
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Timetable

Group Day Time Lecturer

Prinshof Tuesday 4:30pm -6:10pm Ms. M. Sutton

Ms. R. Johnston
Mrs. R. Alberts

Sport Science Monday 7:30am - 9:10am Dr. A. Rambiritch

Dietetics Monday 12:30pm - 2:10pm Dr. A. Rambiritch

Assessment
Assessment opportunities
ELH 121 is concluded with an examination in the May/June examination period. Your
final mark will consist of
1. a series of in-class and homework assignments that are submitted to your class lecturer
throughout the year;
2. your examination mark.

Calculation of Marks and Assessment Plan

Weight

Semester 1 In-class and homework assignments 50%

Examination 50%
Final mark for Semester 1 100%

Assessment Plan
Assessment Task Weight
Group presentation Intercultural Communication 25
Infographic Creating an infographic using 25
freeware
Reading Comprehension clickUP Quiz 30
Reading a scientific article clickUP Quic 20

Academic exclusion
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The university will not allow you to continue with your studies if you fail or cancel too many
modules. This process is called academic exclusion. The university has general rules and
regulations relating to exclusion and progression. Also, each faculty has its own rules relating
to these processes. You are therefore advised to read the faculty’s year book carefully. You
may appeal against exclusion; however, it is best to deal with academic challenges as they arise
by consulting with the coordinator or your lecturers.

Sepedi
Yunibesithi e ka se go dumelele go tšwela pele ka dithuto ge o ka se atlege goba wa phumula
dithutišo (modules) tše ntši. Tshepetšo yeo e bitšwa kgethollothutong (academic exclusion).
Yunibesithi e na le melao- le melawanakakaretšo ya go amana le kgethollo (exclusion) gammogo
le kgatelopele (progression). Godimo ga fao Lefapha le lengwe le le lengwe le na le melawana
ya lona ya go amana le ditshepetšo tšeo; gomme ka tsela yeo, ipalele Pukungwaga (Yearbook)
ya Mafapha go kgonthiša ditaba tšeo. O ka no dira boipiletšo (appeal) kgahlanong le kgethollo
yeo. Le ge go le bjalo, go tla ba kaone go itebanya le tharollo ya mathata ao ge a tšwelela. Ge
o thoma go kopana le mathata a go lebana le dithuto tša gago, ikopanye le mofahloši wa gago
ka bjako.

IsiZulu

Inyuvesi ayizukukuvumela ukuba uqhubekele phambili nokufunda uma wehluleka ezifundweni

zakho noma wesula izifundo ngokweqile. Le nkambiso ibizwa ngokuthi ukucwaswa kwemfundo,
phecelezi, academic exclusion. Inyuvesi inemithetho evamile maqondana nokucwaswa kanye
nenqubekela phambili. Ngaphezu kwalokhu, isigaba ngasinye semfundo enyuvesi sinesayo
imithetho maqondana nalezi nkambiso, ngakho-ke uyacelwa ukuba ubheke ibhuku lonyaka
eliqukethe izindaba zesigaba ngasinye semfundo enyuvesi. Ungashweleza phezu kokucwaswa.
Kodwa, kungcono ukuxazulula izinkinga ngokuvela kwazo. Uma nje uqala uzwa ubunzima
ezifundweni zakho, xhumana noma xoxisana nothisha wakho.

Afrikaans

Die Universiteit sal jou verhoed om jou studie voort te sit indien jy te veel modules druip of
kanselleer. Hierdie proses word ‘akademiese uitsluiting’ genoem. Die Universiteit het algemene
reëls rakende uitsluiting en vordering. Daarbenewens het elke fakulteit ook fakulteitspesifieke
regulasies oor hierdie prosesse.

Raadpleeg asseblief die fakulteitsjaarboek in hierdie verband. Jy mag teen uitsluiting apelleer,
maar dit is beter om probleme te voorkom. Raadpleeg dus jou dosent sodra jy begin sukkel
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met jou studies.

Plagiarism
Plagiarism is a serious form of academic misconduct. It involves both appropriating someone
else’s work and passing it off as one’s own work afterwards. Thus, you commit plagiarism
when you present someone else's written or creative work (words, images, ideas, opinions,
discoveries, artwork, music, recordings, computer-generated work, etc.) as your own. Only
hand in your own original work. Indicate precisely and accurately when you have used
information provided by someone else. Referencing must be done in accordance with a
recognised system. Indicate whether you have downloaded information from the Internet. For
more details visit the following websites: https://www.up.ac.za/en/about-
up/article/2013215/why-learn-about-plagiarism. Please download a QR code reader on your
cellphone. To download a QR code reader open your mobile app store (App Store, Google
Play or Windows Marketplace) and search for QR code readers.

Why learn about How do I avoid Overstepping the

What is plagiarism?
plagiarism? plagiarism? mark

Student support

The University of Pretoria supports you in various ways free of charge. For academic support
contact the tutors allocated to the module (see section 2.1), and/or the Faculty Student
Advisor (see section 1 below).

Academic support
Individual consultations
Goal setting & motivation
Faculty and workshops about
Adjustment to university life
student - time management
Test/Exam preparation
advisors - study methods
Stress management
Career exploration
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• Think carefully before dropping

modules (after the closing date for
amendments or cancellation of
FLY@UP: modules). www.up.ac.za/fly@up
The Finish • Make responsible choices with
Line is Yours your time and work consistently. email: [email protected]
• Aim for a good semester mark.
Don’t rely on the examination to
pass.

Faculty Student Advisors for Humanities:

Siya Jinoyi Modipadi Phala

HS Building 13-22 HS Building 13-22
Hatfield Campus Hatfield Campus
012 420 2618 012 420 6963

For e-learning support

• Report a problem you experience to the Student Help Desk.
• Approach the assistants at the help desks (adjacent to the Student Computer
Laboratories in IT Building, NW2, CBT, etc).
• Visit the open labs in the Informatorium Building to report problems at the offices of the
Student Help Desk.
• Call 012 420 3837.
• Email [email protected]

Student IT Hub
Get FREE technical support for your laptop – or help get MS Office installed. Hours: Mon –
Fri: 8 am – 4 pm. On Hatfield campus, the office is near Coffee Buzz, on the Plaza.
Call 012 4204726
E-mail: [email protected]
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Safety in the evening: Green Route

• From 18:00 till 06:00 Security Officers are available to escort you (on foot) to and from
your residence or campus anywhere east of the Hatfield campus through to the LC de
Villiers terrain.
• Departure point is at the ABSA ATM next to the Merensky Library.
• Phone the Operational Management Centre if you need a Security Officer to
accompany you from your residence to campus.

For more support services see Addendum A

Organisation of the study guide and lecture-by-lecture
schedule
This study guide is divided into 8 units. Each unit starts with a set of outcomes that should have
been attained by the time you have worked through the unit. This is followed by exploration
and constructive learning through lecturer-class-interaction, group work, and individual tasks
completed in class. Your lecturer will require you to complete some of the tasks at home.
Selected in-class tasks and homework tasks will be assessed for marks to count towards your
progress mark for the semester.
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The following table gives a breakdown of the work covered by the lecture periods:

Lecture Unit
1 Introduction and administration
THEME 1: COMMUNICATION
Unit 1: Effective communication for a university student
THEME 2: LITERACY
2 Unit 1: Multi, Academic and Scientific Literacy
3 Group Presentations
THEME 3: THE ACADEMIC REGISTER
4 Unit 1: An introduction to academic language
THEME 4: UNDERSTANDING ACADEMIC TEXTS
5 Unit 1: The characteristics of academic texts
THEME 5: READING ACADEMIC TEXTS
6 Unit 1: Your reading background
Unit 2: Reading strategies
7 Unit 3: Reading to understand
8 Unit 4: Critical Reading
9 Unit 5: Reading a scientific paper
10 Revision and administration of term marks

Contact details
Name E-mail Telephone
Head of Prof. P.E. Angu [email protected]
Department

Departmental Ms. R. Msiza [email protected] 012 420-2334

Administrator

Course co- Dr. A. Rambiritch [email protected] 012 420 4834

ordinator:
English
Class lecturer

Consultation times
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Timetable
• A timetable is available on clickUP.
• Each lecturer compiles a class list during the first week of lectures.
• No names will be added to class lists after the second week following the
commencement of lectures.
• Students will be expected to sign up on clickUP to their relevant groups.

• No student will be allowed to change groups.

Homework
As part of your preparation for class discussions and class task your lecturer will require you
to read articles or complete task before the lecture.

Please do complete these are they are crucial to your understanding the content your lecturer
will cover during the lecture.
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STUDY COMPONENT
THEME 1: COMMUNICATION

Unit 1: Effective communication for a university student

Learning outcomes

When you have worked through this unit you should be able to:
1. understand the importance of effective communication in a university environment;
2. be aware of the (communication) skills a 21st century university student should develop;
3. understand the barriers to effective communication in this environment and devise possible
strategies to eliminate such barriers;
4. send effective and professional emails to lecturers, staff and your peers;
5. demonstrate appropriate etiquette in a social media group/platform used for communication.

Welcome to your first year as a university student. Congratulations too, on being admitted to
the degree, faculty and institution of your choice. The next few years as a university student
may be challenging, and there may be times that you want to ‘throw in the towel’. That is exactly
what we DO NOT want you to do. As indicated in the Organisational Component of this
workbook, there are a number of support structures geared towards providing you with
exactly the type of support you may need complete this degree, and in the required time.
Remember that the Finish Line is yours!

The ELH 121 (Semester 1) and the ELH 122 (Semester 2) modules are designed to do exactly
that – provide you with the academic literacy and academic writing support to will need to be
academically successful. But before we delve into academic literacy, there is one crucial skill
that every university student needs: the ability to communicate effectively with the people you
encounter in this environment. These include but are not limited to your: peers, lecturers,
administrative staff, university management as well as other professionals you will encounter
in hospitals and/or clinic as part of your training.

Read through the following short article by Wong (2014) where she discusses the skills a
university student needs.
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The 16 skills you need to be a successful student in the 21st century

Do you feel prepared for the real world? You may feel fairly prepared. However, in reality,
your education may not have provided the skills you need to be a successful student. The latest
findings from the World Economic Forum (WEF) explores the current gap between the skills
we learn and the skills we need. Their report, New Vision for Education: Fostering Social and
Emotional Learning through Technology hypothesizes that traditional learning has failed to equip
students with the knowledge they need to survive and thrive in the real world. According to
the WEF, you need a combination of traditional skills and something called ‘social and
emotional learning’ (SEL). This is the ability to collaborate, communicate and solve problems.
A student needs these skills to navigate the evolving digital economy with ease. Study the
infograph below which highlights some key skills a student of today needs. Can you think of
others?
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Adapted from: Musings of an adult nurse educator. n.d. [Online] Available:

https://musingsofanadultnurseeducator.wordpress.com/21st-century-skills/. Accessed 20
January 2023.

TASK 1.1

In addition to the skills captured in the infograph above, there are additional skills one needs.
In the table below, indicate your proficiency level in each skill and the action you can take to
develop/improve.

Skill Excellent Good Needs Action/s I can take to improve

work
Literacy
Scientific
literacy
ICT
Cultural and
civic
Critical thinking
Communication
Collaboration
Adaptability
Social / cultural
awareness

Skills like literacy, scientific literacy and critical thinking are aspects that we will focus on during
the course of ELH 121 and 122. Modules like AIM will help you develop your Information and
Communication Technology skills (ICT). But there are also aspects that may not specifically be
discussed, developed or taught in any university course. These may include: cultural and civic
literacy, communication, collaboration, adaptability and social and cultural awareness.

TASK 1.2
Explain what you understand by the following;
1. Cultural and civic literacy
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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2. Adaptability
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

3. Social and cultural awareness

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

4a. Outline briefly how and why these particular skills or literacies may be crucial for a:
university student
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

4b. healthcare practitioner

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

5. What, do you think, could be the possible consequences should a student lack these
particular skills/literacies?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

TASK 1.3 Cultural and/or Cross cultural communication in your field

This task requires you to work in groups of 3-4 students from the same discipline. Your
lecturer will provide you with possible readings (you are welcome to find your own).
Further instructions on this task will be discussed in class during the lecture. This
group task will contribute 25 marks towards your assessments.

The first part of Theme 1 has given us the opportunity to think about some of the skills and
abilities we may need to be a successful student. Importantly, it has forced us to consider the
important role that culture and possible cultural barriers may affect our ability to communicate
as a health care student and as a health care professional. This awareness may help us to
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communicate effectively, thus ensuring that our messages are received in the way they are
intended. Let us put this learning to the test by considering how to effectively communicate
with our lecturers and peers who may have diverse languages and cultures. Due to time
constraints we will focus on the two mediums most commonly used by students: e-mail and
Whats app.

Writing an effective e-mail

TASK 1.4
Read through the following e-mail correspondence and correct it in the template
below:

From:
To:
Sent:
Subject: Sorry I didn’t attend class

hi

Sorry I didn’t attend class the other day. It was a particularly bad morning for me. I think I
just got up on the wrong side of the bed and the horrible traffic didn’t help matters but I am
sure you already know about that!!!!!!!

But anyway I cought up with the stuff you gave so all is Aokay. Ill drop by your rooms and

and hand in my work.

Kat

From:
To:
Sent:
Subject:

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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________________
__________________
__________________

TASK 1.5
Based on your attempt of Task 1.4, class discussion and the brief research conducted work in
pairs and write out a list of at least 10 email etiquette rules.
1. _______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. _______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. _______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
5. _______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
6. _______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
7. _______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
8. _______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
9. _______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
10. _______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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Professional Whatsapp communication

Baz (2017) provides the following advice regarding professional Whatsapp communication.
Read through the list Baz (2017) provides and highlight any piece of advice that you do
not agree with.

Respect the purpose and objective of each group. A WhatsApp work group should not be used
to send messages or content of a personal nature.

Do not use groups just to send memes, videos, pictures and news, without reading and reacting
to the content shared by others. The purpose of WhatsApp groups is to establish collective
conversations with others, but when you only place content, but never read or interact, the
existence of such groups loses their purpose. No one likes monologues.

Never send content, information or “news” that HAS NOT been verified. Placing content
whose authenticity has not been definitively proven can be VERY dangerous and harm many
people. WhatsApp is infested with lies and it is better to put a stop to them than to be guilty of
spreading them.

If you feel uncomfortable in a group for any reason, feel free to leave or “mute” the
notifications. It is better to be criticized for leaving than for always complaining.

Before sending a complaint to a group, identify the “administrator” and share your thoughts
with him/her.

Do not get angry if someone does not respond to your messages in a group. No one is obliged
to do so. Better send him/her a direct message.

Before sending a video, picture, meme or any content, analyse if such material is relevant to the
group and to the purpose for which the group was created.

Avoid placing political and/or religious content, as different members of the group have different
religious beliefs or political preferences. Avoid unnecessary debates.

When replying to a specific comment from a person, use the “reply” function to make sense of
your comment and avoid confusion.

When noticing that you are having a dialogue with a single member of the group, consider
changing the conversation to direct message, because the rest of the group may not be
interested in reading your conversation with another person.
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Keep in mind that your words can be interpreted in multiple ways, so use short sentences that
cannot be misinterpreted.

Do not abuse emoji’s. There are some like this 😂 or 😭 that do not require explanation, but
others can be interpreted in different ways and generate confusion/offense.

Avoid sending videos or files that are very large to avoid saturation of the memory of smart-
phones or data-wastage.

Raul Baz, S. 2017. A proposal of basic conduct/behaviour rules for WhatsApp Groups [Online]
Available at: https://medium.com/en-los-espejos-de-un-cafe/a-proposal-of-basic-conduct-
behavior-rules-for-whatsapp-groups Accessed 25/01/2020.
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STUDY COMPONENT
THEME 2: LITERACY

Unit 1: Multi, Academic and Scientific Literacy

Learning outcomes

When you have worked through this unit you should be able to:
1. understand and explain the different literacies indicated above;
2. reflect critically on the role that each plays/will play in your academic and professional career;
3. use this critical reflection to demonstrate, in the form of a written academic text, whether you are
adequately equipped or not with these literacies for the career path that you have chosen.
4. understand the value of the poster presentation as a HCS and HCP;
5. be aware of the characteristics of a good poster;
6. work in groups to create a poster presentation that outlines your view on a given topic.

In this unit we begin by exploring three important types of literacy: multi-literacy, academic
literacy and scientific literacy. It is a given that any student accepted to pursue tertiary
studies at a university must be literate – but that assumption holds true only if we are
considering the most basic definition of literacy.

If you think that being literate refers to being able to read and write then you are completely
correct. But there must be more to being literate than being able to read and write. As a
student in the Faculty of Health Sciences:
• What other kinds of literacy do you need to be academically successful?
• What skills and abilities do you possess that may be different to say students accepted
into the Faculty of Humanities or the Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences?
• What specific skills and abilities do you think you will need to be successful in your
chosen career? Write these down in the space provided:

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

If we look at the list you have come up with it becomes clear that as a nurse, occupational
therapist, physiotherapist, dietician or oral hygienist you need to be able to do more than
simply read or write. We realise as well that as a health care student and future health care
professional communication in all forms is of paramount importance.

TASK 2.1
The table below provides you with a list of people you will be communicating with as a student,
during your training and as a health care professional. Complete the table by indicating the
medium you will use to communicate as well as the skills you will need to do this:
With whom do I The medium I will
communicate? use?
Lecturers
Peers
Patients
Doctors
Family Members

Being able to communicate effectively with these different personnel using the different
mediums listed above means that being literate is only one aspect of LITERACY. In addition
to this one needs to be MULTI-LITERATE.
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Multi-Literacy
Multi-literacies is a term coined by the New London Group. Because the way people
communicate is changing due to new technologies, and shifts in the usage of the English
language within different cultures, a new "literacy" must also be used and developed.
There are two major topics that demonstrate the way multi-literacies can be used. The first
is due to the world becoming smaller, communication between other cultures/languages is
necessary to anyone. The usage of the English language is also being changed. While it seems
that English is the common, global language, there are different dialects and subcultures
that all speak different English. The way English is spoken in Australia, South Africa, India or
any other country is different from how it is spoken in the original English speaking countries
in the UK.
The second way to incorporate the term multi-literacies is the way technology and
multimedia is changing how we communicate. These days, text and speech are not the only
and main ways to communicate. The definition of media is being extended to include text
combined with sounds, and images which are being incorporated into movies, billboards,
almost any site on the internet, and television. All these ways of communication require the
ability to understand a multimedia world.

Adapted from: The New London Group: 1996

Although the concepts of literacy and multi-literacy account for much of the communication
health sciences students and health care professionals encounter, they do not account for all
your future communication. In order to function successfully in your studies and career, you
will also need to be SCIENTIFICALLY LITERATE.

Scientific Literacy

Scientific literacy is the knowledge and understanding of scientific concepts and processes
required for personal decision making, participation in civic and cultural affairs, and economic
productivity. It also includes specific types of abilities.

Scientific literacy means that a person can ask, find, or determine answers to questions
derived from curiosity about everyday experiences. It means that a person has the ability to
describe, explain, and predict natural phenomena. Scientific literacy entails being able to read
with understanding articles about science and to engage in debate the validity of the
conclusions. Scientific literacy implies that a person can identify scientific issues underlying
national and local decisions and express positions that are scientifically and technologically
informed. A literate citizen should be able to evaluate the quality of scientific information on
the basis of its source and the methods used to generate it. Scientific literacy also implies
the capacity to pose and evaluate arguments based on evidence and to apply conclusions
from such arguments appropriately.

(National Science Education Standards, page 22)

 26

The tasks and discussion above have been aimed at helping you understand the different
literacies you will need to be proficient in, to be successful here at university and in your
chosen career. We hope that this discussion has encouraged you to start thinking about the
following important questions all HC students should consider:
1. What set you on this particular career or path and how much do you know about the
profession?
2. Do you believe that you are adequately equipped with the necessary skills and abilities
to cope with the academic and scientific literacy you will encounter here and in the
future?
3. If you are equipped and ready, who or what has helped you?
4. If you are not, why do you think this is so?
5. As a HC (health care) student, what challenges do you expect to encounter and how
do you plan to overcome these?

TASK 2.2

Now that you have read the text by Mirza, A.A., Baig, M. Beyari, G.M., Halawani, M.A. &
Mirza, A.A (2021): Depression and anxiety among medical students: A brief overview.
Advances in medical education and practice, 12: 393-398, complete the following table:

YES or NO
I read the text in less than 15 minutes.
I read the text in more than 20 minutes.
I was able to understand clearly what the text is about.
I was able to understand some of what the text is about.
I will be able to summarise effectively the text without reading it
again.
I found some words difficult to understand.
I encountered vocabulary I am not familiar with.
I found the text long and complicated.
The structure of the text is different to other texts I have read.
I will be able to paraphrase excerpts of this text in an assignment.

Discuss these responses as well as the questions below with a partner:

• Have you been able read and understand the text as effectively as a university student
should be able to?
• What barriers can you identify that prevented an effective reading of this text?
• In addition to simply being able to read and write, what other abilities do you think
you will need to effectively read and respond to this text?
 27

• Relate this discussion the definition of Academic Literacy provided on Page 8.

• In addition to academic literacy, what other literacy will you require to read,
understand and respond (in a written essay) to this text?

Record your discussion here:

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

Clearly, as a student in the Faculty of Health Sciences, you will need to be multi-literate,
academically literate and scientifically literate.

TASK 2.3

As part of this task, you will be expected to create an infographic on a topic that your
lecturer will provide. Mastering the skill of creating infographs is an important one for
healthcare practitioners and aligns with the skill of media literacy and creativity discussed in
the Unit 1.

This is an INDIVIDUAL task and is aimed at developing your academic, scientific and multi-
literacy. All instructions as well as the due date will be communicated to you during the
lecture period and on clickUP.

Your topic will depend on your discipline. Further information will be provided during the
lecture period. This infographic assessment will count 25 marks of your term mark. The
following information may be helpful:
 28

What is an infographic and why is it valuable for you?

Technokids. n.d. Infographic. [Online] Available: https://www.technokids.com/blog/desktop-

publishing/what-is-an-infographic/ Accessed 20 January 2023.
 29

TASK 2.3a

Take a few minutes to study the infographic above. Your lecturer will also project it on the screen
for you. Use the information in the infographic to outline why an infographic may be a valuable
tool to use.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

TASK 2.3b

Read the following blog post and answer the questions that follow: What is an Infographic?
Examples, Templates and Design Tips available at: https://venngage.com/blog/what-is-an-infographic/
(Nediger, M. 2019. What is an Infographic? Examples, Templates and Design Tips [Online] Available
at available at: https://venngage.com/blog/what-is-an-infographic/ Accessed 10 January 2020.)

Questions
1. What, according to the blog post, is an infographic?
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. Complete the following statement:
Infographics use _________ _______ ________ to __________ information ________
and __________
3. What, according to the author, makes infographics really ‘great’ to use?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
4. Outline the 5 steps to creating an infographic as explained in the video How to make an
infograph in 5 steps.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
 30

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
5. Of the nine types of infographics introduced to you in the blog, which would be useful to
you as a healthcare student? You may choose up to three different ones.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Now that you have read about the value of infographics you are ready to start creating your
individual infographic. You can use Canva available at: https://buffer.com/library/infographic-
makers#canva or any other freeware to create your infographic.

The following rubric will be used to mark the infographic:

ELH 121 INFOGRAPH RUBRIC

Assessment criteria Excellent Good Average Poor
1 Does the info-graph follow a logical structure 5 3 2 1
(intro, body, conclusion)
2 Does the data contribute effectively to the 5 3 2 1
story/narrative being shared?
3 Has language been used appropriately? (level 5 3 2 1
of formality)
4 Is the info-graph creative and self- 5 3 2 1
explanatory?
5 Presentation (clarity, eye-contact, 5 3 2 1
preparedness)

TOTAL OUT OF 25
 31

THEME 3: AN INTRODUCTION TO
ACADEMIC LANGUAGE
Unit 1: Why academic language?
Learning outcomes

When you have worked through this unit you should be able to:
1. understand the difference between everyday colloquial language, academic language and the
discipline--specific vocabulary you will encounter;
2. use and understand a range of academic and medical terminology in context;
3. identify ways in which you can expand your present academic and scientific vocabulary;
4. use prefixes, suffixes and combining forms to build your own complex academic words;
5. know and understand how to use a medical dictionary.

An important part of being considered academically literate is being able to use and understand
the language used at university i.e. the language your lecturer will use during lectures, in test
and examination questions and in the notes and articles you will be expected to read. Think
back to your responses to the questions under Task 1.2. What did we all agree was most
challenging about the text? Yes, the vocabulary. This unit is therefore designed to introduce
you to the two important kinds of language you will need to master as a student in the Health
Sciences: Academic and Medical Language.

Why Academic Language?

According to Coxhead (n.d.) knowledge of academic vocabulary is vital for students studying
at university, particularly for reading and writing. In order to read and write successfully you
need to be able to recognize as many words as possible in your textbooks and use as many as
possible in your essays. The bigger your vocabulary, the more you will be able to cope with
the high reading and writing demands of your studies. Academic writing tends to be quite
formal in style. The vocabulary items that you use in your writing can affect the level of
formality. Writers need to know whether a word can be used in a particular situation.

In order to help students develop their academic vocabulary Coxhead compiled the Academic
Word List (AWL) which is a list of the 570 word families (over 2000 words) most commonly
 32

found in written academic texts. The AWL focuses on the non-subject-specific vocabulary that
students of any discipline will need to master in order to produce a coherently-structured
written text.

If you go to the AWL highlighter website by Sandra Haywood (http://www.nottingham.

ac.uk/~ alzsh3/acvocab/awlhighlighter.html) you can copy and paste your text into it and
it will highlight the AWL words for you. This will enable you to see how many AWL
words you are using overall and whether you repeat the same words many times in your
writing.

TASK 3.1
All the words from the AWL have been deleted from this text. Complete the
text by ensuring that
• you use only one word in each blank space;
• the original meaning of the sentence and paragraph is retained.

The use of mobile _____________ by health care professionals (HCPs) has __________
many aspects of clinical practice. Mobile ______________ have become commonplace in
health care settings, leading to rapid growth in the development of medical software
applications (apps) for these platforms. Numerous apps are now available to assist HCPs with
many important ______________, such as: information and time management; health record
maintenance and _____________; communications and ______________; reference and
information gathering; patient management and monitoring; clinical decision-making; and
medical education and training.

Mobile ______________ and apps provide many ____________ for HCPs, perhaps most
significantly increased access to point-of-care tools, which has been shown to support better
clinical decision-making and improved patient _____________. However, some HCPs remain
________________ to adopt their use. ______________ the benefits they offer, better
standards and _____________ practices regarding mobile medical apps need to be
________________ to _____________ the proper use and _______________ of these
increasingly sophisticated tools into medical _____________. These measures will raise the
barrier for entry into the medical app market, increasing the quality and safety of the apps
currently available for use by HCPs.
 33

As a health care student, you will discover that academic words have general as well as
medically specific meanings.

TASK 3.2
The following words are taken from the AWL (Coxhead, 2000). In the table below
explain how these words can be used generally and in the medical field. The first
one has been done for you. You may use a dictionary.

WORD GENERAL USE MEDICAL USE

Advocate Someone working To advocate for
with the law alternative treatment
conceive
consult
insert
labour
recover
release
schedule
scope
terminate

The meanings of academic words

Academic language typically contains words that are suitable for formal speech and writing,
and not necessarily found in everyday uses of language. It is therefore important to know the
meaning of these words and be able to use them correctly.

TASK 3.3
Match the words on the left with the definitions on the right. The first one has been done
for you.

Example:

Word Meaning
require to need something or someone
 34

Word Meaning
require to accept something as true, although you do not have proof
vary easily seen or understood
proceed to take actions or behaviours as having a particular meaning
approach able to be found, bought or obtained
occur one of the things that causes a situation or
influences the way it happens
evident to carry on doing something that has already started
assume to happen
respond to need something or someone to happen
factor a way of dealing with a situation or problem
available to obtain or come from another source
interpret to say or do something in reaction to something else
derive to change or be different in different circumstances
(Campbell 2007:55)

Academic words with more than one meaning

Many words in English have more than one meaning. For instance, a word may have both an
everyday meaning and one that is used only in academic contexts.

TASK 3.4
The words in the box below have more than one meaning. Look at how they are used in
the sentences that follow and choose the correct meaning. Then construct sentences using
the remaining meanings of the word appropriately.

Example
Perhaps the most obvious sign of globalisation is in the economic area
a) a particular part of a city, town, region or country
b) the amount of space covered by the surface of a place or shape
c) a particular subject or range of activities

Answer: c) a particular subject or range of activities

 35

1. There have been many debates about the main influences on early human
development throughout history, and even now many scientists are unable to agree
about this issue.

a) to officially give people something to buy or use, e.g., a passport

b) a subject or problem people discuss or argue about
c) a magazine or newspaper that is published at a particular time

2. The student responded that he had not been well lately, and could therefore
not complete the assignment.

a) to react well to a particular kind of treatment

b) to reply to something either verbally or in writing
c) to say or do something in reaction to something else

3. A Physical Education teacher at a neighbouring school was contracted by the

principal to coach the school’s football team.
a) to become smaller
b) to get an illness
c) to formally agree to do something

4. He did not acknowledge the source and is therefore guilty of plagiarism.

a) someone or something that provides you with something you need
b) the cause of a problem
c) a document or person that you get information from

5. There is no magic formula that will solve this problem overnight.

a) the symbols, numbers or letters used to represent a rule in mathematics or science
b) the step-by-step procedure to achieve a particular result
c) a list of the ingredients used to make things like medicines, drinks, etc

6. Each of the methodology textbooks suggests a different approach.

a) an offer or request to do something
b) getting closer to a point in time or space
c) a particular way of handling a situation or problem
 36

7. The Foundation is carrying out research to establish why learners start to become
depressive at increasingly young ages.
a) to start a new company or organisation
b) to secure a position by proving qualifications
c) to find proof or facts that show that something is true
(Campbell 2007: 57-58)
TASK 3.5
Use the correct form of the word in brackets to complete the following sentences. In the
case of verbs, a different ending may be needed for the word, e.g. -ed, -ing, -s. In the case of
nouns, you have to decide whether the singular or plural form is appropriate:

Example
The average daily food _______________ for an adult is between 2000 and 3000 calories. (require)
Answer: requirement

An _____________________ (analyse) of data from Australia shows that heart disease has
increased by 20% in the past three years.
The most recent childhood obesity statistics can be ______________________
(interpretation) in a number of ways.
There is _______________________ (document) evidence of an increase in teenage drug
use.
If a person is ____________________ (suicide) he/she will normally demonstrate at least
five of the following behavioural characteristics:
The notion of __________________ (credible) plays an important role in the theory of
__________________ (persuade).
The following characteristics are ____________________ (dominate).

Prefixes, suffixes and combining forms

There are different ways to form new words in English. In academic discourse we often make
use of prefixes, suffixes and combining forms to name or describe new things, events or actions
and characteristics.
 37

• Prefixes are units smaller than a word, which cannot function on their own, and are
inserted in front of existing words, such as de-, pre- and un-.
• Suffixes, on the other hand, are added at the end of existing words, such as -ate, -er and -
ous.
• Combining forms act very much like prefixes and suffixes but, unlike these, they do not
only combine with words that can stand on their own. Think, for instance, of the front
combining form auto-. It can combine with the root word correct to form the complex word
autocorrect, but also with a back combining form such as -crat to form the complex word
autocrat.

Here are some examples of productive prefixes and front combining forms that are regularly
used in academic texts:

Prefixes and front combining forms regularly used to form academic words

Prefix or front Meaning Examples

combining
form
de- to remove from deforest, dethrone, defoliate
to reverse from a condition decompose, decode, deactivate
ex- out of, outside of, from exclude, exhume
former ex-socialist
re- again reheat
in-/im- not, the opposite of Incompatible, impossible
un- not, the opposite of unpredictable, uncooperative
mis- bad or badly misinterpret
over- too much, additional overextend, overcommit
under- not a sufficient amount underprepared
hyper- above, over, in excess hypercritical, hyperacidity
hypo- under or beneath hypodermic
inter- between or among inter-university, interdisciplinary,
mutually, reciprocally interdependent
intra- within, inside, on the inside: intravenous, intradisciplinary
pro- in favour of pro-African
sub- situated under, beneath, below in rank subterranean, subeditor, subhuman
forming a subordinate part of a whole subcategory
trans- across, beyond, on the other side transcultural, transdisciplinary
 38

TASK 3.6
Which prefixes can be used with the following words? How does the meaning of each word
change when the prefix is added?

variable
significant
available
create
economical
interpret
responsive
assess
consistent
estimate
evaluate
represent
desirable
comprehensible
equity
valuable
understand

The following is a list of suffixes and final combining forms that are regularly used in academic
texts:

Suffixes and final combining forms regularly used to form academic words

Suffix or back Meaning Examples

combining
form
-able/-ible capable of, suitable for controllable, reasonable, variable
inclined to, able to, causing
(-ability)
-ant/-ent causing or performing an action claimant, protestant, colourant,
or existing in a certain condition dependant
-ness indicating state, condition or barrenness, remoteness, vastness
quality
-ous having, full of, or characterised by dangerous, hazardous
-logy study or science cardiology, phenomenology, ontology
-nym name pseudonym, heteronym
 39

-ify to make, change into purify, liquefy, solidify

-less without headingless [Is there really such a
word?!), cordless
-ance/-ence an action or a state of reliance, compliance
-ee person who does something trainee, employee
-ise to make or change into computerise, digitise

TASK 3.7
Which suffixes can be used with the following words?
Rely
interview (v)
Attend
permit (v)
individual
Cancer
Pollute
Rectify
Rude
Measure

Words that often occur together: collocations

There are some words in a language that ‘prefer’ to stand next to certain other words, even
though these pairs or groups of words are not idioms. If you are not a mother-tongue speaker
of English, you might have particular problems with collocations, because you cannot judge
purely on the basis of the meanings of the separate words whether the combinations are
acceptable or odd.

TASK 3.8
Which of the following collocations are acceptable in academic discourse, and which are not?
execute a procedure use a source unveil your creativity
carry out a procedure consult a source tap your creativity
make a procedure mine a source unfold your creativity
perform a procedure tap a source loosen your creativity
do a procedure visit a source unleash your creativity
engage in a discussion make progress ethical actions
participate in a discussion do progress ethical deeds
take part in a discussion take progress ethical behaviour
 40

join a discussion manufacture progress ethical operations

exploit a discussion ethical doings
make research support an opinion make conclusions
make a research support an argument derive conclusions
do research support evidence take conclusions
make researches support a thesis draw conclusions
investigate research support a conclusion create conclusions
support facts instil conclusions

PLEASE NOTE:
The following work about dictionaries is self-study. Multi-media aids will be uploaded on
clickUP to facilitate your comprehension. Should you have any questions still, contact your
lecturer.

Using a medical dictionary

A medical dictionary is:

• a specialised dictionary covering terms used in the health profession
by doctors, nurses, and others involved in allied health care services;
• with authoritative spellings and definitions it is a particularly
crucial resource in a field, where a misspelling or misunderstanding
can have unfortunate consequences for people under care.
• Print dictionaries in this field may be sorted alphabetically or may be
categorized according to medical specializations or by the various
systems in the body, as the immune system and the respiratory system.
• The online Medical Dictionary on Dictionary.com allows
alphabetical browsing in the combined electronic versions of more than
one authoritative medical reference, insuring access to correct
spellings, as well as immediate, direct access to a known search term
typed into the search box on the site:
• A medical dictionary reveals that large numbers of medical terms are
formed from the same Latin and Greek parts combined and recombined.
(Adapted from: Random House, 2016)

Why use a medical dictionary

Using a medical dictionary will enrich your vocabulary and deepen your understanding of the
meanings and use of medical terms. Look up each new word as you encounter it and see
what language it comes from and how it is pronounced. You can also use it to determine
how else this particular word is used other than the examples given in the context of the
medical field.
 41

Example 1

• operate v /’ɔpərat/ 1 to function or work, e.g. a machine 2 to exert power or

influence; to act or produce a desired effect. 3 to be in effect. 4 to be in action; specif
to carry out trade or business. 5 (often + on) to perform surgery. 6 to carry on
military or naval action or mission.
• operative¹ adj 1 in force or operation 2 significant or relevant 3 of or using surgical
operation >> operatively adv, operativeness n
• operative² n 1 a worker. 2 a secret agent. 3 NAm a private detective.

Discussion
• Different fonts indicate different information
• Headword/ entry word = bold
• Parts of speech (noun/verb etc.) are given.
• Pronunciation indicated between slashes. Uses phonetic alphabet.
• Stress on syllables ‘ at phonetic representation
• Different meanings of one headword are numbered.
• Abbreviations are explained in beginning of dictionary.
• Collocations are words (often prepositions) usually found with headword.
• Superscript shows different ways to use headword.
• Derived words/derivations are given at end of entry.
• Regional usage and semantic field sometimes indicated, e.g. Americans use it in the
field of business

Example 2

• die v (-s, -d, dying) 1 to stop living; to undergo the ending of physical life. 2 to be
forgotten . 3 (also + for) to long keenly or desperately I long for the good old days. 4 (+
of) to be almost overwhelmed with (e.g. boredom).
• * die hard of habits or attitudes: to take a long time to change or disappear. never
say die informal never give up. To die for informal excellent or desirable
 42

Discussion
• Inflections (changes in the endings of words) given in brackets. Headword
represented by -
• Illustrative example often in different font. Here in italics.
• Idioms and phrases often added after entry.
• Usage e.g. Formal or informal indicated.

TASK 3.9
Read through the following dictionary entry and answer the questions that
follow:

Questions
1. How many meanings does the word radiate have?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. What do we call the illness caused by gamma rays or rays from radioactive dust?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. What does the word between slashes (/‘/) represent?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

4. What does the small vertical line before the phonetic representation (the word between
slashes / /) show?
 43

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
5. What part of speech is radiate?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

6. Fill in the appropriate preposition: Energy radiates ___ the X-ray machine. Write only
the preposition.

7. Is the word radiate used literally or figuratively in the following sentence?

The orator radiates enthusiasm for his cause. Explain how you know this.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

8. Why is the following sentence incorrect?

Radiations is emitted by an X-ray machine.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

TASK 3.10
Read through the following dictionary entry and answer the questions that
follow:

• Cure¹ /kjƱə/ noun [C] **

• 1 a medicine or treatment that makes someone who is ill become healthy: Doctors say
there are several possible cures.
• +for There’s no cure for diabetes but the symptoms can be managed. 2 a solution to a
problem. miracle cure (= an easy solution that works immediately).
• Cure² /kjƱə/ verb [T] * [-d, curing]

• 1 to stop someone from being affected by an illness: It might be several months before
she’s cured. 2 to control or get rid of a bad habit, feeling or attitude: cure sb of sth
Nothing seemed to cure him of his nervousness.
 44

Questions

1. What do the superscripts tell you?

______________________________________________________________

2. What does /kjƱə/ show?

______________________________________________________________

3. What does the [C] mean?

______________________________________________________________

4. Choose the correct answer: The cures is/are very expensive.

_______________________________________________________________

5. What do the abbreviations sb and sth stand for?

_______________________________________________________________

6. Fill in the correct preposition: You can be cured ___ leprosy.

7. Identify the part of speech of the underlined word: The woman is waiting for a cure.
_______________________________________________________________

8. What do people mean when they talk about a ‘miracle cure’?

_______________________________________________________________

9. Supply the correct form of the verb in brackets: They (cure) that terrible disease while we
speak!
_______________________________________________________________

10. Use the headword as a past tense transitive verb in a sentence of your own.
_______________________________________________________________
 45

THEME 4: UNDERSTANDING ACADEMIC

TEXTS
Unit 1: The characteristics of academic texts

Learning outcomes
After you have worked through this unit you should:
1. understand the main characteristics of academic texts;
2. recognise different genres of texts;
3. recognise and understand the rhetorical functions of different texts.

In the previous unit you were introduced to the kind of language (academic and medical) you
will be expected to engage with. The main way in which you will do this is by reading and
writing academic texts. These could range from noting/reading information from a textbook,
reading and/or writing a patients case history, reading academic journal articles, writing
academic essays or using an online database. While the previous unit on terminology will
definitely help you understand the most challenging part of engaging with such texts, you need
to understand the characteristics of academic language that sometimes make it challenging.
Coffin, Curry, Goodman, Hewimgs, Lillis and Swann (2003) attribute this to the following
features of academic language:

Register
This refers to the vocabulary and sentence structures used in written texts. It is sometimes
referred to a ‘style’. Academic texts include much more specialist vocabulary and particular
kinds of sentence structure which are more formal than many other types of communication.
 46

TASK 4.1.
Read these examples of poor language use in recording case histories. Change each
sentence to solve possible ambiguities, correct grammar or make the intended
meaning clearer.

1. The patient refused autopsy.

____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. The patient has no previous history of suicides.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3. Patient has left white blood cells at another hospital.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
4. She has no rigors or shaking chills, but her husband states she was very hot in bed last
night.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
5. Patient has chest pain if she lies on her left side for over a year.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
6. On the second day the knee was better, and on the third day it disappeared.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
7. The patient is tearful and crying constantly. She also appears to be depressed.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
8. The patient has been depressed since she began seeing me in 1993.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
9. Discharge status: Alive but without my permission.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
10. Healthy appearing decrepit 69-year old male, mentally alert but forgetful.
 47

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
11. Patient had waffles for breakfast and anorexia for lunch.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
12. She is numb from her toes down.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
13. While in ER, she was examined, x-rated and sent home.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

Genre
Carstens and Rambiritch (2016) note that as a university student you will encounter many
different genres in the course of your studies. You will, for instance, need to read textbooks,
journal articles, websites and chapters in books; you will also need to write assignments and
tests, and sometimes present work orally. Different sets of skills are needed to ‘use’ each of
these genres.

To understand and use genres appropriately it is important to think about:

• their purpose;
• the initiator (speaker, writer or composer);
• the receiver (reader, listener or viewer);
• the medium;
• the setting.

A patient’s case history: A medical genre

What is a case history?

A case history is the collected data concerning an individual, the family and environment. It includes
the medical history and any other information that may be useful in analysing and diagnosing the
case or for instructional or research purpose. (Medical Dictionary, n.d.)
 48

The content of a patient’s case history is very variable and will depend on the presenting
symptoms, patient concerns and the past medical, psychological and social history.
One general structure for a case history is:
• Presenting complaint;
• History of presenting complaint, including investigations, treatment and referrals
already arranged and provided;
• Past medical history: significant past diseases/illnesses, surgery, including complications,
trauma;
• History of medication: past and present, prescribed and over the counter, allergies;
• Family history: especially parents, siblings and children;
• Social history: smoking, alcohol, drugs, accommodation and living arrangements, marital
status, occupation, pets, hobbies;
• Systems review: cardiovascular, respiratory, gastrointestinal, nervous, musculoskeletal,
genitourinary systems.

There are, however, multiple guidelines, as can be seen in Dr Brian Budgell’s article
Guidelines to the writing of case studies (2008), which summarises the presentation as
follows:
• Introduction: describe the context of the case
• Case presentation: describe the history and results of any examinations performed. The
working diagnosis and management of the case are described.
• Management and outcome: describe the course of the patient’s complaint. Where
possible, make reference to any outcome measures which were used to objectively
demonstrate how the patient evolved through the course of the management.
• Discussion: synthesize the foregoing subsections and explain both correlations and
apparent inconsistencies. If appropriate to the case, within one or two sentences
describe the lessons to be learnt.
 49

TASK 4.2
Read through the following case studies and answer the questions which follow:

CASE STUDY

Patient E is 15 years of age, 5 feet 10 inches tall, and weighs 370 pounds. He has been
overweight his entire life; at 8 years of age he was 4 feet 7 inches tall and weighed 210 pounds.
He is currently being home schooled for several reasons, including severe arthritis of the
bilateral knees, obstructive sleep apnea leading to severe fatigue, type 2 diabetes requiring four
injections of insulin per day, and a history of being bullied. When asked about his quality of life,
Patient E states he feels like an old man due to his many health issues and feels like he is existing
in the world rather than living in it. The patient's monthly medical bills average $856 for
medications, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) machine rental, and physician co-
payments. His internal medicine physician introduces the possibility of gastric bypass surgery
and explores Patient E's thoughts and feelings regarding the procedure. The patient and his
parents agree to talk with a surgeon and explore the possibility further. The thought of
regaining a productive life, preventing any further chronic illnesses, and possibly reducing or
eliminating of some of the diseases that have plagued his young life is intriguing. After a
psychiatric evaluation and thorough medical evaluation, Patient E is cleared for gastric bypass
surgery. He is scheduled for the procedure at a center with a multidisciplinary team
experienced in treating obese adolescents.

Immediately following surgery, Patient E has had a reduction in his insulin requirements and a
decrease in his appetite. At his one-month post-surgical evaluation, his weight has decreased
25 pounds and he has discontinued his insulin. He continues to need his CPAP machine at night
for his obstructive sleep apnea but feels optimistic about his future for the first time. At his 6-
month follow-up, Patient E has lost 65 pounds and no longer requires antiglycemic agents of
any kind. His knee pain is resolving as his weight decreases, and he reports going to a movie
with his cousin for the first time in his adolescence.

After 1 year, Patient E weighs 260 pounds and no longer utilizes his CPAP machine. His A1C
is 6.2% without medications. He is able to exercise without pain or shortness of breath, and
he is contemplating attending his local high school the next year. The patient's medical bills are
now approximately $150 per month. He has met a girl through his cousin and is actively dating.
He is happy and states he is now living in the world instead of watching it go by. For Patient E,
gastric bypass appears to have been successful, although he will continue to be monitored for
long-term effects and complications. (HoN, 2015)

Heart Disease Case Studies

The following case studies are from actual cases handled by The Cochran Firm - Metairie
attorneys.
 50

Text 1

Failure to Diagnose Heart Attack In Women

A 45 year old white female began to experience mid-sternal “sharp” chest pain that radiated
into both arms. She took a family member’s (her father’s) nitroglycerin tablet without
obtaining any pain relief. She was emergently taken by ambulance to hospital, and arrived in
the emergency room at approximately 11:21 p.m. Significantly, the ambulance records reflect
that patient’s chief complaint was mid-sternal chest pain which radiated into her arms and had
not been relieved by her taking nitroglycerin given to her by her father. Upon arrival at the
emergency room, the triage nurse also specifically noted that patient’s chief complaint was
“Chest Pain- midsternal radiating to both arms, onset 20:00”. The triage nurse recorded that
the pain rated a “10” on a severity scale of 1-10. The emergency room record also reflected
that patient had taken 2 nitroglycerin tablets and 4 baby aspirin without relief. Her blood
pressure was recorded at 142/82, pulse 85 respirations 21.

According to her past medical history, patient was a smoker, she was obese, weighing 160 lbs,
had a history of hypertension. She was also a type II diabetic. Her father also had a history of
heart trouble, which was the source of her obtaining the nitroglycerin tablets. Dr. saw patient
for the first time at approximately 23:45 and ordered blood drawn, including cardiac enzymes
and a single EKG. Dr. recorded that patient had a history of “epigastric pain and sternal area
sharp pleuritic chest pain. Around 22:00 epigastric pain resolved, but not the chest pain.”

The ECG was read as “non specific ST and T wave abnormality, abnormal ECG.” The blood
work, specifically the cardiac enzymes, were essentially normal. Patient was given a GI cocktail
and discharged from the hospital emergency room at approximately 01:10 on the early morning
of February 8, less than 2 hours after she arrived. No serial EKG’s or serial cardiac enzyme
studies were ever ordered or performed at Dr.’s request. She was not admitted to the hospital
for cardiac consultation and no cardiologist was consulted during her evaluation in the
emergency room.

At approximately 10:00 a.m. on February 8, patient was found in the hallway of her residence
unconscious and in V-Fib. An ambulance was called and she was shocked multiple times while
being emergently transported back to the emergency room of hospital where she was
diagnosed with an anterolateral infarct. She was treated in the cardiac catheterization lab for
coronary artery disease. She suffered severe hypoxic encephalopathy and remained
unresponsive until her death on March 9. The causes of death listed on the death certificate
are: Hypoxic encephalopathy, ventricular fibrillation, acute myocardial infarction.
 51

Text 2

Defendants breached the standard of care in their treatment of patient by committing the
following acts and omissions, all of which constitute negligence and wrongful conduct for
which defendants are liable:

1. Dr. failed to perform an adequate and more thorough workup of patient’s obvious
cardiac signs and symptoms;

2. Dr. failed to obtain a cardiology consultation;

3. Dr. failed to admit patient to the hospital for further observation of her chest pain;

4. Dr. failed to obtain the information which was recorded in patient’s chart and
readily available to him.

Task 4.3
Compare the two structures provided for writing case studies to the two articles.
• Are both case studies structured similarly?
• Which of the two sets of structure guidelines have they followed?
• To what extent have they followed the guidelines they seem to have chosen?
• Do you think there are possibly more guidelines than the two we have considered?
• How important do you think it is to comply with such guidelines?

Rhetorical function
Rhetorical function or purpose refers to the overt communicative function of a text. So, for
example, the overt rhetorical function of the essay is to construct an argument, while the main
rhetorical purpose of the laboratory report is to provide an account of a scientific procedure,
giving specific information in a predetermined format. The main rhetorical functions that texts
serve are:
1) To tell a story (narrative)
2) To describe something (descriptive)
3) To see similarities and differences between concepts (compare and contrast)
4) To give an account of factors that contribute to the causes and effects of a particular
event, occurrence, condition
5) To present an argument, and evidence to support this argument, on a particular theme,
topic or debate (argumentative)
 52

The cause and effect essay

The rhetorical function of the cause and effect essay is to explain/give reasons for why
something happened or the effects of something. These paragraphs can be ordered as causes
and effects or as effects and then causes. When an author gives reasons why something
happened, he or she is explaining what caused an effect (reasons are causes and the thing that
happens is the effect). Also, when a writer explains the results of an action, he or she is
explaining the effects of a cause (results are effects and the thing that occurs is the cause). For
example, the following effects of a cold may be easily identifiable: a sore throat, runny nose,
and a cough. But determining the cause of the sickness can be far more difficult. A number of
causes are possible, and to complicate matters, these possible causes could have combined to
cause the sickness. That is, more than one cause may be responsible for any given effect.
Therefore, cause-and-effect discussions are often complicated and frequently lead to debates
and arguments.

The Structure of a Cause-and-Effect Essay

The cause-and-effect essay opens with a general introduction to the topic, which then leads to
a thesis that states the main cause, main effect, or various causes and effects of a condition or
event.

The cause-and-effect essay can be organised in one of the following two primary ways:
1. Start with the cause and then talk about the effects.

2. Start with the effect and then talk about the causes.

For example, if your essay were on childhood obesity, you could start by talking about the
effect of childhood obesity and then discuss the cause or you could start the same essay by
talking about the cause of childhood obesity and then move to the effect.
Regardless of which structure you choose, be sure to explain each element of the essay fully
and completely. Explaining complex relationships requires the full use of evidence, such as
scientific studies, expert testimony, statistics, and anecdotes.
Because cause-and-effect essays determine how phenomena are linked, they make frequent
use of certain words and phrases that denote such linkage. A few phrase o0f causes have been
provided. Try to think of possible phrases of effects.
 53

Phrases of Causation

As a result consequently
because Due to
hence since
thus therefore

Phrases of effects

The conclusion should wrap up the discussion and reinforce the thesis, leaving the reader
with a clear understanding of the relationship that was analysed.

TASK 4.4
This task will attempt to introduce you to the texts (and their functions) that may be most
useful to a HC student. Read through the THREE texts which have been uploaded to clickUP.
• Use the summary of rhetorical functions above to categorise each article.
• Complete the following table based on the language used in each article.
 54

RHETORICAL FUNCTION OF THE FOUR ARTICLES

DESCRIPTION ARGUMENT COMPARISON/CONTRAST CAUSE AND
Article: Article: Article: EFFECT
Article:
WORDS USED TO DENOTE (SHOW) RHETORICAL FUNCTION

American Heart Association. Mini-stroke doubles risk of heart attack. Science Daily,
[Online] Available at: www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/03/110324162231.htm. Accessed:
16 January 2019.
Berry, J. 2016. Stroke versus heart attack: What’s to know. [Online] Available at:
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/313958.php. Accessed:16 January 2019
Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (1998-2019) Stroke. [Online] Available
at: https://www.mayoclinic.org. Accessed: 20 January 2019.

Homework
Read the following article carefully and consider the language used to convey the message
before you answer the following questions in as much detail as you can:

Zuhlke, L. 2016. The Conversation. Why heart disease is on the rise in South Africa. [Online]
Available at: https://www.news.uct.ac.za/article/-2016-11-29-why-heart-disease-is-on-the-rise-
in-south-africa. Accessed: 14 January 2019.
 55

TASK 4.5

1. Consider the register used in this article. How formal is it? Why do you say so?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2. Consider what you have learnt about genre.

2.1. What kind of a person wrote this article?
______________________________________________________________

2.2. Who do you think is the intended audience of this article?

______________________________________________________________

2.3. Based on your answers at 2.1. to 2.3., how would you describe the genre of this
article?
______________________________________________________________

3. How would you describe the main rhetorical function of this article?
______________________________________________________________

4. According to this author, what is the most important reason why so many people die
of cardiovascular disease in sub-Saharan Africa?
______________________________________________________________

5. List the six major risk factors mentioned.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

6. Consider paragraph 3 (“The challenge is that the prevalence ...”) and the six
subsequent paragraphs (up to “...young or those who smoke heavily.”). Discuss the
effectiveness of the order in the last six paragraphs have been written.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
 56

7. Read the last two paragraphs in the section “What is cardiovascular disease?” again.
Evaluate the way this information has been divided into paragraphs, keeping in mind
that one paragraph should have one main idea.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

8. The last sub-heading reads “What can be done? And what are the challenges?”
8.1. Do you think these two questions should be dealt with in one section? Why?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
8.2. Do you think the article has been ended well? Motivate your answer.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
 57

THEME 5: READING ACADEMIC TEXTS

Unit 1: Your reading background
Learning outcomes
After working through this unit you should be able to:
1. reflect critically on your own reading background;
2. understand the value of reading for you as a HCS and as a HCP;
3. name some of the differences between school-level reading and university-level reading;
4. name some of the qualities related to reading background that a reader brings to the reading
situation, and explain how these could influence reading;
5. become aware of your reading speed and possible ways in which this can be improved.

The value of reading

The value of reading, for you as a student and as a HCP cannot be overemphasised. Realistically,
there is no career that does not stress the importance of good reading skills. Is there any
profession you can think of that does not require one to be a proficient reader. In the case of
the path (academic and career) you have chosen, reading is an activity you will often have to
engage in. But proficient reading does not begin now, today here during the academic literacy
module. In fact your lecturers (in other subjects) will assume that you have arrived here already
a proficient reader. It will not be long before you will be expected to engage in large volumes
of reading. Whether you will cope with this will depend largely on the reading skills you are or
are not equipped with already. Let us take a few minutes to reflect on our reading experiences
for it is these experiences that influence the readers we are today.

TASK 5.1
Take a few minutes to read through and consider your personal responses to these
questions. Once you have done that, discuss your responses with a partner. Use this
discussion to determine whether you and your partner share similar or different reading habits.

1. Have you grown up in a home where your parents, siblings and/or extended family have
read to you as a child?
2. Have you grown up in a home/environment where there were books available to you?
3. If the answer to the previous question is “no”, what could be the reasons for this?
 58

4. Have you, in the last year read any book (fiction or non-fiction) that was not a
prescribed textbook?
5. If you have, what book was this? If you have not, why is that?
6. On average how many books would you read in a month?
7. Do you think that effective reading skills can impact ones academic career?

One last thing: think once again about your reading habits. Do you think that there could be
any link or correlation between your responses to these questions and your final mark for,
say, English Language (Home, First Additional)? Do you think that your reading skill, at present,
has equipped you for the reading demands of university?

TASK 5.2
Try to think of all the different types of texts (print and electronic) you will read
as a HCS and a HCP, why you would need to read such a text and how you would
read it.

What I read Why I read this How I read this

The newspaper To keep updated with current Quickly, read the articles that
events interest in and then skim/scan
over the rest

(Adapted from: Wyrley-Birch & Wright, 2003)

 59

Reading at university as a HCS

The definition of Academic Literacy, provided in the study component of this study guide, and
discussed in Unit 2, makes reference to a number of skills and abilities directly related to
(academic) reading:

• understand relations between different parts of a text, be aware of

the logical development of (an academic) text, via introductions to
conclusions, and know how to use language that serves to make the
different parts of a text hang together;
• interpret different kinds of text type (genre), and show sensitivity for
the meaning that they convey, and the audience that they are
aimed at;
• make distinctions between essential and non-essential information,
fact and opinion, propositions and arguments; distinguish between
cause and effect, classify, categorise and handle data that make
comparisons;
• know what counts as evidence for an argument, extrapolate from
information by making inferences, and apply the information or its
implications to other cases than the one at hand;
• make meaning (e.g. of an academic text) beyond the level of the
sentence.

Discussion

Look at the words highlighted in the definition above. What, do you think, these specific
(highlighted) words/phrases mean/refer to (in the context of reading).

TASK 5.3

Before you read the text below your lecturer will provide you with instruction on
how to test your reading speed. Do not read the text before you have these
instructions.

A common problem that most South African Higher Education Institutions are currently
experiencing is that many students enter higher education unable to read and write at the
level expected of them (Nel, Dreyer & Kopper, 2004; Bharuthram, 2007; Ngwenya, 2010).
The situation is not unique to South Africa but is also experienced in other parts of the
world. For example, Falk-Ross (2002:278) says that a "...small but significant number of U.S.
first-year college students commence their studies with less than adequate reading
comprehension strategies and enter developmental reading classes or attend assistant labs".
In a study conducted by the American Institute for Research (AIR), it was reported that 50%
of students at 4-year colleges had inadequate skills to function at a 'proficient' level of literacy
 60

(AIR, 2006). Over the past few years, especially following the release of the annual South
African Grade 12 examination results, there has been a spread of articles that report on the
poor literacy levels of students about to enter tertiary education. For example, Govender &
Naidu (2006) reported that academics from South African universities are aware that many
Grade 12 learners entering universities are barely able to read and write. Govender & Naidu
(2006:1) also make reference to Eloff, Vice-Chancellor of North-West University, who said
"... the bad news for universities is that we see a worsening in the literacy levels and reading
and writing skills of all students". More recently, the quality of the National Senior Certificate
(NSC) results was questioned again since the requirements for a pass are so low, namely,
students need 40% in three subjects, including their home language and 30% in another three
subjects to pass. Consequently, a student with an average of 35% could obtain a NCS (Parker,
2012). This has resulted in high university drop-out rates due to student under-
preparedness. It was reported in 2005 by the DoE that of the 120,000 students who were
enrolled in higher education in 2000, 30% dropped out in their first year of study. A further
20% dropped out during their 2nd and 3rd years. Of the remaining students only 22%
completed within the specified 3 years duration of their degree (DoE, 2005). More recent
data (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2012) show that for 2010 the graduation
rate was 15%, which was well below the expected national norm of 25% for three-year
degrees in contact universities. In particular, the document states that in such universities
"well under a third of students complete their courses in regulation time and one in three
graduates within four years" (ibid .:38).

Several studies across South African universities (Perkins, 1991; Starkey, McKenna, Fraser &
Worku, 1999; Balfour, 2002; Bharuthram, 2007; Ngwenya 2010) have confirmed that the
general language and reading levels of the majority of first-year students remain inadequate
and a considerable number of students would be at risk of failing if no interventions were
provided. For example, Balfour (2002) in an analysis of students' performance in English
proficiency concluded that while students are conversational communicators in English they
possess partial language or genre awareness and that students' reading skills needed urgent
attention. In 2009, the National Benchmark Test (NBT) conducted by Higher Education
South Africa (HESA) showed that of the 13,000 students who wrote the academic literacy
test, only 47% were proficient in English and almost the same proportion — 46% — fell into
the 'intermediate' category while 7% had only 'basic' academic literacy. In several of the above
studies it was found that students performed much better in the multiple choice questions
than the constructed questions, indicating that while students are able to answer literal
questions, they do not have the competence in English that requires them to construct
sentences in a cohesive and coherent manner. In a study conducted by Ngwenya (2010) to
correlate first-year law students' profile with the language demands of their content subject
it was found that the participants' average score in a reading comprehension test was 48%.
Students performed poorly in the exophoric section which required them to think
conceptually, infer meaning and be critical obtaining a score of 37% while the average mark
on decoding endophoric information (i.e. responding to questions for which answers were
retrievable from the text) was 58%. Generally, the students lack of proficiency in English
which is the medium of instruction, and their limited reading ability, results in many of them
struggling to cope academically, leading to high attrition and low throughput rates. The above
results can be explained in terms of the distinction made by Cummins (2000) between Basic
Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency
(CALP). CALP involves the use of a more context-reduced language associated with written
language as well as more formal aspects of the classroom. According to Cummins (2000)
academic literacies are context reduced. For successful meaning making, writers and readers
 61

are required to share a significant amount of background knowledge. Therefore, CALP,

which is context reduced, is needed for the production and interpretation of academic texts.
On the other hand, BICS is more context-embedded in the sense that meaning making can
often be found within the interactional context (Cummins, 2000). This implies that even if a
student has acquired a high level of proficiency in a language, the student is unlikely to
succeed if the proficiency is mainly BICS proficiency. Students need CALP to succeed
academically. It would seem that while many students who enter university have BICS, these
students lack CALP, which as discussed above, is essential for success in higher education.

Adapted from: Bharathram, 2012)

What kind of reader are you?

Think back to how you read the text above. Is it possible that the way in which you read
positively or negatively affects your reading speed?

Boakye et al (2008: 12) distinguish between three main types of reader:

• the speaking reader, who speaks or whispers while (s)he is reading. This reader reads
slowly, especially if (s)he has difficulty in pronouncing words.
• the listening reader, who mentally ‘hears’ the words, as if someone is reading to
him/her.
• the seeing reader: as (s)he reads, the message goes straight from the eyes to the brain,
without any detours through the ears or mouth, as is the case with the first two types.
This is the ideal way of reading.
 62

Unit 2: Reading Strategies

Learning outcomes
After working through this unit you should be able to:
1. understand and use (appropriately) the different reading strategies you will be introduced
to;
2. be able to use skimming and scanning effectively as pre-reading strategies;
predict the content of a text on the basis of background knowledge and characteristics of
the text.

Reading strategies
Orr and Shutte (1992) state that for reading to be ‘effective and efficient’, it has to be dynamic
and goal directed. Why dynamic? Why goal oriented?

Dynamic always active or changing, having or showing a lot of energy

of or relating to energy, motion or physical force

Goal Oriented Intellectually, emotionally or functionally directed to do or achieve something

(Merriam-Webster.Com, 2016)

Reading is therefore an active skill, aimed at achieving a particular goal or answering a particular
question/s. When reading you (actively) engage with the text. You have to be thinking
constantly about the meaning the author intends to convey by questioning what you are
reading, why this information is important and how it can be used in the task assigned to you.
Answering these (and other such questions) will require you to use a particular reading
strategy. Often you may have to use more than one reading strategy to achieve your goal. You
are more than likely already familiar with these reading strategies, having probably used them
both at school and for other purposes

• Scanning
• Skimming
• Reading for comprehension
• Critical reading
 63

Scanning
Scanning can be defined as rapid reading with the intention of obtaining a specific fact or piece
of information (Orr & Shutte, 1992). They state further that scanning depends on speed and
how you visualise the information being sought. To scan effectively (AACC, n.d.):
• Keep in mind at all times what it is that you are searching for. If you hold the image of
that word, idea or number in your mind, it is likely to appear more clearly than the
surrounding words;
• Anticipate in what form it will appear – number, word, proper noun;
• Analyse the organisation of the content/material before starting to scan:
i. If you are familiar with the material or the text is not very long/detailed
you may be able to scan the document in a single search;

ii. If the material is lengthy and new to you, a preliminary skimming may be
necessary to determine which part of the text to scan.
• Be willing to skip over large sections of text without reading or understanding them.

Task 5.4
This exercise is based on the article taken from the Chronic Diseases News of 4 September
2007. It has been printed on p.65. Do not page to it until your lecturer asks you to do so.

Try to follow the guidelines listed above as you complete the following scanning exercises.
Time yourself to see how quickly you can what you are looking for when scanning for
information.

Scanning
1. What will cost more than R8 billion?
2. Who is Professor Anthony Mbewu?
3. Healthy habits should reduce deaths due to heart disease and stroke by ___%.
4. What does the abbreviation HSFSA stand for?
5. Approximately how many people die of strokes on a daily basis?
6. Which age group is regarded as working age in this article?
 64

Skimming
Skimming is a method of rapidly moving the eyes over a text with the purpose of getting only
the main idea and a general overview of the content. Skimming is useful in three different
situations:

1. Pre-Reading – skimming is more than simply previewing and can give a more accurate
picture of the text to be read again later;
2. Reviewing – skimming is useful for reviewing a text already read;
3. Reading – skimming is most often used for quickly reading material that, for any number
of reasons, do not need detailed attention.
To skim effectively (Arundel, n.d.):
• Read the title, it is the shortest possible summary of the content;
• Read the introduction and/or abstract;
• Read the first paragraph completely;
• Read all sub-headings;
• Read the first sentence of each remaining paragraph:
i. The main idea of most paragraphs appear in the first sentence;
ii. You may find, after reading a few paragraphs. That the author prefers to
situate his main idea at the end of a paragraph.
• Look, also, for:
a) Clue words that answer who, what, when, why, how;
b) Proper nouns;
c) Unusual words;
d) Typographical cues – italics, boldface, underlining.
• Read the final paragraph completely.

TASK 5.5.
This exercise is based on the Joy Li Juan Quah et.al. article on clickUP you were asked to bring
to class. You will have to access this article to complete the questions. Try to follow the
guidelines listed above as you complete the following skimming exercises.
 65

SKIMMING
1. What is the title of this article?

Read the section entitled ‘Abstract’:

2. Summarise the aim of the article.
3. Between ____ and ____% of respondents knew what the signs and symptoms of heart
attacks and strokes were.
4. Name two groups of people who did not know enough about these signs and
symptoms.
5. Where was this research conducted?
6. How many tables and figures were included in this article?

Predicting the content of a text

Scanning and skimming are two strategies you will use often. Most often you will use these
strategies to assist you in the reading process.

Reading as a process?
Reading is a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols in order to construct or derive
meaning (reading comprehension). It is a means of language acquisition, of communication, and
of sharing information and ideas (Certeau, 1984).
 66

The diagram below outlines the steps one should follow when reading:

(Kodi, 2015)
The act of prediction asks students to use information in a text (heading/title, length, pictures,
sub-headings, graphs) and make an informed guess as to the ideas/concepts/meaning of that
text.

Why is prediction useful?

Predicting the contents of a text helps students activate their background knowledge about the
theme/topic under discussion (in that text). Students try to make connections between what
they already know and what they understand from the ‘textual clues’ provided. Prediction also
encourages students to think as they read as they have to pay attention to determine if they
were correct in their predictions.

Both scanning and skimming can therefore be regarded as 'pre-reading' activities. You engage
in these activities to help you get a sense of what the text is about.
 67

A number of the steps/strategies outlined in the diagrammatic representation above will be

discussed in further detail in the next two units.

Study the diagram carefully.

Have you been following similar steps when asked to read?

___________________________________________________________________
Are there steps that you think are not useful to the reading process?
___________________________________________________________________

Homework
Read the following article:
Quah, J.L., Yap, S., Cheah, S.O., Ng, Y.Y., Goh, E.S., Doctor, N., Leong, B.S., Tiah, L., Chia,
M.Y.C. & Ong, M.E.H. 2014. Knowledge of signs and symptoms of heart attack and stroke among
Singapore residents. Biomed Research International , 10 April.

Download the comprehension questions based on it and print out the answer sheet. They
will be on clickUP. Read the article carefully – try to follow the reading process as explained
to you. Then fill in the answers to the best of your ability.

This task is part of your formal assessment and will count 20 marks toward your term mark.
It must be handed in next week.

Shock statistics on heart disease and stroke in South Africa

(Chronic Diseases News, 4 September 2007)

Experts estimate the total direct and indirect costs of death and disability from heart disease
and stroke to exceed R8 billion a year, says Marion Scher.

According to Professor Anthony Mbewu, President of the Medical Research Council and
Visiting Professor of Cardiology and Internal Medicine at the University of Cape Town,
“Heart attacks and stroke are particularly tragic as they often strike down the victim in their
productive years of life, removing the breadwinner from families.”

“When non-fatal they often result in severe disability and consequent impoverishment for
entire families. The total direct and indirect costs of death and disability are more than
 68

R8 billion per annum. Up to 80% of heart disease and stroke could be prevented by setting
up healthy habits for life with a good diet, exercise and avoiding smoking.”
A report released this month, entitled ‘Heart Disease in South Africa’, based on research
carried out on heart disease in South Africa, revealed shocking statistics requiring urgent
intervention.

Commissioned by the Heart and Stroke Foundation SA (HSFSA) and released by the Medical
Research Council (MRC), this report was authored by Prof Krisela Steyn from UCT
Department of Medicine.

The report revealed the following:

• Between 1997 – 2004 in South Africa, 195 people a day died due to some form of
heart and blood vessel disease (cardiovascular disease).
• About 33 people a day die due to heart attacks.
• Two men die for every woman who dies of a heart attack.
• About 60 people a day die due to strokes.
• About 37 people a day die due to heart failure.
• More than half the deaths due to chronic disease, including heart disease, occur
before the age of 65 years. These are premature deaths that affect the workforce
in the country and have a major impact on the economy of the country.
• Premature deaths due to heart and blood vessel diseases in people of working age
(35-64 years) are expected to increase by 41% between 2007 and 2030. The
negative economic impact of this will be enormous.
• The highest rates of heart and blood vessel disease in South Africa are found in the
Indian community, followed by the coloured community with the white and black
community having the lowest and most similar rates.
 69

Unit 3: Reading to understand

Learning outcomes
After working through this unit you should be able to:
1. name and describe the main components of the reading process;
2. predict what a text is about by looking at clues provided in the text;
3. describe how a reader goes about locating and naming the main ideas in a given academic text;
4. explain what ‘inferencing’ means and make inferences that are necessary for comprehending a
given text;
5. rewrite what you have read in your own words (paraphrase an excerpt from a text);
6. make brief notes on a text you have read to use later for synthesising with notes from other
sources to create your own text.

The role of comprehension in the reading process

Reading comprehension is the process of making meaning from a text (Woolley,
2011). Reading comprehension includes three elements:

• The text that is to be comprehended (text= any printed or electronic text);

• The reader who is doing the comprehending (reader= knowledge and experience
the reader brings to the act of reading)
• The activity in which comprehension is a part (activity= purpose and process
associated with the act of reading).

Once you have completed the pre-reading activities, you are ready to engage in a closer
reading of the text to allow you to begin understanding clearly what the text is about. This
(first) close reading will help:

1. you determine if your predictions were correct or not. Should your

predictions have been incorrect, it simply means that you will need to read
and re-read the text;
2. Start answering questions you may have about the text and its intended
meaning.
 70

Why read for understanding

We have discussed already the importance of reading for you here at university, and in your
place of work. The reading you engage in will require you to:

• know what counts as evidence for an argument, extrapolate from

information by making inferences, and apply the information or its
implications to other cases than the one at hand;
• make meaning (e.g. of an academic text) beyond the level of the sentence.

A first step toward this is ensuring that you have a thorough understanding of the text.

Finding main ideas in a paragraph:

The ability to identify the main idea (in a paragraph and in a text) is critical for students so as
to ensure a clear understanding of the intended message – the main idea of a paragraph is
therefore the author’s message about the topic.

Where are the main ideas found?

Main ideas are often found at the beginning of paragraphs. The first sentence often (but not
always) explains the subject being discussed. Main ideas can also be found in the concluding
sentence of a paragraph. It can be expressed as a summation of the information in the
paragraph as well as a link to the next paragraph.

Highlight the main idea in the text below:

To many parents, the infants crying may be mainly an irritation, especially if it continues for
long periods. But crying serves important functions for the child as well as for the parents.
For the child, crying helps improve lung capacity and the respiratory system. Perhaps more
important, the cry serves as a signal of distress. When babies cry, they indicate that they
are hungry or in pain, and that is important information for the parents.
(CCIS, n.d.)

Provide a justification for your answer:

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
 71

Summarising
Being able to summarise effectively what you have read is a sure sign that you have understood
the text and absorbed the main idea. Summarising involves taking the main idea from a text
and rewriting it in your own words. A summary is often significantly shorter than the original
and provides an overview of the topic/authors view.

Tips to help you summarise effectively:

1. Skim read the information, noting the title, headings, sub-headings, the first and last
paragraphs and topic sentences;
2. Read the text carefully using a dictionary;
3. Write notes in point form using key words and ideas (you could use any note-making
strategy you are comfortable with);
4. Put the original text away and write out a full and complete summary from your notes;
5. Refer back to the original to make sure that your summary is a true and accurate
reflection of the writers ideas;
6. Remember to acknowledge the source by providing in-text references and a reference
at the end.

Paraphrasing
To paraphrase is to rewrite something using different words without changing the original
meaning. The paraphrase should be clearer and more easily understood than the original.
Paraphrases are a good alternative to using too many direct quotations in your writing.

Making inferences
Inferencing is a mental process by which we reach a conclusion based on specific evidence. It
is sometimes referred to as ‘reading between the lines’. The authors of academic text do not
answer tell you directly what to think or believe. Instead they provide you with evidence that
implies certain things. As a reader you use this to make an inference:
 72

What can you infer from the statement in the text-box?

Blood cholesterol used to be thought of as a problem only for adults:

a) Blood cholesterol is no longer a problem for adults.
b) Only children have a problem with blood cholesterol.
c) Blood cholesterol affects both adults and children.
(CCIF.EDU, n.d.)
 73

Unit 4: Critical reading

Learning outcomes
After working through this study unit you should be able to:
1. define the notion of ‘critical reading’;
2. understand the difference between evidence and argument and be able to recognise this in a text;
3. critically read and reflect on given readings with a view to using these to develop an argument in response.

What is critical reading?

Critical reading is a deeper and more complex engagement with the text. It is a process of analysing,
interpreting and evaluating. When we read critically we use our critical thinking skills to question both
the text and our own reading of it (University of Toronto, 2016).

Characteristics of critical reading

The most characteristic features of critical reading are that you will examine carefully:
• the evidence or arguments presented;
• any influences on the evidence or arguments;
• limitation of the study, design or focus;
• the interpretations being made;
• to what extent you are prepared to accept the authors arguments, opinions or
conclusions.

NOTE:
The aim of critical reading is not to find fault, but to assess the strength of the evidence and the
argument.
 74

Seven Critical Reading Strategies

1. Previewing: learning about a text before really reading it.

• Skimming and scanning
2. Contextualising: Placing a text in its historical, biographical and cultural context.
• Try to recognise the differences between your contemporary values and
attitudes and those represented in the text
3. Questioning to understand and remember: Asking questions about the content,
• Write down questions about the difficult parts/s of the text you are struggling
with – focus on main ides/s written in your own word
4. Reflecting on challenges to your beliefs and values – Examining your personal
responses.
• Indicate on the text arguments, view or opinions that conflict with yours
5. Outlining and summarising: Identifying the main ideas and re-stating them in your
own words.
• Outlining reveals the basic structure of a text while summarising composes the
main ideas into a new text (written in your words)
6. Evaluating an argument: Testing the logic and credibility of a text.
• Critical readers evaluate every argument.
• Every argument has two parts: a claim and support.
• Claim: asserts a conclusion – an idea, opinion, judgement that the author
wants you to accept;
• Support: Includes reasons and evidence (facts, examples, statistics, and
authorities) that give readers the basis for accepting the argument.
7. Comparing and contrasting related readings:
• Exploring likeness and differences between texts to understand them better.

(Adapted from: Salisbury University, 2009)

Evidence and Argument

On its own evidence cannot contribute to an academic debate, It is the interpretation and
presentation of that evidence within an argument which allows the evidence to make a
contribution.
An argument should explain:
• why the authors considered that what they did was worth doing;
• why it was done in that particular way;
• why the data collected, or the materials selected were the most appropriate;
• how the conclusions drawn link to the wider context of their enquiry.
(Adapted from: University of Leicester, 2009)
 75

Unit 5: Reading a Scientific Article

Learning outcomes
After working through this study unit you should be:
1. aware of the different sections/parts to a scientific article
2. able to ask yourself questions as a reader as you work through the scientific article
3. able to read, and answer questions based on a scientific article

TASK 5.6
Read the following blog post:

Raff, J. 2016. How to read and understand a scientific paper: a guide for non-scientists. [Online]
Available at: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2016/05/09/how-to-read-and-
understand-a-scientific-paper-a-guide-for-non-scientists/ Accessed: 20 January 2019.

Once you have read the post, and are satisfied that you understand the post and the author’s
advice, you will be required to either post a comment or reply to a post. You may plan you
post or reply here:
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Once you are satisfied with your planning, go to the blog and reply or comment online. You will
be required to submit a screenshot of your reply or comment as evidence that this has been
done.

The different sections of a scientific article

This section has been adapted from the following articles:

ScienceBuddies, n.d. How to read a scientific paper. [Online] Available at:

https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/competitions/how-to-read-a-scientific-
paper Accessed: 28 January 2019.

Subramanyam, R.V. 2013. Art of reading a journal article: Methodically and effectively. Journal
of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, 17(1): 65-70.
 76

Quayle, J. n.d. Critically reading journal articles. [Online] Available at:

http://srv2.lycoming.edu/~hakala/tips.html Accessed: 13 January 2019.

In some instances you will have to refer to the article to complete the missing information.

The title
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Questions to self

• What are the major ideas addressed in the article?

• Who were the participants? What was their affiliation?
• Were they a special kind of group (e.g. students, women only, married people)?

Abstract

The abstract is a summary of the paper. It highlights the main question(s) the authors investigated,
provides the key results of their experiments, and gives an overview of the authors' conclusions.

Questions to self

• What variables were examined?

• What were the findings?
• Does the study show a cause-and-effect relationship between variables, or does it just show that
a relationship exists?
• Where was the work conducted (i.e., laboratory or field). If field, what was the geographical
location?

Introduction

The introduction gives background information about the topic of the paper, and sets out the
specific questions to be addressed by the authors. This section usually starts with existing
knowledge and previous research of the topic under consideration, identifies gaps in the
literature and discusses how these gaps stimulated the researcher to design a new study
(Subramanyam, 2013). The aims and objectives are usually mentioned at the end of the
introduction. The reader should also determine whether a research hypothesis (study
 77

hypothesis) was stated and later check whether it was answered under the discussion
(Subramanyam, 2013).

Questions to self

• What is the purpose of the article?

• What is the topic of the article?
• What specifically is the article is addressing? What is already known about this
topic/phenomenon?
• Where are the gaps in contemporary knowledge or understanding of this
topic/phenomenon?
• How does the research being reported fill gaps in our knowledge/ or understanding of
this topic/phenomenon?
• What specific prediction(s) or hypothesis(es) are being tested?

Materials and Methods

The materials and methods section gives the technical details of how the experiments were
carried out. Reading the methods section is helpful in understanding what the authors did.
This section is also written in a way to ensure that readers can carry out the same
experiments, and should ideally get similar results.

Questions to self

• What research techniques are used by the author(s)?

• Has the researcher overlooked any possible confounds or extraneous variables which could
affect interpretations of the findings?
• How do the methods employed compare with the methods used in other investigations of
the same topic/phenomenon?

Results

The results section contains all the data from the experiments. Here the researchers give
details about the data collected, either in the form of figures, tables and/or graphs.
 78

Questions to self

• How do the results relate to the predictions/hypotheses set out in the introduction (i.e., are they
supported or not)?
• What differences did the authors find that support or refute the project hypotheses?
• Are the results reported and analysed in an unbiased manner?

Discussion

This is the most important section of the article where the research questions are answered
and the meaning of analysis and interpretation of the data are presented. This section also
discusses the various strengths and limitations/shortcomings of the study, providing suggestions
about areas that need additional research. The discussion section is the authors' opportunity
to give you their opinions. It is where they draw conclusions about the results.

Questions to self

• Have the appropriate interpretations of the results been made?

• Are there ways of interpreting the results that have not been considered?
• Has the researcher presented an unbiased evaluation of the study/method employed?
• What are the implications of those findings (what do they tell us about theory, research, or real
life concerns)?
• What suggestions are being made about future research into this topic/phenomenon or what
does the researcher consider to be 'the way forward'?

References

Throughout the article, the authors will refer to information from other papers.

Conclusion

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

TASK 5.7

This task will require you to read a scientific article and complete a template designed to help
you read and analyse the article. The article and template will be uploaded on clickUP.
 79

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_______________________________________________________________________________

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 80

Hewings, A. 2004. Developing discipline-specific writing: an analysis of undergraduate geography

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south-africa. Accessed 2019/01/14.
 82

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