Radioactivity

(Lecture Note : 1)

4th Semester of 2020 – 2021

CC -09

Palash Nath
Department of Physics
Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Centenary College

Email : [email protected]
 Radioactivity

Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Unit of radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Disintegration law 2

3 Successive disintegration 3
3.1 Radioactive equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 Radioactive series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4 Branching of radioactivity 7

5 Radioactive carbon dating 8

1 Introduction
There exist a large number of nuclei those are unstable. These nuclei break up spontaneously with
the emission of some particles and/or electromagnetic (EM) radiation. In case of particle emission,
either mass number or atomic number or both are changed of the mother nucleus. In case of EM
radiation, the nucleus makes a transition from higher energy state to a lower energy state. The
phenomena of such spontaneous emission of some particles and/or electromagnetic (EM) radiation
during disintegration of unstable nuclei is known as radioactivity.
The phenomena of radioactivity was discovered accidentally by Henry Becquerel in 1896 from
uranium salt. He observed that radioactivity is independent of chemical properties of uranium
salts. Furthermore, powdered uranium metal exhibits similar radioactivity. He then concluded that
radioactivity is associated with the uranium element itself. Later Madam Curie and her husband
Pierrie Curie observed that appart from uranium, some other elements exhibit radioactivity. The
also observed that radioactivity is no longer influenced by physical as well as chemical changes.
They concluded that radioactivity is a nuclear phenomena.
During radioactivity a nucleus can emit three different kind of particles;
1) α particle
2) β + or β − particle
3) γ particle (photon)
The nuclear reactions during these mentioned disintegration processes can be expressed as;
A A−4
Z X → Z−2 Y + α
A A −
Z X → Z+1 Y + β
A A +
Z X → Z−1 Y + β
A ∗ A
ZX → ZX + γ

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1.1 Unit of radioactivity

The unit of radioactivity is defined as the number of disintegration per second. The name of the
unit is Curie (Ci); it is defined as;
1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 disintegration per second

2 Disintegration law
According to Rutherford and Soddy, the rate of radioactive disintegration is proportional to the in-
stantaneous number of radioactive nuclei present in the system. Mathematically it can be expressed
as;
dN
∝ −N (t)
dt
(1)
dN
⇒ = −λN (t)
dt

The negative sign implies that number of nuclei is decreasing with time. λ is known as disintegration
constant or decay constant. Solution of this equation (1) can be written as;

N (t) = N (0)e−λt (2)

where N (0) is the number of nuclei at any arbitrary initial time instant and N (t) be the number of
nuclei after time t of the arbitrary starting point.
The variation of N (t) as a function of time is represented in figure 1. Note that nuclei with
higher values of λ decays in a faster rate.

Figure 1: Time dependent population profile of radioactive nucleus

Some nuclei decay in a faster rate whereas some in slower rate; although all of them exhibit
similar kind of decay profile as depicted in figure 1. The only difference among the decaying nuclei
is decay constant. There exist a characteristic time scale over which one can describe that how
fast a particular element nuclei is decaying. Conventionally it is define as the half-life (τ ) of nuclei;

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i.e, time required to decrease initial radioactive substance by 50%. So, according to definition of
half-life;

N (0)
N (t = τ ) =
2
1
⇒ e−λτ =
2
⇒ λτ = ln 2

Here we have a relation between half-life and decay constant.

Note that radioactive disintegration is a purely stochastic process. That means one can not able
to identify that which nuclei will decay at what instant of time. However, such a stochastic process
is described by a deterministic equation (1). This is possible for macroscopically large system in
which we can neglect the statistical fluctuations. The decay profile (figure 1) does not ensure that
initially N number of nuclei will become to exactly N/2 after half-life time interval; it can be
anything around N/2. The fluctuation width about N/2 after time span of τ becomes more and
more negligible as N becomes larger enough. The relative fluctuation width about N (t) varies as
N −1/2 , which becomes negligible in large N limit.

3 Successive disintegration
Very often it is observed that the daughter nucleus (formed after the disintegration of the mother)
is also radioactive and it also undergoes through radioactive disintegration process. Such process
can be observed for many successive steps. Hence, the successive disintegration process can be
pictorially represented as;

Nucleus-1 → Nucleus-2 → Nucleus-3 → Nucleus-4 ......

where first one is the mother nucleus and the successive nuclei are considered as daughter nuclei.
If N1 (t) is the mother nucleus population then;

N1 (t) = N1 (0) exp(−λ1 t)

If N2 (t) is the population of Nucleus-2, then its population is increasing due to disintegration
of Nucleus-1 and it is decreasing due to its own disintegration process with decay constant λ2 .
Therefore,

dN2 (t)
= −λ2 N2 (t) + λ1 N1 (t)
dt (3)
dN2 (t)
⇒ + λ2 N2 (t) = λ1 N1 (0) exp(−λ1 t) ; Substitute N1 (t)
dt
The equation (3) is in the form of (with y = N2 and x = t);

dy
+ yP (x) = Q(x)
dx

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Which is linear, first order differential equation. It can be solved by introducing the integrating
factor; Z 
α(x) = exp P (x)dx

By multiplying by integrating factor the equation becomes;

d
(α(x)y(x)) = α(x)Q(x)
dx
Therefore the integrating factor for the equation (3) is exp(λ2 t) and the equation turns into the
following form;
d
[N2 exp(λ2 t)] = λ1 N1 (0) exp[(λ2 − λ1 )t] (4)
dt
Straight forward solution of this equation is;

λ1 N1 (0)
N2 (t) = exp(−λ1 t) + C exp(−λ2 t) (5)
λ2 − λ1
The constant of integration C can be obtained from initial condition:

N2 (t = 0) = 0

Which gives;
λ1 N1 (0)
C=−
λ2 − λ1
So finally we substitute C in equation (5) and get,
 
exp(−λ1 t) exp(−λ2 t)
N2 (t) = λ1 N1 (0) + (6)
λ2 − λ1 λ1 − λ2

Population of Nucleus-3 is increasing due to decay of Nucleus-2 and population is decreasing

due to its own disintegration process. The rate equation for the Nucleus-3 is;

dN3 (t)
= −λ3 N3 (t) + λ2 N2 (t)
dt   (7)
dN3 (t) exp(−λ1 t) exp(−λ2 t)
⇒ + λ3 N3 (t) = λ1 λ2 N1 (0) +
dt λ2 − λ1 λ1 − λ2

The integrating factor of this equation is exp(λ3 t) and hence we have the reformed equation including
the integrating factor as;
 
d exp(−λ1 t) exp(−λ2 t)
(N3 exp(λ3 t)) = λ1 λ2 N1 (0) + exp(λ3 t) (8)
dt λ2 − λ1 λ1 − λ2

Straight forward integrating of this differential equation gives;

 
λ1 λ2 λ1 λ2
N3 (t) = N1 (0) exp(−λ1 t) + exp(−λ2 t) + C exp(−λ3 t)
(λ2 − λ1 )(λ3 − λ1 ) (λ3 − λ2 )(λ1 − λ2 )
(9)
The initial condition reads,
N3 (t = 0) = 0

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From which we get,

 
λ1 λ2 1 1 N1 (0)λ1 λ2
C = −N1 (0) − =
(λ2 − λ1 ) λ3 − λ1 λ3 − λ2 (λ3 − λ2 )(λ3 − λ1 )

Therefore, from equation (9),

 
exp(−λ1 t) exp(−λ2 t) exp(−λ3 t)
N3 (t) = N1 (0)λ1 λ2 + + (10)
(λ2 − λ1 )(λ3 − λ1 ) (λ3 − λ2 )(λ1 − λ1 ) (λ1 − λ3 )(λ2 − λ3 )

Now we can generalize this successive disintegration process for any arbitrary number of steps.
Consider following successive disintegration process;

1 → 2 → 3 → ...... → m → ........ → n(stable)

The population of m-th nucleus (excluding mother nucleus and last stable nucleus) is given by;
m
X
Nm (t) = N1 (0) Ci exp(−λi t)
i=1

where,
λ1 λ2 λ3 ..........λm−1
Ci = m ; for all j 6= i
Y
(λj − λi )
j=1

Exercise 1. Consider the successive disintegration process :1 → 2 → 3(stable). Write down

the rate equations for the nuclei in the chain considering λ1 and λ2 are the decay constant for
Nucleus-1 and Nucleus-2 respectively with λ2 > λ1 . Solve the rate equations with initial conditions
N2 (t = 0) = N3 (t = 0) = 0 and check the consistency that total nos. of nuclei remain conserved at
any instant of time i.e; N1 (t) + N2 (t) + N3 (t) = N1 (0). Hence plot the time dependent variation of
their population (see figure 2).

3.1 Radioactive equilibrium

In the successive disintegration process, the population of daughter nuclei at any arbitrary position
of decay chain increases due to mother nuclei before its position in decay chain; on the other hand
daughter nuclei population decreases due to its own disintegration process. In the long time scale
a dynamic equilibrium is set, such that rate of production of daughter nuclei becomes same to the
rate of decay of it.
• Transient equilibrium :
In this equilibrium process decay rate of daughter nuclei is larger than mother nuclei i.e; λ2 > λ1 .
At any instant of time population of mother nuclei is;

N1 (t) = N1 (0) exp(−λ1 t)

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Figure 2: Time dependent population profile of mother nucleus and successive daughter nucleus for
the decay process 1 → 2 → 3 (stable)

and the same for daughter nucleus is;

 
exp(−λ1 t) exp(−λ2 t)
N2 (t) = λ1 N1 (0) +
λ2 − λ1 λ1 − λ2
Therefore,  
N2 (t) 1 exp[−(λ2 − λ2 )t]
= λ1 +
N1 (t) λ2 − λ1 λ1 − λ2
Since, λ2 > λ1 , then in long time limit; exp[−(λ2 − λ2 )t] → 0. Finally the equilibrium population
ratio is established between mother nucleus and the daughter nucleus.
N2 (t) λ1
=
N1 (t) λ2 − λ1

• Secular equilibrium :
The secular equilibrium is attained when;

λ1 << λ2 , λ3 , λ4 , ............

That means decay rate of daughter nuclei in the decay chain is much faster than the mother nuclei.
The population of the m − th nuclei is given by,
Nm (t) = N1 (0)[C1 exp(−λ1 t) + C2 exp(−λ2 t) + ....... + Cm exp(−λm t)]
≈ N1 (0)C1 exp(−λ1 t) ; since, λ1 << λ2 , λ3 , λ4 , ............λm (11)
= C1 N1 (t)
Therefore,
Nm (t) λ1 λ2 λ3 .....λm−1
= C1 =
N1 (t) (λ2 − λ1 )(λ3 − λ1 )(λ4 − λ1 )......(λm−1 − λ1 )(λm − λ1 )
λ1 λ2 λ3 .....λm−1
≈ (12)
λ2 λ3 .....λm−1 λm
λ1
=
λm

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Therefore, in secular equilibrium,

λm Nm (t) = λ1 N1 (t)

3.2 Radioactive series

Uranium (238 232
92 U) and thorium (90 Th) are two naturally occauring radioactive nuclei having very
long half-life. It is observed that both of these nuclei undergo successive disintegration process by
formation of short lived daughter nuclei. At the end of successive disintegration, a stable nucleus is
formed. During decay process, mass number (A), atomic number (Z) as well as both of them can
vary.
It is also observed that for the successive decay process of 235 8 238
92 U (half-life = 7.04 × 10 y), 92 U
(half-life = 4.46 × 109 y) and 232
90 Th (half-life = 1.4 × 10
10
y), the mass number A of successive
daughter nuclei in the decay chain forms a arithmetic series. There exist three of such series. for
naturally occurring long lived radioactive nuclei.

1. Uranium-radium series : It starts from 238 92 U nucleus which undergoes α-decay with half
9
life of 4.46 × 10 y. Mass number of all daughter nuclei of this series can be expressed as 4n + 2
(where n is an integer). The end product of this series is 206
82 Pb

2. Thorium series : It starts from radioactive 232

90 Th which undergoes α-decay with half life of
1.4 × 1010 y. Mass number of the daughter nuclei in this decay series can be expressed as 4n.
The stable end product is 208
82 Pb.

3. Actinium series : It starts from the rarer isotope (07%) of 235

92 U through α-decay with half
8
life of 7.04 × 10 y. Mass number of daughter nuclei in this decay chain can be expressed as
4n + 3. The stable end product is 207
82 Pb.

From the above discussion it is to be noted that series with daughter nuclei mass number equal to
4n+1 in the decay chain can not be observed in naturally occurring radioactive nuclei. Actually the
starting mother nucleus of this series is short live one. The series starts from transuranic element
241
94 Pu with half life of 14.7 y. The series also starts via α-decay. The longest lived nucleus in the
series is 237 6 209
93 Np with half live of 2.14 × 10 y. The stable end product of this decay chain is 83 Bi.
The series is called neptunium series(4n + 1 series).

4 Branching of radioactivity
Most of the radioactive nuclei exhibit either α-decay or β ± -decay. But in some cases, it is observed
that both α and β decay event occur simultaneously from same isotope. This phenomena is known
as branching of radioactivity. For example, in thorium series, 212
83 Bi undergoes through both α and
β decay with transformation rate of 33.7% and 66.3% respectively with mean half-life of 60.35 min
(see figure 3).

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212
Figure 3: Radioactive branching of 83 Bi

If λα and λβ are the decay constant corresponding to α and β decay respectively, then decay
rates for these two processes will be;
 
dN
= −λα N (t) ; for α decay
dt α
and  
dN
= −λβ N (t) ; for β decay
dt β

Therefore, total decay rate,

   
dN dN dN
= + = −(λα + λβ )N (t) = −λN (t)
dt dt α dt β

where λ = λα + λβ is the effective decay constant for the simultaneous decay process of both α and
β.
The effective half-life (τ ) can be estimated from two individual half-life τα (for α-decay) and τβ
(for β-decay).

λ = λα + λβ
ln 2 ln 2 ln 2
⇒ = +
τ τα τβ
1 1 1
⇒ = +
τ τα τβ

5 Radioactive carbon dating

Radioactivity is very often used to determine age of old bodies ranging from fossils to the age of
the earth, the method by which it is done is known as radioactive dating.
Carbon dating is one of the powerful technique in determining ages died biological bodies of
long past. The basic theory of carbon dating is to identify the fraction of radioactive carbon isotope
(14 C) present in biological objects compared to other stable isotopes (12 C and 13 C). In atmosphere,
population of 12 C and 13 C is about 98.9% and 1.1% respectively. Whereas the radioactive 14 C
is less than 10−4 %. these three isotopes always maintain a equilibrium relative population. The
radioactive 14 C isotope decays through β − radioactivity having a half life of 5730 years. Cosmic
shower impact on upper atmosphere of the earth continuously produces this 14 C radioactive isotope

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from 14 N nuclei (see figure 4). That means 14 C always in a dynamical equilibrium (formation and
depletion) such that its population ratio in the atmosphere remain stable. A living body takes up
carbon with the same population ratio from environment. But, when an organism dies the 14 C
slowly decays with half life of ∼ 5730 year. That means, the proportion of 14 C reduces continuously
with time in died bodies. Now, measuring the relative population of radioactive 14 C in the died
body and comparing it with the equilibrium population of 14 C in living body, one can estimate
the age of the body. Carbon dating is helpful to detect age in the order of few thousands of years
because its half life is ∼ 5730 year.

Figure 4: 14
C cycle : produced by cosmic shower impact and decays through β − radioactivity.