GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1 The five main principles of

Leucippus and Democritus' theory

NATURE AND STATES OF include the following:
MATTER
The modern knowledge of matter as 1. All matter is made up of atoms
being composed of atoms, and of that are too tiny to be seen by the
still smaller fundamental particles, naked eyes.
resulted from a long history of
suppositions, logical thinking, and 2. Atoms are in constant motion
experimentation. around an empty space called void.

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THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF 3. Atoms are completely solid.
MATTER
- Anaximenes asserted that this 4. Atoms are uniform, with no
primal element was air, Thales of internal structure.

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Miletus thought it was water, and
Heraclitus believed it was
-From these initial ideas,
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and sizes
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Empedocles later proposed that all Epirucus of Samos popularized
matter is made up of four atomism, the philosophy that matter
fundamental elements-namely, earth, is made up of atoms.
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air, fire, and water.

STATES OF MATTER
-This idea introduced an important - Matter is anything that occupies
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concept now known as the law of space, and has mass and volume.
constant proportions, which states
that all things of the same type have SOLID
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the same proportions of the elements •Solid have a definite volume and
that compose them. maintain a definite shape.

-Around 440 BCE, a new theory •They are closely packed and almost
emerged when Greek philosopher incompressible. (Cannot be
Leucippus and his student compressed by moderately high
Democritus wondered what would pressure)
happen to a piece of gold if it is cut •Solids do not flow.
indefinitely. •Solids do not fill their container
They called this unit atomos, completely.
meaning "uncuttable." •They have high densities.
LIQUID Liquid - Gas (EVAPORATION)
• Liquids also have definite volume,
but do not have a definite shape. Plasma
Plasma is the fourth state of matter.
• The particles are closely held It has neither a definite volume nor a
together but not as in solids. (Can be definite shape.
compressed but only to a negligible
extent, by moderately high pressure) Bose-Einstein Condensate
The fifth state of matter is the
• They take the shape of their Bose-Einstein condensate produced

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container when a cloud of bosons (a type of an

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• They slide past each other. elementary particle of matter) is
• Almost incompressible. cooled to temperatures very close to
• They have medium densities absolute zero (T=0 K) such that a
large fraction of the bosons

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condense.
GAS
• Gases have no definite volume and
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no definite shape. ( low density) PROPERTIES OF MATTER

• Like liquids, gases take the shape PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF

of their container. (Gas are like MATTER
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liquids) -can be perceive by senses

-can be observed, measured, and
• The particles in gas are usually tested without changing the
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much farther apart than those in a composition of the matter.

liquid.
INTENSIVE PROPERTIES
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• Gases are easily compressed into -unnafected by the amount of matter

smaller volume when pressure is present or being tested.
increased, but they greatly expand -no change in composition
when heated. -in color, hardness, boiling point -
100 degrees celsius / 373 kelviN
CHANGING STATES OF MATTER ● Softest element- talc
(Due to temperature) ● Hardest element- diamond
Gas - Liquid (CONDENSATION)
Liquid - Solid (FREEZING) EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES
Solid - Gas (SUBLIMATION) -affected by the amount of present or
Gas - Solid (DEPOSITION) being tested
Solid - Liquid (MELTING)
- when there’s change in amount of
matter,properties of matter change 8. Luster- property of material
too. ,interaction of light on the
Ex. volume, mass, length, shape surface of metals

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF 9. Malleability- ability of metal

MATTER to be hammered or shaped in
to thin sheets
1. Color- red, blue, yellow, is
perceived in light receptors 10. Ductility- ability of material

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of our eyes, as they interact to be drawn into wires

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with different spectra of
light. 11. Brittleness- tendency of
material to break even when
2. Odor- perceived smell of an a small amount of force is

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object, identified by the applied.
olfactory receptors of both
human and animals.
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per unit volume.
3. Taste- sweetness ,sourness,
bitterness, saltiness and
umami. Umami- flavor of CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
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food MATTER
-tranformation of substance in
different or other material,that
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posses a completely different

structure, and composition from the
original.
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1. Flammability- ability of
4. Hardness- ability of material matter to be burned.
to resst from being scratch. 2. Reactivity- ability of matter
5. Melting point- when solid to chemically combine with
changes to liquid. another.
6. Boiling Point- when liquid * chemical properties, are
changes to solid, liquid, gas represented by chemical
formulas.
7. Solubility- property of
substance to dissolve in CHANGES IN MATTER
solid, liquid, gas.
 ● Physical Change- does not Endothermic - heat being absorbed
alter the identity of the
substance. THERMIC REACTIONS
Ex. liquid can evaporize into Release and absorption
steam, or solidify into ice.

● Chemical Change- produces 4 TYPES OF CHEMICAL

new compounds with a REACTIONS
different chemical
composition and different set 1. Combination or direct union

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of properties. reaction- or more substance

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Ex. Reaction of baking soda combine to form single
mixed with vinegar product.

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reaction- single composition
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are being broken down into 1
or simpler.
Photosynthesis-the process by which
green plants and some other
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organisms use sunlight to synthesize

foods from carbon dioxide and water. 3. Single replacement or
substitution reaction- 1
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Photosynthesis in plants generally

involves the green pigment element replacing another
chlorophyll and generates oxygen as element in a composition.
a byproduct.
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"during photosynthesis plants absorb

CO₂"
4. Double replacement or
metathesis- 2 composition
Chemical formula of glucose bonds on ions in order to
C6 H12O6 form different compounds.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
-involved changes in chemical ● Metals comes first
energy into other forms of energy to M+NM
heat, light, and electricity energy.

Exothermic- heat being evolved/

released
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

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PURE SUBSTANCE
-only one kind of element or
compound
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- has constant composition/definite METALS
composition. - constitutes the greatest elements in
-cannot be separated by physical the periodic table. Located at the left
means. part, middle part, and bottom part.
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-Classified by elements or
compounds PROPERTIES OF METALS
-lustrous/ shiny appearance
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ELEMENTS -malleable because of their atoms

-substances compose of 1 type of - ductile
atom. Cannot be broken own nto -conductors of heat and electricity
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simpler substance by ordinary -solid at room temperature except

chemical means. mercury-liquid in room temperature
francium.cesium,a
- all units of matter is composed of -high densities
atoms\-if all atoms is a sample of -hard has strong metallic bonding
matter have same identity. even apart from each other just like
solid (compact).
Examples of elements
copper,alluminum INTERMOLLECULAR FORCE OF
ATTRACTION
Metalloids- semi-metals between -atoms attracted to one another
being metal and non-metal. -soft metals- lead,
 2. Homogenous- can be
tin,sodium,copper.mercury on room solid,liquid, gas. Cannot be
temperature too. easily distinguish.

-most metals has high density. COLLOIDS

They’re dense because their atoms -heterogenous mixtures containing
are closely packed together because tiny particles that never settles
of strong attractive forces. down.
Ex. milk and gelo
-metals with low densities- sodium,

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lithium,cesium.

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COMPOUNDS
-not just 1 elements but 2 or more
element compound.

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the same for that composition.
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-ratio of different atoms is always
SUSPENSION
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-heterogenous mixture containing a
Ex. water has 2 hydrogen and 1 liquid in which visible particles
oxygen = H20 Ex. muddy watter
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Examples of compound
-brass,steel,alloy,cast iron,bronze
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DETECT COLLOID
MIXTURES -fog appearswhite because its
- made up of two or more substances particles are large enough toscatter
-do not always contain same light.
amounts of substances that make - sometimes it is not so obvious that
them up. a liquid is colloid.
- you can tell for a certain if a liquid
1. Heterogenous- can be easily is colloid by passing a beam of light
distinguish through it.
Ex. fruits in veg salad
DETECT SUSPENSION GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
-some mixtures are neither solution Physical Change
nor colloids • A physical change is a change in
-pond water is a suspension size, shape, or state of matter

• Physical changes do not change the

identities of the substances of the
material

• Physical changes can be used to

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separate mixtures

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• Physical changes can sometimes be
reversed

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APPEARANCE • Examples of physical changes
-you could begin by describing its
shapes,color and state of matter.
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-you can measure by physical means
The Identity Remains the Same
• Iron is a substance that can change
BEHAVIOR states if it absorbs or releases
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-some physical properties describe enough energy at high temperatures,

thebehavior of material or it melts.
substances. • Color changes can accompany a
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-attraction to magnet is a physical physical change, too.

property of substance iron. • For example, when iron is heated it
-every substance has a specific first glows red. Then, if it is heated
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combination od physical properties to a higher temperature, it turns

that makes it useful for certain task. white.
- ex. Heterogenous sand and iron
fillings can be separated through Chemical Changes
north of magnet. • A change of one substance in a
material to a different substance is a
chemical change

• Examples: When iron is exposed to

oxygen and water in the air the iron
and oxygen form rust, baking a cake
• Chemical Changes usually can not
be reversed Using Chemical Change to Separate
• One case where you might separate
• When a substance goes through a substances using a chemical change
chemical change it may change the is in cleaning tarnished silver.
physical and chemical properties of
the substance • Tarnish is a chemical reaction
between silver metal and sulfur
compounds in the air which results
• Sodium is a soft, metallic (physical in silver sulfide.

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characteristic) element that explodes

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when exposed to any moisture • It can be changed back into silver
(chemical characteristic) using a chemical reaction.

• Chlorine is a deadly chemical • You don't usually separate

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characteristic) green (physical substances using chemical changes
characteristic)
gas (used in WWl)
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• In industry and chemical
• When combine chemically they laboratories, however, this kind of
create sodium chloride (table salt) separation is common.
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For example, many metals are

separated from their ores and then
The Identity Changes purified using chemical changes
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• Clues such as heat, cooling, or the

formation of bubbles or solids in a
liquid are helpful indicators that a Chemical Properties
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reaction is taking place. • A characteristic of a substance that

indicates whether it can undergo a
• However, the only sure proof is certain chemical change
that a new substance is produced. • Examples are flammability, and
reacting with sunlight
• The only clue that iron has changed
into a new substance is the presence Weathering Chemical or
of rust. Physical Change?
• The forces of nature continuously
• Burning and rusting are chemical shape
changes because new substances Earth's surface. Rocks split, deep
form. canyons are carved out, sand dunes
shift, and curious limestone Some characteristics of
formations decorate caves. nonmetals are the opposite to that of
metals.

Properties of Nonmetals
• Do you think these changes, often • Nonmetals have a dull appearance.
referred to as weathering, are They do not have a shiny surface or
physical or chemical? The answer is appearance. However, iodine, a
both. nonmetal, is lustrous.
• Nonmetals are brittle.

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Nonmetals are neither ductile nor

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malleable, meaning they do not have
physical the ability to be drawn into thin
• Large rocks can split when water wires or to be hammered into thin
seeps into small cracks, freezes, and sheets. The atoms of nonmetals

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expands. cannot move past each other without
• However, the smaller pieces of D breaking their bond, which is why
newly exposed rock still have the nonmetals break easily.
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same properties as the original
sample. •Nonmetals are poor conductors of
• This is a physical change. heat and electricity because they do
not have free electrons that are
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Chemical typical of metals.

• Solid calcium carbonate, a • Nonmetals are good insulators and
compound found in limestone, does can prevent the transfer of heat and
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not dissolve easily in water. electricity. Since nonmetals do not

• However, when the water is even have free electrons, they can resist
slightly acidic, as it is when it the flow of electric current making
contains some dissolved carbon
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them good insulators.

dioxide, calcium carbonate reacts.
•hychages intonate substance, disi in • Nonmetals may exist in three states
water. (solid, liquid, gas) at room
temperature.
Nonmetals • Most of the nonmetals exist in a
• Nonmetals are elements that lack gaseous state. These include
or do not have the characteristics of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, oxygen,
metals. Nonmetals are located at the fluorine, chlorine, neon, argon,
rightmost part of the periodic table, krypton, xenon, radon, and
except for hydrogen, which is at the ununoctium (Uuo).
leftmost part (the first element of the
periodic table).
• Some nonmetals exist in solid form paper to red. Some examples are
like carbon, iodine, phosphorus, vinegar, citrus fruit juices, sulfuric
sulfur, and selenium. Bromine is a acid, and soft drinks.
nonmetal that exists in a liquid form.
• Nonmetals have low densities. Base
They have weak attractive forces • A base is a compound that accepts
between their atoms making them H+ ions in an aqueous solution. It
less dense. tastes bitter and turns red litmus
paper to blue. Some examples are
• Metalloids are elements which soap, ammonia, detergent powder,

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have the properties of both metals and lye.

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and nonmetals. They are located
between the metals and the Salt
nonmetals forming a staircase • Salt is a compound that is formed
pattern on the periodic table. when an acid and a base react. This

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reaction, which forms salt and water,
• Examples of metalloid elements
are boron, silicon, germanium,
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examples are table salt, calcium
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arsenic, antimony, tellurium, carbonate, and calcium chloride.
polonium, and astatine. Polonium
and astatine, Mixtures. are made up of two or
however, are sometimes not more substance, which are mixed
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considered As Metalloids. together but are not chemically

combined.
• Compounds are substances -A mixture can be homogeneous or
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composed of two or more kinds of heterogeneous.

atoms that are chemically bonded
together in fixed proportions. One of Homogeneous Mixture
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the most common examples of A homogeneous mixture has only

compounds is water, having two one phase and a uniform
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen composition all throughout.
atom. A solution is a homogeneous
mixture. Substances that make up a
• Compounds can be classified as solution are difficult to distinquish
acids, bases, or salts. from one another An example of this
type of mixture is a sugar and water
Acid solution. Sugar cannot be easily
• An acid is a compound that donates separated from water, because the
H* ions in an aqueous solution. It solution has already combined in co
tastes sour and turns blue litmus best having combineduniform
composition,difficult to distinguish involves the
the sugar molecules from the water combination of a gas and a liquid.
molecules. An example is a carbonated drink.
Carbonated drinks are in liquid
Types of Solution form, but contain dissolved gases
which form bubbles when the
• In a solid-solid solution, two or bottled gas is released.
more solids are combined to form a
mixture, An example of this is an • Lastly, a gas-gas solution is a
alloy. An alloy is a combination of combination of which more hiases

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two or more metals, or a metal and combinedent example in air

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another element. nitrogen, oxygen, and other gases.

• In a solid-in-liquid solution, the A heterogeneous mixture has two or

solute (the substance that is more phases.

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dissolved) is in solid form while the It does not have a uniform

the solute) is a liquid.

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solvent (the substance that dissolves composition. One substance can be
separated easily from the other.
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-The solid dissolves in the liquid • An example of a heterogeneous
because they have the same mixture is halo-halo. The
molecular property. components of halo-halo can be
An example of this type of solution easily distinguished from one
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is a salt and water solution. The another because they are not
water dissolves the salt forming a identical. For example, the beans in
solution. halo-halo can be distinguished from
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the ube or from the other

Copper + zinc= brass ingredients.
Copper + tin= bronze
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Iron + carbon=steel A heterogeneous mixture has two or

more phases. It does not have a
• In a liquid-liquid solution, two or uniform composition. One substance
more liquids are mixed to create a can be separated easily from the
solution in liquid form. An example other.
of this is a water and alcohol
solution. When you mix water and
alcohol, it is impossible to
distinguish one over the other by
merely looking at it.

• A gas-liquid solution
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