National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli

CEIR 11 Basics of Civil Engineering

Topic: Building Materials (Bricks)
 BUILDING MATERIALS
 STONES
Bricks are artificial blocks
BRICKS manufactured from tempered clay
 CEMENT into standard sizes.
 CONCRETE
 STEEL
Bricks - Introduction
 Sun-dried bricks - With the utilization of fire became
burnt bricks
 In Mesopotamia, palaces and temples were built of
stone and sun-dried bricks in 4000 B.C.
 Invention of kilns made mass production of bricks easy
 Romans made the first large-scale use of masonry
arches and roof vaults in their basilica (domes), baths
and aqueducts (arch bridge)
 Uses of bricks

So on….
 Chemical composition of brick
Ingredients Concentration (%)
Silica 50 – 60
Alumina 20 – 30
Iron oxide 5–6
Lime <5
Magnesia 0.1

The clay should be free from pebbles, gravel, alkalis, organic matter,
vegetation and iron pyrites.
 Constituents of good brick
 Silica - Presence of silica prevents cracking, shrinking and warping of
raw bricks. It thus imparts uniform shape to the bricks. Durability of
bricks depends on the proper proportion of silica in brick earth. Excess of
silica destroys the cohesion between particles and bricks become brittle.
 Alumina - It is the chief constituent of every kind of clay. This
constituent imparts plasticity to earth so that it can be moulded. If
alumina is present in excess, raw bricks shrink and warp during drying
and burning.
 Oxide of iron – It imparts red colour to bricks. Excess of oxide of iron
makes the bricks dark blue or blackish.
 Lime – A small quantity of lime is desirable in finely powdered state to
prevents shrinkage of raw bricks. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt
and hence, its shape is lost due to the splitting of bricks.
 Magnesia - A small quantity of magnesia in brick earth imparts yellow
tint to bricks and decreases shrinkage. But excess of magnesia decreases
shrink leads to the decay of bricks.
Manufacture of clay bricks
Brick Manufacturing process
 Mining and storage
 Removal of loose soil: The top layer of ground
should be removed for a depth of 200 mm.
 It should not be used for preparation of bricks as it
contains lot of impurities.

 Digging, spreading and cleaning: The earth removed

from below 200 mm is spread on a level ground.
 All undesirable materials like grass, roots, gravel etc.
are removed.
 Size Reduction
 Dry Pan Crushers- Breaks large chunks of clay or
shale
 Grinders- pulverizes the clay to a fine consistency
(Muller Wheels)
 Clays should be dry when grinding
 Screening
 Passes through Vibrating Screen, Scalping Screen
 Coarse material left goes back to grinder - Hammer
mill
 Large particles inhibit the durability of the brick
 Forming
 Two steps in the forming process
 Tempering
 This is done to make the whole mass of
clay, homogenous and plastic.
 This is done by trampling under feet by
men, cattle in a Pug mill or by mixer when
bricks are required on large scale.

 Molding
 The pugged brick earth is then moulded into
shape in moulds.
 Moulding can be done on the ground or on top
of a table, either by hand or machine.
 Drying
 In artificial drying method using oven, it takes < 48
hours.
 The moisture content of the formed clay is reduced,
not eliminated, so that the brick will not explode
during the firing process.
 In natural drying method, bricks are dried for a period
of 7 to 14 days. During drying this must be protected
from wind, rain and direct sun.
 Firing and cooling
 The dried brick is sent through a firing chamber
for 5 to 10 hours at 200 to 900ºC.
 Heat and humidity must be regulated to avoid
cracking in the brick.
 Later, the temperature will be ramped to 1300ºC
for 10 hours
 The bricks are allowed to cool for 48 – 72 hours
 Later the bricks will be stocked for delivery.
 Brick manufacturing with advanced technology

Preparation of Raw Material

Making Process

Setting and Drying

Types of firing of bricks
Burning in Clamps:
 A clamp is an arrangement where the bricks
and fuel are arranged in alternate layers.
 A floor is prepared and the fuel is first
spread at slope of 15°. The fuel consists of
wooden piece, cow dung, straw, waste paper
etc., On top of this layer the raw bricks are
placed.
 Then another layer, of 75 cm. thick fuel is
spread. Thus alternate layer of brick and
fuel are arranged to a height of 3 to 4 m.
 Then entire clamp is plastered on all the
sides and top and filled with clay to
conserve the heat.
 The bricks are burnt for a period of one or
two months and then cooled for the same
period.
 Types of firing of bricks
Burning in Kilns:
 When large number of bricks have to be
burnt, Kilns are adopted.
 Kilns are of two types

 Intermittent Kilns and

 Continuous Kilns
 In intermittent Kilns, the loading firing
cooling and unloading are done one after
the other and not simultaneously,
 In continuous kilns, these operations are
carried out without any interruptions.
 Merits and demerits of Clamp and Kiln burning
 Clamp Burning:
 Only 60% of the bricks will be of first class variety.
 Bricks can be used for temporary structure
 Initial cost is low
 Amount of fuel used is low and hence economical
 Continuous supervision is not necessary
 Quality of bricks is poor.
 Firing cannot be regulated.
 It takes a long time for burning and cooling the bricks
(3 to 4 months).
 There is large amount of wastage of heat from the hot
gases.
 Merits and demerits of Clamp and Kiln burning
 Kiln Burning:
 Quality of bricks turned out is good. 90% first class bricks
 Bricks can be used for permanent structure
 Time of firing is only 24 hours and cooling is 4 days.
 It is yielding about 25,000 bricks per day
 Heat of hot gases is utilized in heating bricks to be burnt.
 Initial cost is higher
 Fuel cost is higher
 Constant supervision is necessary
 Types of bricks
 Classification based on dimensions
 Conventional / Traditional bricks: Size: 230 mm X 114 mm X 76 mm
 Standard / Modular : Size : 190 mm X 90 mm X 90 mm

 Classification based on their manufacturing method:

 Hand moulded (ground moulded)
 Machine moulded (wire cut)

 Classification based on their use:

 Building (common) brick
 Facing brick
 Floor / paving brick
 Furnace brick

 Classification based on their quality for a special utility:

 1st class (grade A)
 2nd class (grade B)
 3rd class (grade C)
 4th class (grade D)
Classification of Bricks based on its quality
1. First class bricks: Burnt in kilns - Table-moulded - Have
standard shape - Surfaces and edges of the bricks are sharp,
square, smooth and straight - Used for superior work of
permanent nature.
2. Second class bricks: Burnt in kilns - Ground-moulded - Surface
is somewhat rough and shape is also slightly irregular - Have
hair cracks - Edges may not be sharp and uniform - Used at
places where brickwork is to be provided with a coat of plaster
3. Third class bricks: Ground-moulded - Not hard - Rough
surfaces with irregular and distorted edges - Dull sound when
struck together - Used for unimportant and temporary
structures and at places where rainfall is not heavy.
4. Fourth class bricks: Over burnt - Irregular shape - Dark color
-As they are over burnt, sometimes found to be stronger and
compact structure, than that of first class bricks - Used as
aggregate for concrete in foundations, floors, roads, etc.
 Mechanical properties of brick
 Compressive/crushing strength – resistance to load
 Soundness – clear ringing sound
 Hardness - nail impression
 Water absorption - % change in weight
 Linear shrinkage - % change in length
 Efflorescence - deposit of salt
 Thermal conductivity
 Fire resistance
 Sound insulation
Testing of bricks
1. Crushing strength test: Minimum
crushing strength of bricks is 3.5
N/mm 2 and for superior bricks; it may
vary from 7 to 14 N/mm 2

2. Soundness test: Two bricks are

taken and they are struck with each
other. Bricks should not break and a
clear ringing sound should be
produced.

3. Hardness test: A scratch is made on

brick surface with the help of a
finger nail. If no impression is left on
the surface then the brick is treated
to be sufficiently hard.
Testing of bricks (Contd.)
4. Absorption: Weight of water absorbed after 24 hours in cold
water divided by the dry unit weight. A good brick should
absorb less than 20% of water by weight. Water absorption
affects the durability of brick. Hard bricks absorb less than
10% water.
Very dry bricks will have high suction values and should be
thoroughly wetted 3 - 24 hours prior to use, to prevent
excessive drying of the mortar before hydration.
 Testing of bricks (Contd.)
5. Linear shrinkage is the change in length of a brick from a wet
to a dry condition, and is limited to 0.065%. The amount of
shrinkage depends on the moisture content in the brick and the
humidity. The greater the moisture content, the higher the
shrinkage when drying. Since, bricks should be wet prior to
construction, shrinkage will leads to cracks at the mortar joints
Testing of bricks (Contd.)
6. Efflorescence is the migration (leaching)
of white crystals (salts) to the surface of
the brick work.
 For finding out the presence of soluble salts in a
brick, it is immersed in water for 24 hours and
allowed to dry in shade.
 Presence of grey or white deposits on the surface
of brick
 ~ 10 %, the efflorescence is slight and considered
as slight or moderate,
 ~ 50 %, the efflorescence becomes heavy and it is
treated as serious, when such deposits are
converted into powdery mass.

 In real structures, it occurs in wet-dry cycles.

 To prevent efflorescence, walls should be kept as dry as
possible, and good drainage should be provided.
 Characteristics of good bricks
 The bricks should have even surfaces, free from flaw
or cracks and should have sharp well defined edges.
 The colour of the brick should be red or copper and
uniform.
 On breaking the surface, it should show a bright
homogeneous and compact surface free from voids.
 Should be so hard that no impression left when
scratched with finger nails.
 Should produce clear ringing sound when struck
against each other.
 Characteristics of good bricks (contd…)
 No brick should have a crushing strength less
than 3.5 N/mm 2 .
 Weight of the conventional brick ≈ 3 kgs
 Should not absorb water more than 15% of its
weight.
 A brick soaked in water should not show any
deposit of white salts after drying in shade.
 When dropped flat from a height of 1 m the brick
should not break.
 Bricks should not conduct much heat and they
should be sound proof.
Parts of a brick

Faces of brick
Different bonds in brick work
 Brick types for special use
 Acid brick or acid resistant brick is specially made
for masonry brick that is chemically resistant and
thermally durable.
 Acid brick is created from high silica shale and
fired at higher temperatures than those used for
conventional brick.
 Bull-nosed brick
A bull-nose is a kind of brick that has one, some or all
of its corners rounded off. Bull-nose bricks have been
used to create a soft and attractive curve to the edge
of the steps.
 Cornice bricks
Several shapes and sizes of bricks when combined to
form cornice are known as cornice bricks. These bricks
are used to give better appearance.
 Fire bricks or refractory brick
 A refractory brick is built primarily to withstand high
temperature but will also usually have a low thermal
conductivity for greater energy efficiency.
 Dense firebricks are typically employed in demanding
applications, such as the interior of wood-fired kilns or
furnaces, where they withstand significant mechanical,
chemical, and thermal stresses, including abrasion, fluxing
from ash or slag, and high temperatures.
 A block made of special heat-resistant material used to build
walls inside ovens, kilns, fireplaces.
 Hollow Bricks
 These bricks are also known as cavity or cellular bricks.
 These bricks are not solid, but hollow.
 Their wall thickness may be 20 to 25 mm.
 They are light in weight and reduce transmission of
heat, sound and dampness.
 They may be used for construction brick partitions.
 Perforated bricks
 These bricks contain cylindrical holes throughout
the thickness.
 These bricks are light in weight and they require
less quantity of clay.
 These bricks are used in light weight construction
like panel walls, partitions etc.
 Plinth brick
 These bricks are used in plinth level and in sill
level to create good appearance.
 BUILDING MATERIALS
 STONES
Bricks are artificial blocks
BRICKS manufactured from tempered clay
 CEMENT into standard sizes.
 CONCRETE
 STEEL