COAST INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DIPLOMA IN BUILDING ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

STRUCTURES MODULE THREE (III)

WRITTEN BY:
JULIUS N. KOMU
1
Page
 COURSE CONTENT
1. DESIGN OF TIMBER
a) Use of codes of practice.
 Visual grading
 Stress grading
 Fibre stress
 Permissible stress
 Modification factors
b) 2). Design of joists.
 Moment of resistance
 Section modulus
 Safe load
c) 3). Design of ties.
 Safe load
d) 4). Timber connection and connectors.
 Types
 Uses

2.DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL STEEL WORKS

a.Sections.
 Use of structural steel and steel handbook.
 I – Sections.
 Universal column sections.
 Angle sections
 Channel sections.
 Wide flange sections.
 Rectangular hollow sections.
 Circular hollow sections.
b.Universal beam sections
 Loading arrangements point loads.
 Uniformly distributed loads.
 Combined point loads and uniformly distributed loads .
 Maximum applied bending moment.
M/I = f/y = E/R
 Maximum bending moment is equal to moment of resistance
 Estimation of beam section size.
 Stress determination
F = My/I

Z = bd2/6
2

c. Design of axially and eccentrically loaded column sections.

Page

 Effective length
  Slenderness ratio.
 Cased and uncased sections.
 Angle sections
 Double angle sections
 Tee sections.
 Universal sections
 Rectangular hollow sections.
 Circular hollow sections.

3. THREE MOMENT THEOREM

a) Derivation
b) Application of three moment theorem
 Continuous beams
4. MOMENT DISTRIBUTION
a. Definitions
 Carry over factors
 Stiffness factors
 Distribution factors
b. Analysis of structures
 Fixed beams
 Continuous beams with support not sinking
 Portal frames without sway

5. INFLUENCE LINES

a. Rolling loads
 Influence lines for beams and girders.
 Influence lines applied to pinned arches.

6. CONNECTIONS
a. Definition of terms in:
 Riveting
 Bolting
 Welding
b. Modes of failure
 Shear failure
3
Page
 STRUCTURAL TIMBER
 Timber may be used for temporary timbering to trenches, scaffolding, etc.
It may also be used permanently to trusses, joists, Posts, etc.

 Timber may be used in various forms e.g. solid build-up, laminated, etc.

Stress grading of timber

 Two methods are generally available;

a) Visual grading

b) Mechanical grading/Machine grading

Visual grading

 This is based on the number of defects, their size and the position and
associated grain disturbances.

 Before the technique of visual stress grain is applied, the strength of the
timber must be determined.

The strength tests are made on a small clear specimen 20 x 20mm taken
from a wide range of species.

 The code requires for six strength tests and two physical tests on each
specimen mainly:

i. Static bending

ii. Impact bending

iii. Compression parallel to the grains

iv. Hardness

v. shear parallel to the grains

vi. Cleavage
4
Page
  The physical tests are usually done for the, moisture content and specific
gravity (gs) or Ss.

 Once the strength values are known the first stage is to do the basis tree
from these tests, which is in effect as safe stress for an ideal structural
member free from all strength reducing characteristics.

 The second stage s the assessment of the influence of the defects in

strength.

Natural defects

 The main defects are;

a) Knots: The weakening defects of knots are brought about by local

disturbances in the grain direction it produces and it is not due to any
inferiority in the materials of the knot.

i. Spray knot:

 X is the dimension to be measured.

ii. Arris knot:

 X and Z are the dimensions to be measured

 The size of the knot is taken as x +z/3

5
Page
 iii. Edge and face knot:

 Average of A and B for face nots.

 X is measured dimension in edge knots.

iv. Margin knot

 X is the dimension to be measured.

6
Page
 b). Wane

 Is a reduction in cross sectional area of rectangular timber section across

the corners due to the section being taken from a location close to the
outer circumference of the tree.

c). Slope of the grains

 It is the measure of direction of the fibres from the longitudinal axis of the
pieces.

 If the fibres occur at an angle, then any forces applied between any
longitudinal axes will create components of force on those fibres thus
reducing strength.

 Timber is much weaker across the grains than along the grains and so
excessively cross grained timber is undesirable.

d). Rate of growth

 Although this is not as important as other features a lamination is imposed

indicated by the average number of growth rings per 25mm.

e). Fissures (resin pockets)

 A fissure is any separation of fibres in a longitudinal plane and includes:

checks, shakes and splits.

 Their existence reduces the cross section area resisting shear and bending
stresses.
7
Page
 f). Bowing, springing, twisting and cupping.

 These defects do not affect the strength of timber and grading rules are
generally for obvious visual and practical reasons.

g).Sap stain (blue stain)

 This is not a structural defect and is limited only by visual acceptance.

h). Warm holes

 Permitted to slight extent provided that there is no active infestation.

h). Decay

 The decayed timber should never be accepted.

Mechanical stress grading

 Commonly referred to as machine grading.

Visual stress grading has the disadvantage of not being capable to see the
main body content of timber and therefore it cannot separate the naturally
weak from the naturally strong.

 It is therefore possible for a timber with many apparent defects to be

stronger than a similar piece with no defects.
8
Page
  On the other hand machine grading makes allowance for the combined
effect of visual defects and hidden density giving a more accurate strength
grade and hence lead to a more economical usage.

 Mechanical stress grading examines the relationship which exists between

the deflection of a piece of timber under a small concentrated load and its
breaking strength.

 BS 4978 allows for machine stress grading of GS and SS and they carry their
prefix m to give MGS and MSS as the recognized approved markings. Other
grades are designated as M50 and M75.

 CP 112 gives basic grading rules for visual assessment. They are formulated
by fixing various strength ratios and specifying limitations for the natural
defects such that they give the required ratios.

 Four ratios are fixed at 40%, 50%, 65%, 75% and the design stresses are
applied accordingly. These stresses are commonly known as ‘’numerical
grades’’ and are now recognized to be accurate in comparison to the ratio
and machine grading rules.

 BS 4978; therefore, summarizing the grade stresses currently available to

the designers we have

 Visual: 40, 50, 65, 75, GS and SS

 Machine: MGS, MSS, M50 and M75

Definitions

i. Basic stress

 Stress which can be safely permanently sustained by timber containing no

strength reducing characteristics.

ii. Dry stress

9

 Stress applicable to timber having moisture content not exceeding 18%.

Page
 iii. Grade stress

 Stress which can safely be permanently sustained by timber of a particular

grade.

iv. Green stress

 Stress applicable to timber having moisture content exceeding 18%.

v. Connector

 A device generally consisting of a plate disc or ring which when partly

embedded in each or one of the contact face of two members held
together by a connecting bolt, is capable of transmitting a load from one
member to the other.

vi. Horizontally connected beam

 One which the laminations are parallel to the neutral axis (N.A).

vii. Vertically laminated beams

 One which the laminations run at right angles to the neutral axis (N.A).

viii. Knot ratio

 The area of the cross sectional areas of a knot(s) to the full cross sectional
area of the lamination or the ratio of the total width of a face knot to the
total width of the lamination.

ix. Strength ratio

 Ratio of grade stress to basic stress.

x. Glue laminated m embers

 Members obtained by gluing together of laminates having their grains

essentially parallel.
10
Page
 Joints

1. End joints

 Permitted in laminations if their presence is adequately allowed for in their

design. The more common joints are finger joints and scarf joints

i. Finger joint

 Used extensively to obtain mass utilization of materials

 Fingers are of longer, short portion efficient rating derived by tests.

ii. Scarf joint

 Slopes vary from 1 in 6 to 1 in 12 Cp112 gives efficient rating for plan scarf
joint used in glue laminated construction. If joints are clamped by nailing,
the nail head must be recessed to avoid damage if surface preparation
follows.

iii. Framing anchors

 Cut and punched from thin pieces of galvanized metal

 Ordered by length and nailed directly.

11
Page
 iv. Flat straps

 Proprietary galvanized with the pre-punched holes at round 25mm centre

to centre and 2mm thickness of 25mm and 5mm can be pre-bent to order.

 Used for holding down jointing length and lateral restrained.

v. Pre-punched plates

 Flat galvanized plates with pre-punched holes used for end to end
splicing ,jointing, trusses, etc.

vi. Truss clips

 As the name implies, it is used for holding down the ends of trusses over
wall plates
12

 Thin galvanized metal strips bent to shape are used.

Page
 2. Nailed joint

 Usually basic loads are given for certain nails. Nails can be driven into holes
i.e. pre-holed holes or without preparation of a pre-hole.

 Nails can be subjected to single/double shear. Sizes of nails vary from 20 –

150mm in length.

3. Screwed joint

 As for nailed joint but there are several types of screws available but the
most common is the slotted countersunk head which is generally driven
into a countersunk hole or finished flush with the surface of the timber.

 Size vary from 1.52 – 6.30mm diameter with length from 6.4 – 63.5mm

4. Bolts

 Bolts and nuts in conjunction with timber connectors are the two types of
fasteners commonly used in structural timber connection that must sustain
quite sizeable loads.

 Spacing and edge distances must be in accordance with the code

13

 Sizes used range from 9 – 38mm in diameter.

Page
  All bolts specified in timber are assumed to be black bolts in accordance
with BS916.

 CP112 recommends that bolt holes should not be more than

1.6mmdiameter larger than the bolts.

5. Connector joints

 Connectors are the most efficient of mechanical fasteners.

 They should be installed only on the high stress areas.

Types of connectors

i. Split-ring

 This is the most popular and economic wood-to-wood connection device

 They are available in 62, 64, 100 and 104mm internal diameter and require
bolts.

 Because of the joint in split ring it is susceptible to moisture movement in

the joint and so is good where shrinkage or swelling may occur.

ii. Shear plates

 Available in 50 – 100mmdiameters.

 Corresponds in capacity to split ring of the same sizes.

 Used for steel-to-wood connection or for demontable wood-to-wood

connections

 They are installed like the split rings but it is flush with the timber face

 Once installed are used , back to back in timber connection or singly while
connected to a steel plate

 Used for flushing wood columns to footings.

14
Page
 iii. Toothed plates

 Light but effective shear developers. Mostly used for soft wood as they are
easily embedded.

 They consist of a thin gauge plate with the edge cut at regular intervals
and pieces of edge twisted to produce jointed tooth ready for timber
surface.

 Two types are available; 2-sided and single sided in a range of 50, 62 and
75mmeither square or circular in shape.

 Double toothed plates are for woo-to-wood connection and are generally
used for permanent joints on or off site.

 Single sided plates are for wood-to metal connection or wood-to-wood

joints in case of demountable joints or where fabrication is involved.

iv. Toothed rings

 Similar in performance and installation to the double sided toothed plates.

 Available in 50- 75mm in diameters.

 Wood to wood connection and installed by pressure hence no grooves are

required.

v. Spike grids

 May be circular, flat and single styled. Embedded in the wood surface by
pressure.

 Wood to wood connection in heavy frame: e.g. highway and railway truss
roof formwork .

 Sizes ranges from 105mm square and 250mmdiameters.

15
Page
 Modification factors

 These depend on condition of loadings and are applied to basic stresses to

obtain permissible stresses.

i. Duration of loading factor (K3)

 This modification factor relates to the load duration e.g. long term loading,
medium, short term and very short term loading and re shown in table 17
of BS 5268.

Table 17 BS5268

Duration of loading Value of K3

1. Long term ( e.g. dead, permanently imposed) 1.00

2. Medium term (e.g. dead + snow, dead + 1.25

temporary imposed)

3. Short term (e.g. dead + imposed +wind) 1.50

4. Very short term (e.g. dead + imposed +wind) 1.75

ii. Depth factor (K7)

 The grading bending stresses given in table 8of BS5268 only apply to timber
sections having a depth (h) of 300mm .

 Fot other depth of beams the grade bending stresses are multiplied by the
depth factor K7 defined in clause 14.6 of BS5268as follows:

K7 = 1.17 for solid beams having a depth > 72mm

K7 = [300/h]0.11 for solid timber with depth 72mm < h 300mm.

16

K7 = 0.81(h2 + 92300)/(h2 + 56800)for solid beams with h > 300mm where h

= depth
Page
 iii. Loading shearing factor (K8)

 The load shearing factors given in table 9 apply to individual members e.g.
isolated beams and columns.

 When four or more members e.g. rafters, joists or wall studs are spaced a
maximum of 610mm centre to centre act together to resist a common
load ,the great spaces will be multiplied by a load shearing factor K8 , i.e. a
value of 1.1.

iv. Form factor (shapes)

 Square sections are placed so that the diagonal is vertical, i.e. the load is
placed in the direction of the diagonal.Type equation here.

K = 1.18√ 2

v. Deep bearing factor (d = 300mm)

d 2+143
K = d 2+88

vi. Notches factor

17

 Notches at the end of beam plus effective depth.

Page
 K = de/d

 Other calculations of z x x based on effective size of notch can be

determined

vii. Length of bearing factor

18
Page
  For bearings shorter than 15omm from the end of wall , one should apply
the following factors:

Bearing 12 25 38 50 78 100 150 or

length more

K values 1.70 1.53 1.36 1.19 1.14 1.10 1.00

viii. Slenderness ratio factor

Slenderness ratio Factor (K)

<5 1.25

5 1.25

10 1.23

20 1.20

30 1.17

40 1.13

50 1.08

60 1.00

70 0.90

80 0.707

90 0.68

100 0.58

120 0.42

140 0.32

160 0.25
19

180 0.20
Page
 200 0.16

220 0.14

240 0.12

250 0.11
20

TIMBER BEAM DESIGN

Page
  Joists are normally employed for spacing up to 500 mm and usually carry
floor and roof sheeting, whereas beams and girders are spaced apart and
support heavy floor /roof.
 Joists may be supported by walls, trusses or girders.
 Structural beams are usually rectangular in section and of uniform depth
throughout the span.
 In heavier loadings shaped sections may be adopted.

CONSIDERATION IN DESIGN OF TIMBER STRUCTURES

i. Condition of exposure
 It should never be exposed to adverse weather conditions unless surfaces
are protected.
ii. Direction of grains
 Timber is usually stronger when loads are perpendicular to the grains unlike
when grains are parallel to load.
 The scope of grain should be given consideration to bending, shock, and
compressive stress.
iii. Strength
 Consideration should be given to the direction of grains to give maximum
strength.
iv. Deteriorating defects
 Includes effects from dry rot, wet rot, termites etc.

TIMBER BEAM DESIGN PROCEDURE

i. Determine the dimensions of the cross section.

 If the extreme fiber stress does not exceed the allowable stress for material
used, i.e. design for strength in bending.
ii. Check the section to see that the allowable horizontal shear stress is not
exceeded.
iii. Check the section for deflection.
21
Page
 iv. Determine the dimensions of the end bearing provided that the stresses in
compression perpendicular to the grain do not exceed the allowable given
in the code.

DESIGN CONSIDERATION

 The following design consideration will be included:

1. Bending
 It is based on the theory of simple bending
Mr f E
I
= y
= R
Where Mr = moment of resistance of the section
I = second moment of area of the section.
f = permissible bending stress parallel to the grains
E = young modulus (Emean)
R = radius of curvature
 From the above equation it can be re-arranged as follows:
Mr I
f
= y
I
But y = Z (section modulus)
Mr
Therefore Z = f or Mr = Zf
 The moment of resistance should be greater than the maximum bending
moment, i.e. Mr > B.M.

Alternatively;

 Z (section modulus) required should be less than Z (section modulus)

provided.
2
bd
For rectangular sections; Z =
6
For usual conditions Mr = Mmax.
bd 2 f
Or 6
= Mmax
22

 Hence dimensions of the beam can be obtained if the ratio of b:d is given.
Page
 2. Shear
 The maximum shear in a rectangular section is given by:
1.5Q
qmax. = b . d

 Where Q = maximum shear force

b = breath of section

d = depth of section

 This value must not be greater than the permissible shear stress in timber
parallel to grains i.e. fq < Pq

3. Bearing
 There should be adequate bearing area at the support so that the
permissible stresses in compression perpendicular to the grains is not
exceeded by the bearing stress at the supports.
Q
Bearing stress = b . x

 Where Q = maximum shear

b = breadth of section
x = length of bearing
 This value must not exceed the permissible stress perpendicular to the
grains in timber.

4. Deflection
 The permissible deflection = 0.003 x span.
 The maximum actual deflection is obtained from the appropriate standard
formula for various loading conditions e.g.
i. Simply supported uniformly distributed loads.
4
23

5 wL
δ =
384 EI
Page
 ii. Point load simply supported
3
WL
δ =
48 EI
iii. Point load cantilever
3
WL
δ =
3 EI
iv. Cantilever carrying uniformly distributed loads
4
wL
δ =
8 EI
 The maximum actual deflection must not exceed the allowable permissible
deflection.

Example 1

A joist in a suspended timber floor had 75 x 225 mm and 4m effective length

spaced at 450 mm c/c. Check the joist adequacy with respect to bending and
hence check for shear, bearing and deflection.

Given the following data:

Live loads = 2.0 KN/m2

Dead loads and finishes = 1.0 KN/m2
Allowable deflection = 0.003 x span
Bending parallel to grain = 7.5 N/mm2
Shear parallel to grains = 0.71 N/mm2
Compression perpendicular to grains = 1.9 N/mm2
Other data
 Emean = 9.9Kn/m2
 Length of bearing at support = 100 mm

Assume medium term loading,

24
Page
 Solution

 Loading:

Live loads = 1 x 0.45 x 2 = 0.90 KN

Dead loads = 1 x 0.45 x 1 = 0.45 KN

Total loadings = 1.35 KN/m

2 2
wl 4
 B.Mmax. = = 1.35 x = 2.70 KNM
8 8

Permissible stresses

K3 = 1.25; K8 = 1.1

 Bending (ignoring K7) = K3 x K8 x grade stress in bending

= 1.25 x 1.2 x 7.5 = 10.3 N/mm2

 Shear parallel to grains = K3 x K8 x grade stress in shear parallel to grains

= 1.25 x 1.1 x 0.71 = 0.98 N/mm2

 Compression perpendicular to the grains = K3 x K8 x grade stress in

compression perpendicular to the grains

= 1.25 x 1.1 x 1.9 = 2.61 N/mm2

i. Bending

Section: 75 x 225 mm
2
bd 2 75 x 225
 Z provided = 6 = 6
= 6.33 x 105 mm3

6
Mmax 2.70 x 10
 Z required = f = = 2.62 x 105 mm3
25

10.3
Page
 300 300
 K7 = ( h )0.11 = ( 225 )0.11 = 1.03

5
2.62 x 10
 Z required = = 2.54 x 105 mm3
10.3

 Therefore 2.54 x105 mm3 < 6.3 x105 mm3

Hence okay in bending

ii. Shear
w.l
 Shear force Q = 2 = 1.35 x 4/2 = 2.70 KN

3
1.5Q 1.5 x 2.7 x 10
 Maximum shear stress qmax = b . d =
75 x 225

= 0.24 N/mm2

 Therefore 0.24N/mm2 < 0.98 N/mm2

Hence okay in shear

iii. Bearing
Q 2.7 x 103
 Bearing stress = b . x = 75 x 100 = 0.36 N/mm
2

 Therefore 0.36N/mm2 < 2.61N/mm2

Hence okay in bearing

iv. Deflection
4
4 5 x 1.35 x 4000
5 wl
 Maximum deflection = = 384 x 9.9 x 10 3 x 225 3 x 75 = 6.38 mm
384 EI
12
26

 Allowable deflection = 0.003 x 4000 = 12 mm

Page

 Therefore 12mm > 6,38mm

 Hence okay in deflection

Example 2

A suspended timber floor is supported on timber joists of effective length 3.6 m

spaced at 450 mm c/c. using the following data and the information in table 5;
design the joists for bending and check for shear and bearing.

Data

 Grade stresses:

 Bending = 7.4 N/mm2

 Shear parallel to grain = 0.8 N/mm2

 Compression perpendicular to the grains = 2.0 N/mm2

 Load shearing factor(K8) = 1.1

 Bearing lengths at supports = 150 mm

 Depth/breadth ratio =3

 Dead loads = 1.0 KN/m2

 Imposed loads = 1.5 KN/m2

 Assume medium term loading(K3) = 1.25

Solutions

 Loadings

Dead loads = 1 x 0.45 x 1 = 0.450 KN

Imposed loads = 1 x 0.045 x 1.5 = 0.675 KN

Total loading = 1.125 KN/m

27

2 2
wl 1.125 x 3.6
 B.Mmax = = = 1.823 KNM
Page

8 8
 Permissible stresses

K3 = 1.25; K8 = 1.1

 Bending (ignoring K7) = K3 x K8 x grade stress in bending

= 1.25 x 1.1 x 7.4 = 10.175 N/mm2

 Shear parallel to grains = K3 x K8 x grade stress in shear

= 1.25 x 1.1 x 0.8 = 1.1 N/mm2

 Compression perpendicular to the grains = K3 x K8 x Compression

perpendicular to the grains

= 1.25 x 1.1 x 2.0 = 2.75 N/mm2

i. Bending
2 2
fbd 10.175 x bd
 From Mmax = = 1.823 x 106 =
6 6

d
But b
=3

Therefore d = 3b
2
10.175 x b .9 b
 Therefore 1.83 x106 =
6
6
3 1.823 x 6 x 10
b = = 119443 mm3
10 .175 x 9

b = √3 119443 = 49.25 mm

 Adopt b = 50mm

d = 150mm
28
Page
 2 2
bd 50 x 150
 Z provided = = = 1.88 x 105 mm3
6 6
6
Mmax 1.823 x 10
 Z required = f = 10.175
= 1.79 x 105 mm3

300 300
 K7 = ( h )0.11 = ( 150 )0.11 = 1.08

5
1.78 x 10
 Z required = = 1.66x 105 mm3
1.08

 Therefore 1.66 x 105 mm3 < 1.88 x105 mm3

Hence okay in bending

ii. Shear
w.l
 Shear force Q = 2 = 1.125x 3.6/2 = 2.025 KN

3
1.5Q 1.5 x 2.025 x 10
 Maximum shear stress qmax = b . d = = 0.405N/mm2
50 x 150

 Therefore 0.405N/mm2 < 1.1 N/mm2

Hence okay in shear

iii. Bearing
3
Q 2.025 x 10
 Bearing stress = b , x = = 0.27N/mm2
50 x 150

 Therefore 0.27 N/mm2 < 2.75 N/mm2

Hence okay in bearing

iv. Deflection
4
4 5 x 1.125 x 3600
5 wl
 Maximum deflection = = 384 x 9.9 x 10 3 x 150 3 x 50 = 17.67 mm
384 EI
29

12
Page

 Allowable deflection = 0.003 x 3600 = 10.8 mm

  Therefore 17.67 mm > 10.8 mm. Hence okay in deflection

Example 3

A timber flat joist of effective length 2.5 m spaced at 450 mm c/c end bearing on
walls. Design the joist for bending and shear only.

Take loadings:

Imposed loads =1.5 KN/m

Dead loads = 1.75 KN/m

Joist depth/breath ratio =3

Permissible stresses

Bending parallel to grains = 10.31N/mm2

Shear parallel to grains = 0.98 N/mm2

Solution

i. Loadings

Dead + imposed = (1.5 + 1.75) x 0.45 x 1.0 = 1.46 KN/m

2 2
wl 1.46 x 2.5
 B.Mmax =
8
= 8
= 1.14 KNm

B.Mmax = Mr

Zf =1.14 x106
2
10.31 x bd
= 1.14 x106
6

 But d = 3b
2
9,b,b
Therefore = 1.14 x 106
30

6
Page
 √
6
b = 3 1.14 x 6 x 10 = 41.9 mm
9 x 10.31

 Adopt b = 50mm

d = 150mm

Permissible stresses

K3 = 1.25; K8 = 1.1

 Bending (ignoring K7) = K3 x K8 x grade stress in bending

= 1.25 x 1.1 x 10.3 = 14.18/mm2

 Shear parallel to grains = K3 x K8 x grade stress in shear

= 1.25 x 1.1 x 0.98 = 1.35N/mm2

ii. bending

Section: 50 x 150mm
2 2
bd 50 x 150
 Z provided = = = 1.88 x105 mm3
6 6
6
Mmax 1.14 x 10
 Z required = f = = 110572 mm3
10.31

= 1.106 x 105 mm3

300 300
 K7 = ( h )0.11 = ( 150 )0.11 = 1.08

5
1.106 x 10
 Z required = = 1.024 x 105 mm3
1.08

 Therefore 1.024 x105 mm3 < 1.106 x105 mm3

Hence okay in bending

31

iii. Shear
Page
 w.l 1.46 x 2.5
 Shear force Q = 2 = 2
= 1.825 KN

3
1.5Q 1.5 x 1.825 x 10
 Maximum shear stress qmax = b , d = = 0.365N/mm2
50 x 150

 Therefore 0.365 N/mm2 < 1.35 N/mm2

Hence okay in shear

Example 4

A timber beam having a clear span of 6.0]m is supported on 250]mm at each end.
The beam carries a uniformly distributed load of 15 KN/m over the entire span.

Design the beam using the following:

Permissible deflection = span/300 ≤ 20.83

Permissible bending stress = 10 N/mm2

Permissible shear stress = 1.2 N/mm2

Depth of section is twice breadth

E = 8KN/m2

solution

Loadings

Uniformly distributed load w = 15 KN/m

2 2
wl 15 x 6.25
B.Mmax =
8
= 8
=73.24 KNm

i. Bending
2
fbd
 From Mmax = = 73.24 x 106
6
32

d
But b = 2
Page
 Therefore d = 2b
2 3
4 fb, b 4 fb
 Therefore 73.24 x 106 = =
6 6
6
3 73.24 x 6 x 10
b = = 10986000 mm3
4 x 10

b =√3 10986000 = 222.5 mm

 Adopt b = 250 mm

d = 500 mm
2 2
bd 250 x 500
 Z provided = = = 10.42 x 106 mm3
6 6
6
Mmax 73.24 x 10
 Z required = f
= = 7.32 x106 mm3
10

K7 = 0.81(h2 + 92300) ÷ (h2 +56800)

=0.81(5002 + 92300) ÷ 5002 + 56800)

= 277263 ÷ 306800 = 0.904

6
7.32 x 10
Z required = = 8.1 x 106 mm3
0.904

Therefore 8.1 x 106 mm3 < 10.42 x 106 mm3

Hence okay in bending

ii. Shear
w.l
 Shear force Q = 2 = 15 x 6.25/2 = 46.88 KN

3
1.5Q 1.5 x 46.88 x 10
 Maximum shear stress qmax = b . d = = 0.56N/mm2
500 x 250

 Therefore 0.56 N/mm2 < 1.2 N/mm2

33
Page

Hence okay in shear

 iii. Deflection
4
5 wl 5 x 15 x 6250 4 x 12
 Maximum deflection = = 384 x 8 x 103 x 5003 x 250 = 14.3mm
384 EI

6250
 Allowable deflection = 300 = 20.83mm

 Therefore 20.83mm > 14.3mm

Hence okay in deflection

34
Page
Page 35
 L3: DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
 Struts and columns are examples of compression members.
For design purposes BS 5268 divided compression members in to two
categories:
i. Members subject to axial compression only.
ii. Members subject to combined bending and axial compression.
 In design of compression members the permissible stress in the direction of
the grains are governed by the usual way ,by the condition of service, load
shearing (if any), limiting of bow to be 1/300 of the column length ,
exposure conditions, etc.

Effective length
 The effective length of compression members may be found from the
following table or from the distance between the adjacent points of zero
bending between which the member is in single curvature.

End fixity conditions Effective length (le)

Actual length (L)
1. Restrained at both ends in position and in 0.70L
direction

2. Restrained in both end in position but fixed one 0.85L

end in direction

3. Restrained at both end in position but not in 1.00L

direction

4. Restrained in one end in position and in 1.5L

direction and at the other end in direction but
not in position.
36
Page
 5. Restrained at one end in position and in 2.0L
direction and free at the other end.

Slenderness ratio

 This is found by dividing the effective length (le) by the radius of gyration
(r).
 The slenderness ratio should not exceed 180 of the compression member if
carrying dead loads and imposed loads other than wind loads or where the
member’s deflection will adversely affect the stress in other members
carrying dead and imposed loads rather than wind loads.
 Slenderness ratio up to 250 is allowed for only members normally subject
to tension of combined tension and bending.

Axial compression

 If the slenderness ratio of the compression member is less than five (<5)
and there is little eccentricity (e) of loading, the permissible stress is the
grade compression stress parallel to the grains ,modified appropriately for
a member size , moisture content, duration of loading and load shearing in
the usual way.

 For those members with slenderness ratio ≥5 the permissible stress is

additional modification by the factor given by the code

Design of tension members

 The permissible stress for tension members depends on exposure duration,

duration of loading, load shearing, etc.
 The principle considerations in design are:
a) Slenderness ratio
b) Axial compression stress
c) Permissible compression stress
i. Member subject to axial compression only
37
Page
  In this category members are designed so that the applied compressive
stress does not exceed the permissible compressive stress parallel to the
grains:

δc.a.//. ¿ δc.adm.//

ii. Member subject to axial compression and bending.

 This category includes compression members subject to eccentricity which
can be equated to axial compression load under a bending moment.
 Members which are restrained at both ends in position but not in direction
which covers most real situations should be so proportioned that:

δm . a ./¿ δc . a/¿
δm . adm./¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ + δc . adm/¿ ≤ 1

Where;

δm.a.// = the applied bending stress

δm.adm.// = the permissible bending stress

δc.a.//. = the applied compression stress

δc.adm// = the permissible compression stress

δe = the Euler’s critical stress

= π2Emin (le/r)2

Example 1

A timber column 100 x 100mm square end is restrained both in position and not
38

direction. Assuming that the actual height of the column is 3.75m calculate the
Page
 maximum axial load a long term load that the column can carry using the data
below:

 Grade stress in compression parallel to grains = 6.8 N/mm2

 E min = 5.8 KN/m2

Solution

Slenderness ratio = le/r

√
Radius of gyration = 2 I
A
3
bd
But Ixx = 12

r =
√ 2 I
A
=
√
2 100 x 1003
12 x 100 x 100

= 28.867

Le = 3750mm
3750
Therefore Slenderness ratio = 28.867 = 129.9 < 180

Modification factors

K3 = 1.0
5800
Therefore Emin/δ .a// = 6.8 x 1.0 = 852.9
39

From tables
Page
 Emin/δc.// ¿
Slenderness ratio ƛ = r
100 120 129.9 140
700
800 0.28 0.217
852.9 x z y
900 0.304 0.237
900 – 800 = 100
0.304 – 0.28 = 0.024
x = 852.9 – 800 = 52.9
= 0.28 + [ 52.9 x 0.024
100 ]
= 0.293
y = 0.237 – 0.217 = 0.02
= 0.217 + [ 100 ]
52.9 x 0.02
= 0.028
z = x –y

[ 9,9
z = 0.293 – 20 x 0.065 = 0.261 ]
Therefore K12 = 0.261
 Permissible stress in compression// grains
δc.adm// = δc.a.// .K3.K12

= 6.8 x 1.0 x 0.26 = 1.77 N/mm2

 Actual long term load carrying capacity = δc.adm// .A

= 1.77 x 100 x 100 x 10-3
=17.7 KN.

Example

A sound timber column of cross section 100 x 100 mm and actual length 3.2 m is
restrained at both ends in position and at one end in direction only and is
required to carry an axial load (dead and imposed)of 35 KN. Check the adequacy
of the section given :
40

 Grade stress in compression parallel to the grains = 8.7 N/mm2

Page

 Minimum modulus of elasticity = 7100 N/mm2

  Duration of loading = medium term

K3 = 1.25

Solution

Actual length L= 3.2 m

¿
Slenderness ratio = r

√
Radius of gyration = 2 I
A
3
bd
But Ixx =
12

r =2 I
√ A

√
=2 100 x 1003
12 x 100 x 100¿
¿ = 28.868

Le = 3200 mm x 0.85 = 2720 mm

2720
Therefore Slenderness ratio = 28.868 = 94.22 < 180

Modification factors
41

K3 = 1.25
Page
 7100
Therefore Emin/δ .a// = 8.7 x 1.25 = 652.87

From tables

Emin/δc.// ¿
Slenderness ratio ƛ = r
100 110.85 120
600 0.307 0.226
652.87 x y z
700 0.341 0.254
800

700 – 600 = 100

0.341 – 0.307 = 0.034

100 = 0.034
0.034
52.87 = 52.87 x 100 = 0.018

 X = 0.307 + 0.018 = 0.325

Z = 0.254 – 0.226 = 0.028

100 = 0.028
0.028
52.87 = 52.87 x 100 = 0.015

Z = 0.226 + 0.015 = 0.241

42
Page

 y = z -x
 y 120 – 100 = 20

0.241 -0.325 = -0.084

10.85
10.85 = 20 x - 0.184 = -0.046

y = 0.325 – 0.046 = 0.279

 Therefore K12 = 0.279

 Permissible stress in compression// grains

δc.adm// = δc.a.// .K3.K12

= 8.7 x 1.25 x 0.279

= 3.039 N/mm2

 Actual long term load carrying capacity = δc.adm// .A

= 3.039 x 100 x 100 x 10-3

= 30.39 KN

 NB. The load of 30.39KN < 35KN.

 The section is not adequate hence provide a bigger section.

Try 150 x 150mm

43
Page
 L1. DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
44
Page
Page 45
Page 46
Page 47
Page 48
Page 49
Page 50
Page 51
Page 52
Page 53
Page 54
Page 55
Page 56
Page 57
Page 58
Page 59
Page 60
Page 61
Page 62
Page 63
Page 64
Page 65
Page 66
Page 67
Page 68
Page 69
Page 70
 L3: DESIGN OF SINGLE CASED BEAMS (CLAUSE 23)
Reason for casing

i. Aesthetics
ii. Thermal protection
iii. Corrosion protection
iv. Add to compression strength

Conditions to be fulfilled in their design are:

i. The section is of single web and I-form or of double open channel form with
webs not less than 40 mm apart.
ii. The beam is unpainted and is solidly encased in ordinary concrete with 10
mm aggregates and of a work strength not less than 21 N/mm 2 at 28 days
when tested in accordance to BS 1881.
iii. The minimum width of solid casing is equal to (b+100) mm where b is the
overall width of the steel flange in millimetres.
iv. The surfaces and edges of the flanges of the beam have a concrete cover of
not less than 50 mm.
v. The casing is effectively reinforced with wire links or binders to BS 449.
71
Page
 Permissible stresses
Allowable stresses in bending is obtained from table 3a
Pbc =?
L
Slenderness ratio = ryy
Where ryy = 0.2(b + 100)
L = effective length of the beam under consideration in millimetres.
NB. Pbc (cased) ¿1.5Pbc uncased
D
= as for uncased section.
T

Example
A simply supported beam spans 6 m and carries a total imposed uniformly
distributed load of 150 KN. The beam is supported by means cleated flange
connections into universal column stanchions. There are no intermediate
lateral supports for the compression flange and load is not free to move
sideways. Select a suitable grade 43 steel universal beam.
Solution
150
i. Load per metre run = 6 = 25 KN/m
wl 25 x 6
Reaction 2 = 2 = 75KN
ii. Select a suitable universal beam cased section
2 2
wl 25 x 6
B.M. max. = = = 112.5 KNm
8 8
6
M 112.5 x 10
Zxx = Pbc = = 681.82cm3
165
Try 406 x 140 x 46kg/m universal beam Zxx = 777.8cm3
Properties of section
A= 59.0 cm2
B = 142.4 mm
D = 402.3 mm
72

rxx -16.29 cm
Page
 ryy = 3.02 cm
Breath of section = B + 100 =142.4 + 100 = 242.4mm ¿ 250 mm
Depth of section = D + 100 = 402.3 + 100 =502.3mm = 510 mm
iii. Loading
Area of section cased = 510 x 250 mm = 127500 mm2
Area of steel from tables = 5900 mm2
Area of concrete 127500 – 5900 = 121600 mm2
Weight of concrete = 121600 x 10−6 x 24 = 2.918 KN
46 x 9.8
Weight of steel = 1000 = 0.45 KN
u.d.l. = 25 KN
Total loading = 28.365KN
iv. Maximum bending moments

2 2
wl 28.37 x 6
B.M. = = =127.67KNm
8 8
Actual stress
6
M 127.67 x 10 2
fbc = Z = 3 = 164.14 N/mm
xx 777.8 x 10
Therefore fbc = 164.14 N/mm2
Permissible stress
Pbc = ?
3 3
L 6 x 10 6 x 10
=
ryy 0.2(B+100)
= = 123.76 = 124
0.2(142.4+100)
D
= 36.0
T
From table 3 page 29 BS 449
73

Pbc = ?
By interpolation Pbc = 132 N/mm2
Page
 Pbc ¿fbc i.e. 164.14 N/mm2 ¿ 132 N/mm2
Not okay
Hence provide a bigger section
Say 406 x 178 x 54kg/m U.B.
Properties of section
A= 68.4 cm2
B = 177.6 mm
D = 402.6 mm
rxx -16.50cm
ryy = 3.85 cm
Breath of section = B + 100 =177.6 + 100 = 277.6 mm ¿ 280 mm
Depth of section = D + 100 = 402.6 + 100 =502.6 mm = 510 mm
Area of beam = 0.510 x 0.280 =0.1428 m2
Area of concrete = 0.1428 – (68.4 x 10−4 ¿ = 0.13596 m2
Loading
Weight of concrete = 0.13596 x 24 = 3.263 KN
54 x 9.81
Weight of steel = 1000 = 0.529 KN
u.d.l. = 25.000 KN
Total loading = 28.793 KN
Maximum bending moments

2 2
wl 28.793 x 6
B.M.max. = 8
= 8
= 129.6 KNm
Actual stress
6
M 129.6 x 10 2
fbc = Z = 3 = 140.1 N/mm
xx 925.3 x 10
74

Permissible stress
Page
 Pbc = ?
3 3
L 6 x 10 6 x 10
=
ryy 0.2(B+100)
= = 108.1
0.2(177.6+100)
D 402.6
T
= 10. .9 = 36.935 = 37
From table 3a page 29 BS 449
Pbc = 147 N/mm2
Fbc ¿ Pbc i.e. 140.1 N/mm2 ¿147 N/mm2
Okay
Check for uncased section
Pbc cased ¿1.5 Pbc uncased
L 6000
ryy
=¿
38 , 5
= 155.8
D
= 37.0
T
From table 3a page 29 BS 449
Pbc = 36 N/mm2
Pbc cased ¿1.5 Pbc uncased
147 N/mm2 ¿ 1.5 x 36 N/mm2
147 N/mm2 ¿ 54 N/mm2
Not okay
Hence try a bigger section
75
Page
 L 4. DESIGN OF AXIALLY AND ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMN SECTIONS
(STANCHIONS)

AXIALLY LOADED COLUMN SECTIONS (STANCHIONS)

Modes of failure
i. Yielding of material in axial compression – crushing for short columns
ii. Buckling in the weaker axis normally the y-y axis for universal column
sections, for long (slender) columns.

Clause 30 a: permissible stress in axial compression Pc table 17 a and c

L
 This depends on the slenderness ratio of the column r , where
L = effective length of the column
r = least radius of gyration
Effective length
 Effective length of compression members depend on the nature of end
connections i.e. the degree of end restrained offered at the ends of the
members.
Clause 31(a) and (b)
L
 For the purpose of calculating r for struts and stanchions, the effective
76

length (l) shall be taken as follows:

Page
 i. Effectively held in position and restrained in direction at both ends or
fixed at both ends. l = 0.7L

ii. Effectively held in position at both ends and restrained in direction at one
end or pinned on top fixed at bottom. L = 0.85L

iii. Effectively held in position at both ends but not restrained in direction or
pinned at both ends. l = L
77
Page
 iv. Effectively held in position and restrained in direction at one end and at
the other partially restrained in direction but not held in position or free
to move freely at one end within given limit and fixed at the bottom . l =
1.5L

v. Effectively held in position and restrained in direction at one end but not
held in position or restrained in direction at the other end or free on one
end and fixed at one end (can move in any direction). L = 2.0L
78
Page
 Maximum slenderness ratio
 The rules governing the maximum slenderness ratio for struts are taken
from clause 33 of BS 449.
 They are:
i. For a member carrying wind loads only so long as no stress increased
occurs the maximum slenderness ratio is 250
ii. For a member carrying dead loads or imposed loads the maximum
slenderness ratio is 180.
Effective length l
Slenderness ratio = least radius of yration = r

√
Where r = least second moment of area
area of section
= √ I
A
Axially loaded stanchions
 Stanchions, columns and struts primarily resist axial loads. Stanchions are
vertical members supporting floors or roofs.
 Some of the sections used for stanchions are shown below; rolled
compounds and built-up sections are used.
79
Page
Page 80
 Safe load of a strut
 The safe load that a stanchion can carry depends on:
a) Member dimensions: area, shape, length, etc
b) End connections
c) Slenderness ratio = r
l
,r= √ l
r
Where
A = area of section
r = least radius of gyration of the section. This measures the effectiveness of
the shape of the section.
l= effective length which depends on the actual length L and the end
condition of the strut.

Safe load = Pc x area of steel section

l
 Safe load depends on r . The safe stresses are given in table 17 of BS 449.
81
Page
 Comparison of end condition effect

This may be seen by an example as below:

A 356 x 368 x 202kg/m universal column has an actual length of 4.2m. calculate
the safe axial load for:

a) Fixed ends
b) Pinned ends

Section properties

A = 257.9 cm2

B = 474.4 mm

D = 374.7 mm

ryy = 9.57 cm

rxx = 16.0 cm

L = 4.2 m
82
Page
 (a) Fixed ends (b) Pinned ends

l ( 4.2 x o .7 ) x 1 oo l ( 4.2 x 1 ) x 1 oo
r yy
= = 30.72 r yy
= = 43.89
9.57 9.57

S.R = 30.72 S.R = 43.89

From tables 17 a From tables 17 a

Pc = 142 N/mm2 Pc = 137 N/mm2

142 x 257.9 x 100 137 x 257.9 x 100

Safe load = 1000 Safe load = 1000
= 3662.2KN = 3533.2 KN

NB: a strut, column, stanchion which is fixed at both ends will carry more
loads than one with pinned ends.

Example
A 203 x 203 x 52k/m universal column has an actual length of 3.6m.
Calculate safe load for:
a) Fixed ends
b) Pinned ends

Solution
a) Assume fixed ends (l = 0.7L)
 Properties of the section are:
A = 66.4 cm2
B = 203.9 mm
D = 206.2 mm
ryy = 8.90 cm
rxx = 5.16 cm
L = 3.6 m
83

l 3.6 x 100 x 0.7

 Slenderness ratio = r = = 49
Page

yy 5.16
 From table 17a BS 449
Pc = 134 N/mm2
 Safe load = Pc x area of steel section
134 x 66.4 x 100
= 3 = 889.76 KN ≅ 890 KN
10

b) Assume pinned ends

A = 66.4 cm2
rxx = 5.16 cm
l 3.6 x 100 x 1
 Slenderness ratio = r = 5.16
= 69.77 = 70
yy

From table 17a BS 449

Pc = 115 N/mm2

 Safe load = Pc x area of steel section

115 x 66.4 x 100
= 3 = 763.6 KN ≅ 764 KN
10

NB: columns with fixed ends carry more loads than those with pinned ends.

Example
A steel column shown below is required to carry an axial load of 500KN.
Select a suitable grade 43 universal column with an actual length of 4.0 m
Solution
3
Force 500 x 10
Area (min) = stress = = 3225.9 mm2 = 32.26 cm2
155
 NB: assuming a short column the permissible stress will be maximum i.e.
165N/mm2 (table 17) for grade 43 steel.
 With a minimum area of 32.26cm2 select a suitable section i.e. (table 2
universal columns 0 i.e. try 152 x 152 x 30k/m which gives a minimum area
of 38.2 cm2.
a) Calculate applied stress (fc)
84

3
Force 500 x 10
Therefore fc = Area = 2 = 131N/mm
2
Page

38 ,2 x 10
 b) Permissible stress = ?
l 0.7 x 4000
r yy
=
38.2
= 73.3
 From table 17
Pc = 111.7 N/mm2
Therefore fc ¿ Pc i.e. 131N/mm2 ¿111.7 N/mm2
Not okay
NB: since actual stress is higher than permissible try a bigger section
Try 152 x 152 x 37kg/m universal column which gives a minimum area of
47.4 cm2
3
Force 500 x 10
Therefore actual applied stress fc = Area = 47.4 x 10
2 = 105.5 N/mm
2

 Permissible stress = ?
l 0.7 x 4000
r yy
=
38.7
= 72.4
From table 17
Pc = 113 – 0.4 = 112.6 N/mm2
Therefore fc ¿ Pc i.e. 105.5 N/mm2 ¿112.6 N/mm2
Okay
Hence provide 152 x 152 x 37kg/m universal column

Example
A steel column of the type shown in the figure 2 is required to carry an axial
load of 900 KN. Select a suitable grade 43 universal column with an actual
length of 4.0 m.
85
Page
 Solution
3
900 x 10
 Minimum area = = 5454.55 mm2 = 54.55cm2
165
Using minimum area = 54.55cm2, the suitable section is 203 x 203 x 46kg/m
universal column
3
Force 900 x 10
Applied actual stress fc = Area = 58.8 x 10
2 = 153.1N/mm
2

 Permissible stress (Pc)

l 0.7 x 4000
r yy
=
51.1
= 54.37
From table 17
Pc = 130 N/mm2
Therefore fc ¿ Pc i.e. 153.1N/mm2 ¿130 N/mm2
Not okay
Hence select a bigger section
Say 203 x 203 x 60kg/m universal column
3
Force 500 x 10
Therefore actual applied stress fc = Area = 75 ,8 x 10
2 = 118.7 N/mm
2

 Permissible stress (Pc) = ?

l 0.7 x 4000
r yy
=
51.9
= 53.94
From table 17
Pc = 130 N/mm2
Therefore fc ¿ Pc i.e. 118.7 N/mm2 ¿130 N/mm2
Okay
Hence provide 203 x 203 x 60kg/m universal column
Example
A universal length of length 4m carries an axial load of 450 KN. In addition it
supports a simply supported beam carrying a uniformly distributed load of
10 KN/M over its entire length of 4.5m. The column is fully fixed in position
and direction at one end while the other end is pinned. Select a suitable
column section in grade 43 steel and check its adequacy. Take Pbc = 165
86

N/mm2.
Page
 Solution
Axial load (W) = 450 KN
Load from beam = w x l = 10 x 4 = 40 KN
Total loading on column = 450 + 40 = 490 KN
3
Load 490 x 10
 Minimum area = Pbc = = 2969.7 mm2 29.7 cm2
165
Using minimum area = 29.7 cm2, the suitable section is 152 x 152 x 30kg/m
universal column.
3
Force 490 x 10
Applied actual stress fc = Area = 38.2 x 10
2 = 128.3 N/mm
2

 Permissible stress (Pc)

l 0.85 x 4000
r yy
=
38.2
= 89 to be continued please teacher
From table 17
Pc = 130 N/mm2
Therefore fc ¿ Pc i.e. 153.1N/mm2 ¿130 N/mm2
Not okay
Hence select a bigger section
Say 203 x 203 x 60kg/m universal column
3
Force 500 x 10
Therefore actual applied stress fc = Area = 75 ,8 x 10
2 = 118.7 N/mm
2

 Permissible stress (Pc) = ?

l 0.7 x 4000
r yy
=
51.9
= 53.94
From table 17
Pc = 130 N/mm2
Therefore fc ¿ Pc i.e. 118.7 N/mm2 ¿130 N/mm2
Okay
Hence provide 203 x 203 x 60kg/m universal column
87
Page
 L5. STRUTURALLY CASED AXIALLY LOADED COLUMNS (CLAUSE 30 b)

Reasons for casing

a) Increase compressive strength
b) Corrosion resistance
c) Fire resistance
d) Aesthetic purpose

The following conditions must be satisfied:

i. The section should be of I-section or double channel form.
ii. The steel section must be unpainted.
iii. The section must be solidly encased in concrete of strength 21 N/mm 2 at 28
days, maximum aggregate size being 10 mm.
iv. Reinforcements in the form of links or binders must be provided. They
should be at least 5 mm in diameter spaced at 200 mm centre to centre
and at least 4 number high yield longitudinal bars must be provided,
normally 12 mm in diameter, one at each corner.
v. Minimum cover to steel must be at least 50 mm.

Permissible stress (pc)

 The permissible (allowable) axial compression in steel Pc is obtained from
88

table 17 (as previously)

Page
  In calculating the slenderness ratio, the least radius of gyration is taken as r
= 0.2(B + 100) mm where B is the breadth of the beam in mm.
 The permissible axial compression in concrete (Pconc.) is expressed as a ratio;
Pc
Pconc. = 0.19 P
bc

Where:
Pbc = the permissible bending compressive stress for the steel obtained in
table 2 (maximum = 165N/mm2)
 The allowable axial load (P) on the cased strut is given by
P = PcAs + (Pconc x Ag)
Where:
As = area of steel section
Ag = the gross cross sectional area of cased section
 In calculating the gross cross sectional area any cover in excess of 75 mm is
ignored. The axial load on the cased column must also not exceed twice
that which would be permitted on the uncased section.
 The slenderness ratio (SR) based on the actual length of the column must
not exceed 250 mm for uncased columns

Example
Check the adequacy of 203 x 203 x 60 kg/m universal column in grade 43
steel when cased in accordance with the requirements of BS 449. Use the
following information:
 Axial load on column = 1200 KN
 Actual length of column = 3.5 m
 Pbc = 165 N/mm2
Solution
Given section 203 x 203 x 60 kg/m universal column
Steel section properties
A = 75.8 cm2
B = 205.2 mm
89

D = 209.6 mm
Page

ryy = 5.19 cm
 rxx = 8.96 cm
i. Steel section (uncased)
l 0.7 x 3.5 x 100
 Slenderness ratio = r
yy
= 51.9 = 47.2
From table 17 a
P c = 135 N/mm2
Safe load = Pc x area of steel
135 x 75 , 8 x 100
= 10
3 = 1023.3 KN
ii. Cased steel section
Breadth of section = 205.2 + 100 = 305.2 = 310 mm
Depth of concrete = 209.6 + 100 = 309.6 = 310 mm
L 3500
Slenderness ratio of full length = r
yy
= 51.9
=67.4 ¿250 okay
ryy = 0.2(B + 100) = 0.2(205.2 + 100) = 61.04 mm = 6.104 cm

l 0.7 x 350
r yy = 6.104
= 40.12
From table 17a
Pc = 139 N/mm2
2
Pc . Ag 139 x 310
Safe load = Pc. As + 0.19 Pbc = (139 x 75.8 x 100) +
0.19 x 165
= 1053620 N + 426089.32 N
= 1479709.3 N x 10−3 = 1479.71 KN
 Check that:
2 x 1023.3 ¿1479.7 KN
2046.6 KN ¿ 1479.7 KN
Hence okay
Therefore the load of 1480 is safe. Hence 203 x 203 x 60kg/m universal
column is adequate.
90
Page

Example
 An internal stanchion in a building has an actual length of 4.5 m centre to
centre of floor beams. The steel section is 254 x 254 x 107kg/m universal
column. Calculate the safe axial load that the strut can carry if cased in
accordance to clause 30b BS 449.
Solution
Section size 254 x 254 x 107 kg/m universal column.
A = 136.6 cm2
B = 258.3 mm
D = 266.7 mm
ryy = 6.57 cm
rxx = 11.3cm

i. Safe load on the uncased steel section

l 0.7 x 4.5 x 100
Pc (uncased) = r
yy
= 6.57
= 47.9
Therefore from table 17a
Pc = 135 N/mm2
Safe load = Pc x area of steel.
Safe load = Pc x area of steel
135 x 136.6 x 100
= 10
3 = 1844 KN
ii. Cased steel section
Breadth of section = 258.3 + 100 = 358.3 = 360 mm
Depth of concrete = 266.7 + 100 = 366.7 = 370 mm
L 3500
Slenderness ratio of full length = r
yy
= 65.7
= 68.5 ¿250 okay
ryy = 0.2(B + 100) = 0.2(258.3 + 100) = 71.6 mm = 7.17 cm

l 0.7 x 4.5 x 100

r yy = 7.16
= 43.99 = 44
91

From table 17a

Page
 Pc = 137 N/mm2
From table 2 Pbc = 165 N/mm2
Pc . Ag 137 x 360 x 370
Safe load = Pc. As + 0.19 Pbc = (137 x 136.6 x 100) + 0.19 x 165
= 1871420 N + 582086.13 N
= 2453506.1 N x 10−3 = 2453.5 KN
 Check that:
2 x 1844 ¿2454 KN
3688 KN ¿ 2454 KN
Hence okay
Therefore the load of 2454KN is safe. Hence 254 x 254 x 107 kg/m universal
column is adequate.

Example
Check the adequacy of 152 x 152 x 23 kg/m universal column in grade 43
steel when cased in accordance with the requirements of BS 449. Use the
following information:
 Axial load on column = 500 KN
 Actual length of column = 4.0 m
 Column held in position and direction
 Pbc = 165 N/mm2

Solution
Given section 152 x 152 x 23 kg/m universal column
Steel section properties
A = 29.8 cm2
B = 152.4 mm
D = 152.4 mm
ryy = 3.68 cm
92

rxx = 6.51 cm
i. Steel section (uncased)
Page
 l 0.7 x 3.5 x 100
 Slenderness ratio = r
yy
= 36.8 = 76.08
From table 17 a
P c = 108 N/mm2

Safe load = Pc x area of steel

108 x 29.8 x 100
= 10
3 = 321.84 KN
ii. Cased steel section
Breadth of section = 152.4 + 100 = 252.4 mm = 260 mm
Depth of concrete = 152.4 + 100 = 254.4 mm = 260 mm
L 4000
Slenderness ratio of full length = r
yy
= 36.8
= 109 ¿250 okay
ryy = 0.2(B + 100) = 0.2(152.4 + 100) = 50.48 mm = 5.048 cm

l 0.7 x 400
r yy = 5.048
= 55.5 = 56
From table 17a
Pc = 129 N/mm2
2
Pc . Ag 129 x 260
Safe load = Pc. As + 0.19 Pbc = (129 x 29.8 x 100) +
0.19 x 165
= 384420 N + 271693.78 N
= 656113.78 N x 10−3 = 656.11 KN
 Check that:
2 x 321 ¿656.11 KN
642 KN ¿ 656.11 KN
Hence not okay
Therefore the load of 656.11KN is not safe. Hence provide a bigger section.
Try 152 x 152 x 23 kg/m universal column.
93
Page

Example
 Check the adequacy of 203 x 203 x 86 kg/m universal column in grade 43
steel when cased in accordance with the requirements of BS 449. Use the
following information:
 Axial load on column = 550 KN
 Actual length of column = 5.6 m
 Column held in position and direction
 Pbc = 165 N/mm2

Solution
Given section 203 x 203 x 86 kg/m universal column
Steel section properties are:
A = 110.1 cm2
B = 208.8 mm
D = 222.3 mm
ryy = 5.32 cm
rxx = 9.27 cm
i. Steel section (uncased)
l 0.7 x 5.6 x 100
 Slenderness ratio = r
yy
= 53.2 = 73.68 = 74
From table 17 a
P c = 111 N/mm2

Safe load = Pc x area of steel

111 x 110.1 x 100
= 10
3 = 1222.11 KN
ii. Cased steel section
Breadth of section = 208.8 + 100 = 308.8 mm = 310 mm
Depth of concrete = 222.3+ 100 = 322.3 mm = 325 mm
L 5600
Slenderness ratio of full length = r
yy
= 53.2
= 105.3 ¿250 okay
ryy = 0.2(B + 100) = 0.2(208.8 + 100) = 61.76 mm = 6.18 cm
94
Page
 l 0.7 x 5.6 x 100
r yy = 6.18
= 63.43
From table 17a
Pc = 123 N/mm2
Pc . Ag 123 x 310 x 325
Safe load = Pc. As + 0.19 Pbc = (123 x 110.1 x 100) + 0.19 x 165
= 1354230 N + 395287.08 N
= 1749517.1 N x 10−3 = 1749.52 KN = 1750 KN
 Check that:
2 x 1222.11 ¿1750 KN
2444.22 KN ¿ 1750 KN
Hence okay
Therefore the load of 1750 KN is not safe. Hence 203 x 203 x 86 kg/m
universal column is adequate.
.
95
Page
 L6: COLUMNS IN BENDING AND AXIAL COMPRESSION
 Bending to columns arises due to various reasons :
i. Wind loads

ii. Moments in joints of a rigid frame

iii. Eccentricity (e) of beam reactions

96
Page
  In the simple method of design, simple supports are assumed and therefore
the bending moment to be considered are those due to eccentricity of
beam reactions, wind and those of any other horizontal loads.
(seeclause34a)
i. Bracket connection
 Reaction is assumed to act at 100mm from the face of column or at the
centre of bearing whichever is greater.

ii. Cap connections

 Reaction assumed to act at edge of packing or face of column if no packing
is used.
97
Page
 iii. Truss connections
 No eccentricity in this case of roof truss supported as shown.
98
Page

 Part plan of a building frame

  Consider the part plan shown above.
The column C1 supports three beams 2B1 and B3 each of the beam reactions
will have some eccentricity.

 The moments due to the eccentricities of the reactions of beam B 1 cancels

one another and therefore the only moment by C1 is that due to the
eccentricity of beam B3 reactions, hence the bending is about only one axis.
99

 If the reactions of B3 is R3, the direct compressive stress

Page
 Direct compressive stress = fc = (2R1 + R3)/A
The maximum bending stress
Pbc = fbc = m/Zxx = R3.ex/Zxx
Where
A = the cross-sectional area
ex = eccentricity from the X-X axis.
Zxx = section modulus about axis of bending

 The maximum compressive stress = fc + fbc

Where:
fbc = maximum bending stress
fc = direct compressive stress.

Permissible stress
 These are Pc and Pbc and are obtained as previously in case of axially
loaded columns and beams in bending respectively.

 For uncased columns a safe design will be achieved if:

fc/Pc + fbc/Pbc ≤ 1.0 (clause 14a)

 For a cased design a safe design will be achieved if:

fc/Pc + fbc/Pbc ≤ 1.0
Where:
fc = Actual axial load
Pc = allowable axial load on cased section
fbc and Pbc = these are based on the uncased section.
100

 The column C2 supports B1 and B2.

Page
  Bending will be about both axes.
Direct compressive stress fc = (R1 + R2)/A
Bending stresses are fbcx or fbtx = R2.ex/Zxx
And fbcy or fbty = R1.ey/Zyy

 Maximum compressive stress =fc + fbcx + fbcy

 Permissible stresses are obtained as before for a safe design:

fc/Pc + fbcx/Pbc + fbcy/Pbc ≤ 1.0

 For cased sections, a safe design will be achieved if:

fc/Pc + fbcx/Pbc + fbcy/Pbc ≤ 1.0
101
Page
 Example
The figure below shows a loaded stanchion of actual length 4.5m. The
stanchion is fully fixed at one end and pinned at the other.
Check the adequacy for a 305 x 305 x 118 kg/m universal column in grade
43 steel for the stanchion.

Solution
ey = (100 + t/2) + clearance
ex = (100 +D/2) + clearance
102
Page
  Size of section 305 x 305 x118 kg/m universal column.
Properties of section
A = 149.8cm2 = 14980mm÷
B = 306.8mm
D = 314.5mm
ryy = 7.75cm = 77.5mm
rxx = 13.6cm
Zxx = 1755cm3 = 1755 x 103mm3
Zyy = 587cm3 = 587 x 103mm3
D/t = 16.8
t = 11.9mm

 Compressive stress fc = (R1 + R2 + R3)/A

fc = {(300 + 400 + 100) x 103} ÷ 14980 = 53.4N/mm2
 Permissible compressive stress (Pc) from table 17a BS 449
le/ryy = (4.5 x 103 x 0.85)/77.5 = 49.4
From table 17a
Pc = 133.6N/mm2

 Bending stresses fbcx = m/Zxx

Where m = R1.ex = 400 x 103 x (100 +314.5/2)
= 400,000 x 257.3 = 1.03 x 108 Nmm

fbcx = (1.03 x 108) ÷ 1755 x 103 = 58.64N/mm2

fbcy = m/Zyy = R2.ey/Zyy

= 100 x 103 x (100 x 11.9/2) ÷ 587 x 103 = 18.05N/mm2
 Therefore fc/Pc + fbcx/Pbc + fbcy/Pbc ≤ 1.0
or 53.4/133.6 + 58.63/165 + 18.05/165 ≤ 1.0
or 0.8644 ≤ 1.0
103

Hence 305 x 305 x 118kg/m universal column is adequate.

Page
 Example
A steel stanchion has an effective length of 6.1m and carries an axial load of
500KN in addition to a bending moment of 36.6KNm at base of stanchion.
Design a suitable universal column.

Solution
 Minimum area = load/Pbc = 500000/165 = 3,030.3mm2
Try 203 x 203 x 86 kg/m universal columns.
Properties of section
A = 110.1cm2 = 11,010mm
B = 208.8mm
D = 222.3mm
104

ryy = 5.32 = 53.2mm

rxx = 9.27cm
Page

Zxx = 851.5cm3 = 851.5 x 103mm3

 Zyy = 298.7cm3 = 298.7 x 103mm3
D/t = 10.8
t = 13.0mm
 Slenderness ratio le/ryy = 6.1 x 102/5.32 = 114.7 = 115
From table 17a
Pc = 64N/mm2

From table 3a
Pbc = 165 N/mm2

 Actual stress fc = P/A = (500 x 103)/110.1 x 102 = 45.41N/mm2

fbc = m/Zxx = 36.6 x 106/851.5 x 103 = 42.98 = 43 N/mm2

 For a safe design

fc/Pc + fbc/Pbc ≤ 1.0
45.41/64 + 43/165 ≤ 1.0
0.7095 + 0.2606 ≤ 1.0
0.9701 ≤ 1.0
Okay
 Hence the column is safe.
Therefore adopt 203 x 203 x 86 kg/m universal columns.
105
Page
 Example
Figure 4 shows the plan of a loaded column of actual length 3.7m and is
fixed in position and direction at both ends.
Check the adequacy of 254 x 254 x 73 kg/m universal column in grade 43
steel.

Solution
 Size of section 254 x 254 x 86 kg/m universal columns.
Properties of section
A = 92.9cm2 = 9290mm
B = 254.0mm
D = 254.0mm
ryy = 6.46 = 64.6mm
rxx = 11.1cm
106

Zxx = 894.5cm3 = 894.5 x 103mm3

Zyy = 305.0cm3 = 305.0 x 103mm3
Page
 D/t = 17.9
t = 8.6mm
 Compressive stress fc = (R1 + R2 + R3)/A
= (200 + 200 + 180 + 500) x 103 ÷ 92.9 x 102
fc = 116.26 N/mm2
 Permissible compressive stress (Pc)
Le/ryy = (3.7 x 103 x 0.7)/64.6 = 40.01
From table 17a
Pc = 139N/mm2
 Bending stresses
fbcx = m/Zxx = R1.ex/Zxx
= {200 x 103 x (100 + 254/2)} ÷ 894.5 x 103
fbcx= 50.75N/mm2

 fbcy = m/Zyy = R2.ey/Zyy

= 180 x 103 x (100 + 8.6/2)} ÷ 305.0 x 103
fbcy = 61.55N/mm2

 Therefore,
fc/Pc + fbcx/Pbc + fbcy/Pbc ≤ 1.0
116.26 /139 + 50.75/165 + 61.55/165 ≤ 1.0
0.84 + 0.308 + 0.373 ≤ 1.0
1.521 ˃ 1.0
Not okay
 The section is inadequate. Hence try a bigger section.
Say 254 x 254 x 107 kg/m universal column.
107
Page
 L7. STANCHIONS IN MULTI-STOREY CONSTRUCTION

Reduction of imposed loads on supporting columns refer to BS 6377 formally CP v

part 1.

No. of floors including roof carried by % reduction in total imposed loads

members.
1 0
2 10
3 20
4 30
5-10 40
>10 50 max.
108
Page
 Bending Moments in continuous columns

Consider the simple multi storey building shown

 Assuming some eccentricity of the beam reactions there will be a moment
produced at joint B of column ABC due to the floor loadings carried by the
beams.
 Normally in a building frame, columns consist of spliced continuous
members for economical reasons.
 A column such as ABC would be a single member or where a standard
member is of insufficient length, a spliced column consisting of two lengths
which may or not be of the same cross sectional sizes.
 At B the moment due to eccentricity of beam reaction will be shared
between the upper and the lower length of the column ABC.
109
Page
 Note
M = moment due to eccentricity of beam reactions.
Mu =moment at bottom of upper column.
Ml = moment at bottom of lower column.
Iu = moment of inertia of upper column.
IL = moment of inertia of lower column.
Lu = length of the upper column.
Ll = length of the lower column.

In calculating the moments carried in the columns the following

assumptions are made:
i. If the ratio of the stiffness of the upper and lower columns exceeds
1.5 the moments M is shared in proportions to the stiffness of the
columns.
ii. If the ratio is <1.5 then the moments M is shared equally between
the lower and the upper lengths.
110

Ku Kl Ku Kl
 If Kl / or Ku /Ku >1.5, then Mu = ( Ku +Kl)m and Ml = Kl +Ku, where K
Page

I
is the stiffness given by K = L .
  If Ku/Kl or Kl/Ku <1.5, Mu = Ml = M/2

 The moments Mu and Ml are not effective at floor levels immediately

below or above level B i.e. the moments are not carried over to the ends of
the column lengths remote from B as in the cases of moment distribution
method. Refer clause 39(b) of BS 449.

Example 1
The figure below shows the elevation and plan of a side stanchion,
ground floor and second floor level.
Design the bottom length of stanchion for the following lengths.
Given data:
 Edge beam reactions = 60KN.
 Axial load from 2nd floor and floors above = 800KN
 Main beam reaction from 1st floor loads = 250KN.
 Self weight of the column to assume 1.5KN/m length.
 Assume the same section is used for the upper and lower lengths.
 Use structurally cased grade 43 steel.
 Assume that appropriate load deduction has been made for imposed
loads.
 For effective lengths refer figs.6 and 6 BS 449.
111
Page
 SOLUTION
 Edge beam reactions
60 x 2 = 120KN
Axial load = 800KN
Main beam reactions = 250KN
Self-weight of column = 5.4KN
Total working axial loads = 1175.4KN.

 Determine minimum area

1175.4 x 1.0/155 = 7583.258mm2 = 75.83cm2
Therefore suitable section for this minimum area is
203 x 203 x 60kg/m universal column, but try a bigger section; say
203 x 203 x 86kg/m universal column whose minimum are =
110.1cm2.

Actual stress
 fc = total axial loads/actual area of section
fc = 1175.4 x103/110.1 x 102 = 106.757N/mm2 = 106.8N/mm2.

 Also pc = l/ry = 3600 x 0.7/53.2 = 47.37

Then from table 17(a) 47.37 gives pc = 135.6N/mm2.
Therefore since 106.8N/mm2 < 135.6N/mm2, it is Okay.
Therefore provide 203 x 203 x 86 kg/m universal columns.

Permissible stress
 Pc = (l/ry) uncased = 0.7 x 5000/53.2 = 65.8N/mm2
Pc = 120.2N/mm2 from table 17(a).

 For cased sections ry = 0.2(B+100)

Pc = (l/ry) cased = 0.7 x 5000/0.2(208.8 + 100) = 56.7.
112

Pc = 128.34N/mm2.
Page
  From table 3
Pbc = 165N/mm2
Pconc = Pc/0.19Pbc

Permissible load
P(cased) =Pc.As + Pconc.Ag
= (128.3 x 110.1 x 102) + (128.3 x 3252/0.19 x 165)
= 1519380 + 464952.15
= 1984332.15N
= 1844.85KN
 Therefore 1844.85KN > 1175.4KN
Hence okay

 P(uncased) = Pc.As
= (120.2 x 110.1 x 102) x 10-3
= 1323.5KN
 But P(uncased) x 2 > P(cased)
Therefore 2 x 1323.5 > 1844.85
That is 2647KN > 1844.85KN
Therefore okay

Actual stresses
 Fbc = M/Zxx = P x e/Zxx
 M = p x e = 250 x (0.2223/2 + 0.1) = 53KNm

Sharing
 Ku = Iu/3.6 ; Kl = IL/5.0
Ku = I/3.6 ; Kl = I/5.0
Ku/Kl or Kl/Ku ; I/3.6 = 5.0/I = 1.3888 = 1.4
Therefore 1.4 <1.5
113

Mu = Ml = 53/2 = 26.5KNm
Fbc = M/Z = 26.5 x 106/851.5 x 103 = 31.12N/mm2
Page
 Final check
 fc/Pc + fbc/Pbc < 1.0
106.8/135.6 += 31.12/165 < 1.0
0.788 + 0.188 <1.0
0.976 < 1.0
 It is okay; hence a 203 x 203 x 86 kg/m universal columns is adequate.
114
Page
 Example 2
Figure below shows the plan of 203 x 203 x 60kg/m grade 43 steel
universal column 3.5m height centres.

Check the adequacy of the column when encased in accordance with

BS449 assuming the column is a middle length in a multi-storey
construction

Take axial load from upper floors as 820KN.

Solution
Total axial load = 820KN
From beams(210 + 34 + 99 + 5) = 348
115

Total design loads = 1168KN

Page

 Section given 203 x 203 x 60kg/m universal column grade 43 steel

 Where:
A = 75.8cm2 = 7580mm2
B = 206.2mm
D = 209.6mm
t= 9.3mm
ry = 5.19cm = 51.9mm
Zxx = 581.1cm3 = 581.1 x 103mm3
Zyy = 199.0cm3 = 199 x 103mm3

Moments
 Mx = (34 – 5)(D/2 + 100)
= [29(209.6/2 + 100)] x10-3 = 5.94KNm
 My = (210 – 99)(t/2 + 100)
= 111(9.3/2 +100) x 10-3 = 11.62KNm
 For given section; D = 209.6mm, B = 206.2mm.
Take section of 310 x 310mm

 Pc =? Uncased; l/ry = 0.7 x 3500/51.9 = 47.2

 Therefore table 17(a) gives Pc = 135.8N/mm2
 Pc =? Cased; l/ry = 0.7 x 3500/0.2(206.2 + 100) = 40.00
116

Pc = 138.87N/mm2 = 139N/mm2
 Pbc = 165N/mm2
Page
  Pconc =(Pc)cased/0.19Pbc = 139/0.19 x 165 = 4.43

Allowable load
 P(uncased) = Pc x As(uncased)
= [135.8 x 75.8 x102] x 10-3
= 1029.4KN
 P(cased) = [(139 x 75.8 x102) + (4.43 x 3102)] x 10-3
= 1479.34KN

Actual stresses
 fbcx = Mx/Zxx = 5.94 x 106/581.1 x 103 = 10.22N/mm2.
When shared it becomes 10.22/2 = 5.11N/mm2 each (because mid-column).
 fbcy = My/Zyy = 11.62 x 106/199 x 103 = 58.4N/mm2.
When shared it becomes 58.4/2 = 29.2N/mm2 each (because mid-column).

1st check
 fc/Pc + fbcx/Pbc + fbcy/Pbc ≤ 1.0
1168/1479.34 + 29.2/165 + 5.11/165 ≤ 1.0
0.7895 + 0.177 + 0.0309 ≤ 1.0
0.9975 ≤ 1.0
Therefore okay

2nd check
 P(uncased x 2 > P(cased)
2 x 1029.4KN > 1479.34KN
2058.8KN > 1479>34KN
Therefore it is okay, hence 203 x 203 x 60kg/m universal column grade 43
steel is adequate.
117

Example 3
Page
 A universal column is to support an axial load of 850KN. The column which
is effectively held in position and direction at both ends has an actual
length of 5.35m. Select the most suitable section in grade 43 steel from the
following:

i. 152 x 152 x 30kg/m universal column

ii. 203 x 203 x 60kg/m universal column

iii. 356 x 404 x 64kg/m universal column

Solution
 Assuming a short column Pcc = 155N/mm2.

Minimum area = force/stress = 850 x 103/155 = 54.84cm2

 From the given sections:

1st 152 x 152 x 30kg/m universal column gives are = 38.2cm2 hence ruled
out.

 Try second section;

203 x 203 x 60kg/m universal column gives area = 75.8cm2.

Therefore Pc =? ; l/ry = 0.7 x 5.35 x 103/51.9 = 72.16.

Therefore table 17(a) gives Pc = 112.89N/mm2.

 Actual stress = fc = F/A = 850 x 103/75.8 x102 = 112.14N/mm2.

Therefore 112.14N/mm2 < 112.89N/mm2.

 NB. The remaining section would not work since it is quite uneconomical.
118

 Provide the most suitable and economical section i.e.203 x 203 x 60kg/m
Page

universal column
 Example 4
A universal beam serial size 457 x191 x 89kg/m universal beam is simply
supported on a span of 12.0m as shown below.

Determine the safe uniformly distributed load the beam can carry and
check for:

i. Web shear

ii. Web crushing

iii. Web buckling

iv. Deflection
119

Solution
Page

 For the given section:

 I = 41021cm4

d = 407.9mm

D/T = 26.3

Zxx =1770cm3

D = 463.6mm

t = 10.6mm

ryy =4.28cm = 42.8mm

 f/y = m/I =E/R

i. Determine fbc < pbc table 3(a)

l/ryy = 12000/42.8 =280.4

Pbc =58.2N/mm2 (thro’ interpolation)

M = [58.2 x 1770 x 103] x 10-3 KNm

= 103.014KNm

 From Mmax. =wl2/8

Therefore w = 8m/l2 = 8 x 103.014/122

= 5.723KN/m

 This includes self weight of the beam.

 Therefore maximum imposed UDL = (5.723 – 0.89) = 4.84KN/m

120

ii. Check shear

Page

 Average shear stress qavg = Qmax/Dt

 Where:

Qmax. = 5.723 x 12/2 = 34.34KN

Dt = 463.6 x 10.6 = 4914.16mm2

qavg = 34.34 x103/4914.16 = 6.988N/mm2 =7N/mm2

Therefore 7N/mm2< 100N/mm2, hence okay in shear.

iii. Check web crushing(bearing)

 Load assumed to act at 30o

Load bearing (LB) = 200 +[D – d/2]cot.30o = 200 + [463.6 – 407.9/2]√3

= 248.24mm

 Ab = 248.24 x 10.6 = 2631.32mm2

 Bearing stress = fb = R/Ab =(5.723 x 103 x12/2)/2631.32

= 13.04N/mm2

Therefore 13.04N/mm2 < 190N/mm2, hence okay in bearing.

iv. Check buckling

 Reaction assumed to act at 45o from point of application.

 LB = 200 + [D/2] tan 45o

= 200 + {463.6/2] tan45o = 431.8mm

Abu = 431.8 x 10.6 = 4577.08mm2

fc = R/Abu = (5.723 x 103 x12/2)/4577.08 = 7.5N/mm2

121

 Pc =? ; l/ryy = d√3/t = 407.9 x √3/10.6 = 66.65

Page

Pc = 119.3N/mm2
 Therefore Pc > fc .i.e. 119.3N/mm2 > 7.5N/mm2.

v. Check deflection

 δ(allowable) = span/360o = 12000/360 =33.33mm

 δ(actual) = 5wl4/384EI =(5 x 4.84 x12004)/(384 x210 x103 x41021 x104)

= 15.17mm

Therefore δ(actual) < δ(allowable), i.e. 15.17mm < 33.33mm hence okay in
deflection.
122

THREE MOMENTS THEOREM

 A beam which is supported on more than two supports is called a
Page

continuous beam.
 Such a beam when loaded will be deflected with convexity upwards, over
the intermediate supports and with concavity downwards over the mid of
the spans.
 The intermediate supports of a continuous beam are always subjected to
some bending moments.
But the end supports, if fixed, will be subjected to fixing moments and the
slope of the beam, at the fixed ends will be zero.

Bending moment diagrams for continuous beams

 The analysis of a continuous beam is similar to that of a fixed beam.
The bending moment for a continuous beam, under any system of loading
may be drawn in the following two stages:
i. By considering the beam as a series of discontinuous beams from support
to support and drawing the usual u-diagram due to vertical loads.
ii. By superimposing the usual u-diagram, due to end moment over u-diagram.
Clapeyron’s theorem of three moments
 ‘’If a beam has N-supports, the end one being fixed the same number of
equations required to determine the support moments may be obtained
from the consecutive pair of spans i.e. AB-BC, BC-CD, CD-DE and so on’’.

Proof of Clapeyron’s theorem of three moments

123
Page
  Consider a continuous beam ABC, fixed at A and C and supported at B as
shown in figure above.
 Let:
L1 = span AB of beam.
L2 = span BC of beam.
I1 = M.o.I. of the beam in span AB.
I2 = M.o.I. of beam in span BC
MA = support moment at A
MB = support moment at B, and
MC = support moment at C.
ux = bending moment at any section X considering the beam between two
supports as simply supported; and
u’x = fixing moments at any section X of the beam.

 In the span AB, the B.M. at any section X at a distance x from A;

Mx = ux + u’x
M d2 y
Therefore EI1d2y/dx2 = ux + u’x (Therefore EI = dx 2 )
124

 Multiplying the above equation by x, and integrating the same for the
Page

whole span AB i.e. from 0 to L.

 2
EI 1 x d y
2 = x.uxdx + x.u’xdx - EI1[x. dy
dx
–y] = a1x-1 + a1’x1-‘
dx

Or EI1 [(L1iB – yB) – 0(iA – yA)] = a1x-1 + a1’x1-‘

EI (L1iB – yB) = a1x-1 + a1’x1-‘ …………………………………………………(i)

 Since yB is equal to zero, therefore

EI1L1iB = a1x-1 + a1’x1-‘………………………………………………………….(ii)
Where:
a1 = Area of the u-diagram in the span AB.
x-1 =Distance of centre of gravity of u-diagram from A in the span AB.
a1’ = Area of the u’-diagram in the span AB.
x1-‘ = Distance of centre of gravity of u’-diagram from a, and
iB = Slope of the beam AB at B.

 We know that the shape of the u-diagram is trapezoidal, having end

ordinates equal to MA and MB.
Therefore spliting up the u-diagram into two triangles;
2
L1 L1 L1 2L1 L1
a1x 1 = (MA x
-
2 x 3 ) + (M Bx
2 x 3 ) = (MA + 2MB) 6

Substituting this value of a1x-1 in equation (i)

EI1L1iB = a1x 1 + (MA + 2MB) L16

-

a1 X 1 L1
EI1iB = L1
+ (M A + 2MB) 6 ……………………………….(iii)
125

a1 X 1 L1
Or E.iB = I L + (MA + 2MB) 6 I
1 1 1
Page
  Similarly, in the span BC, taking C as the origin and x positive to the
left, we get;

a2 X 2 L2
E.i;B = I L + (MC + 2MB) 6 I ………………….………………..(iv)
2 2 2

Where:
a2 = Area of the u-diagram in the span BC.
x-2 = Distance of centre of gravity of u-diagram from C in the span BC
a’2 = Area of the u’-diagram in the span BC.
x-’2 = Distance of centre of gravity of u’-diagram from C in the span BC
i’B = Slope of the beam BC at B.

 Since iB is equal to –I’B, therefore E.iB is equal to –E. i’B.

a1 X 1 L1 a2 X 2 L2
Or I L + (MA + 2MB) 6 I =¿ I L + (MC + 2MB) 6 I
1 1 1 2 2 2

 Therefore,
L1 L2 a1 X 1 a2 X 2
(MA + 2MB) I + (MC + 2MB) I =-6 I L -6 I L
1 2 1 1 2 2

a1 X 1 a2 X 2
MAL1/I1 + 2MBL1/I1 + MCL2/I2 + 2MBL2/I2 = - (6 I 1 L1
+ 6 I 2 L2
)

 Therefore,
L1 L1 L2 L2 a1 X 1 a2 X 2
MA( I ) + 2MB( I + I ) + MC( I ) = - (6 I L + 6 I L )
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2

Required equation for three moment theorem

126

Note:
Page
 1) For the sake of Simplicity, we have considered a continuous beam with two
spans only. But this equation can be extended for any number of spans.
2) If the moment of inertia of the beam is constant ,then
a1 X 1 a2 X 2
MA L1+ 2MB( L1 + L2) + MC( L2) = - (6 L + 6 L )
1 2

3) The shear force diagram for the beam may be drawn as usual.
4) The elastic curve of the beam may be drawn as usual as shown in figure c.

Application of clapeyron’s theorem of three moments to various types

of continuous beams
 We shall discuss clapeyron’s theorem of three moments and its application
to the following types of continuous beams:
i. Continuous beams with simply supported ends.
ii. Continuous beams with fixed end supports
iii. Continuous beams with the end span overhanging

A. CONTINUOUS BEAMS WITH SIMPLY SUPPORTED ENDS.

 Sometimes abeam is simply supported on its one or both the end
supports.In such a case, the fixing moment on the simply supported end is
zero.

Example 1
A continuous beam ABC 10m long rests on supports A,B and C at the same
level and is loaded as shown in figure below. Determine the moment over
the beam, and draw the bending moment diagram. Also calculate the
reactions at the supports and draw the shear force diagram.
127
Page

Solution
  Given:
Span BC =L2 = 4m
Span AB = L1 = 6m
Load in AB W = 3KN
Distance AD a= 2m
Distance DB b= 4m
Load in BC w = 1KN/m
(i). Moments over the beam
 Let MA = fixing moments at A.
MB = fixing moments at B.
MC = fixing moments at C

 First of all, let us consider the beam AB as a simply supported beam.

Therefore the moment at D:
3x 2x 4
MD = Wab/L1 = 6
= 4KNm.

2 2
WL 1x 4
 Similarly bending moment at mid of span BC = = = 2KNm
8 8
 Draw the u-diagram.

 Find the a1x-1 s

4
a1x-1 = {(½ x 2 x 4 x 2 x ⅔) + (½ x 4 x 4) x (2 + 3 )} = 32
32
And a2x-2 = (⅔ x 2 x 4 x 2) = 3 = 10.67
 Now using three moment equations
a1 X 1 a2 X 2
MA L1+ 2MB( L1 + L2) + MC( L2) = - (6 L + 6 L )
1 2

32 10.67
0 + 2MB (6 + 4) + 0 = -(6 x 6 + 6 x 4
)
20MB = -(32 + 16) = -48
128

48
Or MB = - 20 = 2.4KNm.
 Now complete the bending moment diagram.
Page
 (ii). S.F. diagram
 Let RA = reactions at A
RB = reactions at B
RC = reactions at C
 Taking moments about B,
(RA x 6) – (3 x 4) = -2.4

(−2.4 +12) 9,6

RA =
6
= 6
= 1.6KN

 Similarly
RC x 4 – 4 x 2 = -2.4
(−2.4 +8) 5 ,6
RC =
4
= 4
= 1.4KN
 Therefore RB = (3 + 4) – (1.6 + 1.4) = 4.0KN
 Draw the B.M. and S.F. diagrams.
129

Example
Page
 A continuous bean ABCD, simply supported at A, B, C and D, is loaded as
shown in figure below. Find the moment over the beam and draw the
bending moment and shear force diagrams.

Solution
Given:
Span AB = L1 = 6m.
Span AB = L2 = 5m.
Span AB = L3 = 4m.
Load in AB =W1 = 9KN
Distance AE = a1 = 2m.
Distance AE = b1 =4m.
Load in BC =W2 = 9KN
Distance BF = a2 = 2m.
Distance FC = b2 = 2m.
Load in AB =w = 3KN/m.
(i). moments over the beam
Let:
MA = fixing moment at A
MB= fixing moment at B.
MC = fixing moment at C, and
MD = fixing moment at D.
 First of all, let us consider the beam ABCD as a simply supported beam.
 Therefore the moment at E:
w 1 a1 b1 9 x 2 x 4
ME = = 6 = 12KNm.
130

L1

 Similarly,
Page
 W 2 a2 b2 8 x 2 x 3
MF = L2
= 5
= 9.6KNm.

2 2
W L3 3X4
and bending moment at mid of the span CD = = = 6KNm
8 8

 Now draw the u-diagram with the help of above bending moments.

 Calculate the a x-1 s for the respective spans

For the span AB and BC

[ 3
]
a1x-1 = [ ( ½ x 2 x 12 x 2 x ⅔)] + (½ x 4 x 12) x (2+ 3 ) = 96.0

a2x-2 = [ ( ½ x 3 x 9.6 x 2 x 3/3) ] + [ ( ½ x 2 x 9.6)(3 x ⅔) ]= 64.0

 Similarly for the span BC and CD.

[ 3
a2x-2 = [ ( ½ x 2 x 9.6 x 2 x ⅔) ]+ (½ x 3 x 9.6) x (2+ 3 ) = 56.0]
 And,

a3x-3 = (⅔x 6 x 4 x 2) = 32.0

 Now using three moments equations for the spans BC and CD

a1 X 1 a2 X 2
 MA L1+ 2MB( L1 + L2) + MC( L2) = - (6 L1
+ 6 L2
)

6 x 96 6 x 64
0 + 2MB (6 + 5) + MC x 5 = - ( 6
+ 5
)

22 M B + 5 M C = -172.8 ………………………………………………….(i)

 Again using the three moment theorem equations for the spans BC and CD.
a2 X 2 a3 X 3
MBL2 + 2MC (L2 + L3) + MD L3 = = - (6 L + 6 L )
131

2 3

56 32
MB x 5 + 2MC (5+4) + 0 =- (6 x 5 +6x )
Page

4
 5MB + 18MC = 115.2 ………………………………………..(ii)

 Solving equations (i) and (ii).

5MC
From equation (i) MB =-172.8 –
22

Substituting this value of MB in equation (ii)

5(-7.855 – 0.227MC) + 18MC = -115.2

-39.275 – 1.135MC + 18MC = -115.2

+16.865MC = -115.2 + 39.275

75.925
MC = - 16.865 = 4.5KNm.

 Substitute for MB in equation (i)

22MB + 5(- 4.5) = -172.8

22MB – 22.5 = 172.8

(−172.8+22.5)
MB = = -6.83KNm.
22

 Now complete the bending moment diagram.

(ii). Reactions at the supports

 Let,

RA = reaction at A

RB = reaction at B
132

RC = reaction at C, and
Page

RD = reaction at D
  Taking moments about B

RA x 6 – 9 x 4 = -6.83
−6.83+36
RA = 6
= 4.86KN

 Now taking moments about C

RA x 11 – 9 x 9 + RB x 5 – 8 x 3 = -4.5

4.86 x 11 – 81 + 5RB – 24 = -4.5

(−4.5 – 53.46+81+ 24) 47.06
RB = = 5 = 9.41KN
5

 Again taking moments about C

RD x 4 – 12 x 2 = -4.5
(−4.4+24 )
RD = = 4.88KN
4

 Therefore

 RC = (9 + 8 + 12) – (4.86 + 4.88 + 9.41)

= 29 – 19.15 = 9.85KN

Now draw the shear force diagram

133
Page
Page 134
 CONTINUOUS BEAMS WITH FIXED END SUPPORTS
 Sometimes a continuous beam is fixed at its one or both ends. If the beam
is fixed at the left end A, then an imaginary zero span is taken to the left of
A and the three moment theorem is applied as usual.
 Similarly if the beam is fixed at the right end, then an imaginary zero span is
taken to the right end support and the three moment theorem is applied as
usual.
NB: the fixing moment at O i.e. at the imaginary support of the zero span, is
always equal to zero.

Example
A continuous beam ABC of uniform section with span AB 8m and BC as 6m
is fixed at A and simply supported at B and C. The beam is carrying a
uniformly distributed load of 1KN/M throughout its length. Find the
moments along the beam and the reactions at the supports. Also draw the
bending moment diagram.

Solution
Given:
Span AB L1 = 8m
Span BC L2 = 6m
Load ω = 1KN/M
Moment along the beam
Since the beam is fixed at A, therefore assume a zero span to the left of A.
Let: Mo = Fixing moment at the left hand support of zero span.
135

MA = Fixing moment at A
MB = Fixing moment at B and,
Page

MC = Fixing moment at C
 First consider the beam AB as a simply supported beam.

2 2
ωL 1 1x 8
 B.M. at the mid of the span AB = 8
= 8
= 8KNM
2 2
ωL 2 1x 6
 Similarly, the B.M. at the mid of the span BC= 8
= 8
= 4.5KNM
 Now draw the u-diagram with the help of the above B.M.

 Calculate aẋ’s for the span OA and AB

a0 ẋ0 =0
2 512
a1 ẋ1 = 3x8x8x4= 3 = 170.67
 Similarly, for the span AB and BC
2 512
a1 ẋ1 = 3x8x8x4= 3 = 170.67
2
¿ a1 ẋ1 = 3 x 4.5 x 6 x 3 = 54

 Now using the three moment equation for the spans OA and AB.
136

a0 ẋ 0 a1 ẋ 1
M 0 L 0 + 2 M A ¿ + L1) + M B L1 = -6( + L ¿
L0 1
Page
 170.67
0 + 2 M A ¿ + 8 ¿ + M B x 8 = -6(0 + ¿
8
16 M A+ 8 M B = -128………………………………………………………….(i)
 Again using the three moment equation for the spans AB and BC
a1 ẋ 1 a2 ẋ2
M A L1 + 2 M B ¿ + L2) + M C L2 = -6( + L ¿
L1 2

170.67 54
M A X 8 + 2 M B ¿ + 6 ) + 0 = -6( + 6¿
8
8 M A + 28 M B = -182 ……………………………………………………………..(ii)
 Solving the equations (i) and (ii)
16 M A+ 8 M B = -128 ……………………………………(i)
8 M A + 28 M B = -182 ………………………………………(ii)
−128−16 MA
 From equation (i) MB = 8
= -16 – 2MA
Substituting in equation (ii)
8MA +28(-16 – 2MA) = -182
8MA – 448 – 56MA = -182
−182+ 448
MA = 48
= - 5.54KNM
 In equation (i)
16(-5.54) + 8MA = -128
-88.64 +8MB = -128
−128+88.64
MB = 8
= - 4.92KNM
Now complete the B.M. diagram.
 Ii. Reactions at supports
137

 Let
RA = Reaction at A
Page
 RB = Reaction at B and
RC = Reaction at C
 Taking moments about B
RC x 6 – 6 x 3 = -4.92
−4.92+18
RC = 6
= 2.18KN
 Now taking moments about A,
RC x 14 +RB x 8 – 14 x 7 = - 5.54
2.14 x 14 + 8RB – 98 +- 5.54
−5.54+98−30.52 61.94
RB = 8
= 8
= 7.74KN
Therefore RA = 14.0 – (2.18 + 7.74) = 14.0 – 9.92 = 4.08KN
Now draw the shear force diagram.
138
Page
 EXAMPLE 2
Use three moment theorem to analyze the beam shown below hence draw
the bending moment and shear force diagram and indicate the values at all
the critical points (points of loading)

SOLUTION
1. Assume the spans to be simply supported and calculate the free bending
moments ( FBM).

Wab 60 x 3 x 4
Span AB FBM = L = 7
= 102.86KNM
2 2
WL 20 x 5
Span BC FBM =
8
= 8
= 62.5KNM
Wab 40 x 1.5 x 2.5
Span CD FBM = L = 4 = 37.5KNM
Span DE FBM = -WL = - 10 x 1.5 = - 15KNM
 Also moment at D = 15KNM.
Also introduce a zero span at the fixed end at A.
2. Draw the FBM diagram.
139
Page
 

Calculate aẋ’s for the respective span i.e. span A’A – AB, AB – BC, BC - CD
Span A”A – AB

a0 ẋ0
=0

[
a1 ẋ1 =
1
2
2
3 ][ 1
2
1
x 120.86 x 4 x ( x 4) + x 102.86 x 3 x (4 + x 3)
3 ]
= 1320.04
 Span AB - BC

[
a1 ẋ1 =
1
2
2
3 ][ 1
2
1
x 120.86 x 3 x ( x 3) + x 102.86 x 4 x (3+ x 4)
3 ]
= 1200.03
2
a2 ẋ2 = x 5 x 62.5 x 2.5 = 520.83
3
 Span BC - CD
140
Page
 2
a2 ẋ2 = x 5 x 62.5 x 2.5 = 520.83
3
1
[ 2
3
1
2 ][ 1
a 3 ẋ 3 = x 37.5 x 2.5 x ( x 2.5) + x 37.5 x 1.5 x (2.5+ x 1.5)
2 3 ]
= 162.5
 Apply the three moment theorem for respective spans.
 Span A’A –AB
L1 L1 a0 ẋ 0 a1 ẋ 1
M 0 L0 + 2M ¿ +
A
I1
) +M B
I1 = -6( L + 0 Io L1 Io
¿

7 7 1320.04
0 + 2 MA¿ + ¿ + M B ( ) = - 6(0 + ¿
3I 3I 7 x3 I
MA MB 377.15
4.67
I
+ 2.33 I = - I
4.67 M A + 2.33 M B = -377.15 ………………………………………………………….(i)

 NB: The purpose of division is to make I constant throughout the beam.

 Span AB -BC
L1 L L2 a1 ẋ 1 a 2 ẋ 2
MA
I1
+ 2 MB¿ + 2 ) + MC
I2
= - 6( +
L1 I 1 L 2 I 2
¿
I2
7 5 5 1200.3 520.83
M A ( ) + 2 M B ¿+ ) + M C = - 6( + 2I x5 ¿
3I 2I 2I 3I x7
MA MB 2.5 655.36
2.33
I
+ 9.67 I
+ I
M C= -
I
2.33 M A+ 9.67 M B + 2.5 M C= -655 , 36 ………………………………………….(ii)

Span BC - CD
L2 L3 L3 a2 ẋ 2 a3 ẋ 3
MB
I2 + 2M ¿ +
C
I3
) +M D
I3 = - 6( L2 I 2 + L3 I 3
¿

5
M B(
2I
) + 2 M ¿+ 4I ) + M 4I = - 6( 520.83
C D
2I x5
+ 162.5
I x4
¿

MB
2.5
I
+ 13 MC
I
- 15( 4
I
¿= -
556.25
I
2.5 M B + 13 M C – 60 = -556.25
141

2.5 M B + 13 M C – 60 = -496.25 …………….…………………………………….(Iii)

Page

 Solve the three simultaneous equations.

 4.67 M A + 2.33 M B = -377.15 …………………………………………………….(i)
2.33 M A+ 9.67 M B + 2.5 M C= -655.36 …………………………………….(ii)
2.5 M B + 13 M C – 60 = -496.25 …………….…………………………………….(Iii)

 From equation (i) 4.67MA = - 377.15 – 2.33MB

−377.15 – 2.33 MB
MA = 4.67
MA = - 80.82 – 0.4996MB
Substitute MA in equation (ii)
2.33(-80.86 – 0.4996MA) + 9.67MB + 2.5MC = - 655.36
-188.31 – 1.16MB + 9.67MB + 2.5MC = - 655.36
8.51MB + 2.5MC = - 467.05 ……………………………………………………….(iv)

 Solve equations (iii) and (iv)

[ 8.51 MB+2.5 MC=−467.05 ] x 5.2
[ 2.5 M B +13 M C – 60=−496.25 ] x 1
↓

44.252MB +13MC = - 2428.66

2.5MB +13MC = -496.25
↓

41.752MB = - 1932.41
−1932.41
MB = 41.752 = - 46.28
Therefore MB = -46.28KNM

 MA = -80.82 – 0.4996 x (-46.28) = -57.70KNM

From equation (iii)

13MC = -496.25 – 2.5MB
142

−496.25 – 2.5(−46.28)
MC = = - 29.27KNM
13
Drg
Page
  Calculate the reactions and draw the shear force diagram.

Span AB
Σ RB1 = 0
7RA – 60 x 4 -57.70 + 46.28 = 0
7RA = 251.42
251.42
RA = 7
= 35.92KN
ΣF ↑ = 0
RA - 60 + RB1=¿0
35.92 – 60 + RB1 = 0
Therefore RB1 = - 24.08KN

 Span BC
Σ RC 1 = 0
2
20 x 5
5 RB2−¿ – - 46.28 + 29.27 = 0
2
5 RB2 = 267.01
267.01
RB2 = = 53.40KN
5

ΣF ↑ = 0
143

RB2 - (20 x 5) + RC 1=¿0

RC 1 = 53.40 – 100 = - 46.60KN
Page
 Therefore RC 1 = - 46.60KN

 Span CD
Σ RD 1 = 0
4 RC 2−¿ 29.27– 40 x 2.5 + 15 = 0
5 RC 2 = 54.27
54.27
RC 2 = = 13.57KN
4
ΣF ↑ = 0
RC 2 - 40 + RD 1=¿0
RD 1 = 13.57 – 40 = - 26.43KN
Therefore RD 1 = - 26.43KN
 Span DE
Σ ME = 0
1.5 RD 2−15– 10 x 0 = 0
1.5 RD 2 = 15
15
RD 2 = = 10KN
1.5
 Now draw the shear force diagram indicating the critical or salient values.
144
Page
 Example
Using three moment theorems analyze the beam shown below and hence
plot the shear force and bending moment diagrams.

Solution
Introduce zero span at both ends A and C.
Assume the spans to be simply supported and calculate their free bending
moments.

Span A’A = 0KNM

2 2
WL
Span AB =
8
= 2 x86 = 9KNM
Wab
Span BC = L = 12 x63 x 3 = 18KNM
145

Span CC’ = 0KNM

Page

ii. Draw the free bending moment diagram (FBM).

 iii. Calculate the respective aẋ’s for the respective spans.
 Span A’A – AB

a0 ẋ0 = 0
2
a1 ẋ1 =
3 x9x6x3=
108

 Span AB -BC
146

2
a1 ẋ1 =
3 x9x6x3=
108

[ 1 2
][ 1 1
]
Page

a 2 ẋ 2 = x 18 x 3 x ( x 3) + x 18 x 3 x (3+ x 3) = 162
2 3 2 3
  Span BC – CC’

[
a2 ẋ2 =
1
2
2
3 ][ 1
2
1
x 18 x 3 x ( x 3) + x 18 x 3 x (3+ x 3)
3 ]= 162
a0 ẋ0 = 0

iv. Apply the three moment equation for the respective spans.
 Span A’A -AB
a0 ẋ 0 a1 ẋ 1
M 0 L 0 + 2 M A ¿ + L1) + M B L1 = -6( + L ¿
L0 1

108
0 + 2 M A ¿ + 6 ¿ + M B x 6 = -6(0 + ¿
6
12 M A + 6 M B = -108
2 M A+ M B = -18 ………………………………………………………….(i)

 Span AB –BC
a1 ẋ 1 a2 ẋ2
M A L1 + 2 M B ¿ + L2) + M C L2 = -6( + L ¿
L1 2

108 162
6 M A + 2 M B ¿ + 6 ) + M C (6) = -6( + 6 ¿
6
6 M A + 24 M B + 6 M C = -270
M A + 4 M B + M C = - 45 ……………………………………………………………..(ii)

 Span BC – CC’
a2 ẋ2 a0 ẋ 0
M B L2 + 2 M C ¿ + L0) + M O L0 = -6( + L ¿
L2 0

162
6 M B + 2 M C ¿ + 0 ) + 0 = -6( + 0¿
6
147

6 M B + 12 M C = -162
M B + 2 M C = -27 …………………………………………………………………….(iii)
Page
 Solve the equations (i), (ii) and (iii).
2 M A+ M B = -18 ………………………………………………………….(i)
M A + 4 M B + M C = - 45 ……………………………………..…………..(ii)
M B + 2 M C = -27 …………………………………………………………….(iii)

−18 – MB
 From equation (i) MA = 2
= -9 – 0.5 MB
Substitute MA in equation (ii)
-9 – 0.5 MB + 4MB + MC = - 45
3.5MB + MC = - 36 ……………………………………………………….(iv)

 Solve equations (iii) and (iv)

[ M B +2 M C=−27 ] x 1
[ 3.5 MB+ MC=−36 ] x 2

MB +2MC = - 27
7MB +2MC = -72
↓

-6MB = 45
45
MB = −6 = - 7.5KNM
Therefore MB = -7.5KNM

 MA = -9 – 0.5MB
MA = -9 – 0.5 x (-7.5)
MA = -5.25KNM

 From equation (iii)

−27 – MB
148

MC = 2
−27 – (−7.5)
MC =
Page

2
 MC = −9.75 KNM

 Calculate the reactions and draw the shear force diagram.

Span AB
Σ MRB1 = 0
6RA – 5.25 -2 x 6 x 3 + 7.5 = 0
6RA = 33.75
33.75
RA = 6
= 5.625KN
ΣF ↑ = 0
RA – 2 x 6 + RB1=¿0
RB1 =- 5.625 + 12 = +6.375
Therefore RB1 = +6.375KN

 Span BC
Σ MRC = 0
6 RB2−¿ 7.5– 12 x 3 + 9.75 = 0
6 RB2 = 33.75
33.75
RB2 = = 5.625KN
6

ΣF ↑ = 0
RB2 - 12 + RC =¿0
RC = - (R B2 – 12)
¿−5,625+12 = +6.375KN
149

Therefore RC 1 = +6.375KN
 Now draw the shear force diagram
Page
150

L3. CONTINUOUS BEAMS WITH END SPAN OVERHANGING

Page
  Sometimes a beam is overhanging on its one or both ends. in such a case,
the overhanging part of the beam behaves as a cantilever.
 The fixing moment on the end support may be found out by the cantilever
action of the overhanging part of the beam.

Example
A beam ABCD 9M long is simply supported at A, B and C, such that the span
AB is 3M, span BC is 4.5M and the overhanging CD is 1.5M. It carries a
uniformly distributed load of 1.5KN/M in span AB and a point load of 1KN
at the free end D. The moment of inertia of the beam in span AB is I and
that in span BC is 2I. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagram
for the beam.

Solution
 Given:
Span AB L1 = 4M
Span BC L2 = 4.5M
Span CD L3 = 1.5M
M.O.I. of span AB = I
M.O.I. of span BC =2II
M.O.I. of span CD = I
Load in AB ω = 1.5KN/M
Load at D = 1KN
(i) Bending moment diagram
Let MA = Fixing moment at A
151

MB = Fixing moment at B
Page

MC = Fixing moment at C
 First of all consider the beam as simply supported beam.

2 2
ω L1 1.5 x 3
Therefore B.M. at the mid span of AB =
8
= 8
= 1.69KNM
And the fixing moment at C, MC = - WL = - 1 x 1.5 = - 1.5KNM
Now draw the u-diagram with the help of above bending moments.

Calculate aẋ’s for the span AB and BC

2
a1 ẋ1 = 3 x 1.69 x 3 x 1.5 = 5.07
Now using three moment equations for the spans AB and BC.
L1 L L a ẋ a ẋ
MA + 2 M B ¿ + 2 ) + M C 2 = -6( 1 1 + 0 0 ¿
I1 I2 I2 I 1 L1 I 0 L0

4.5 4.5 5.07

0 + 2 MB¿ + 2I –
¿ 1.5 x
2 I = - 6( I x 3
¿

10.5 M B 6.75 10.14

I
– 2I =- I

Or 10.5MB – 3.375 = - 10.14

152

−10.14+3.375 6.765
Therefore MB = 10.5 =- 10.5 = - 0.65KNM
Now complete the bending moment diagram.
Page
 ii. Calculate the reactions and draw the shear force diagram.
Let RA = Reaction at A
RB = Reaction at B, and
RC = Reaction at C

Span AB
Σ RB1 = 0
RA x 3 – 1.5 x 3 x 1.5 – 0 + 0.65 = 0
3RA = 6.75 – 0.65
6.1
RA = 3 = 2.03KN
ΣF ↑ = 0
RA + RB1=¿1.5 x 3 = 4.5
RB1 = 4.5 – 2.03 = 2.47
Therefore RB1 = - 2.47KN

 Span BC
Σ RC 1 = 0
4.5 RB2−¿ –0.65 + 1.5 = 0
4.5 RB2 = 0.85
0.85
RB2 = = 0.1889 = 0.19KN
4.5

ΣF ↑ = 0
RB2 + RC 1=¿0
RC 1 = 0 – 0.19 = - 0.19
Therefore RC 1 = - 0.19KNM

 Span CD
153

Σ RD 1 = 0
1.5 RC 2−¿ 1.5−1.5 x 0= 0
Page
 1.5 RC 2 = 1.5
1.5
RC 2 = = 1KN
1.5
Now complete the shear force diagram.
154

Example
Page
 A continuous beam ABCD is pinned at A and simply supported at B and C,
these points being at the same level, CD is an overhang. AB = 3M, BC =
3.6M and CD = 1.8M. it carries a point load of 10 KN at the midpoint of BC
and uniformly distributed load of 1.6KN/M run from A to D as shown in the
figure below.

Solution
 Given:
Span AB L1 = 3M
Span BC L2 = 3.6M
Span CD L3 = 1.8M
Load in AD ω = 1.6KN/M
Load at E = 10KN
(ii) Bending moment diagram
Let MA = Fixing moment at A
MB = Fixing moment at B and
MC = Fixing moment at C
 Since the beam is simply supported at A, therefore the fixing moment MA
will be zero.
 First of all consider the beam as simply supported beam.
155
Page
 Therefor
2 2
ω L1 1.6 x 3
e B.M. at the mid span of AB =
8
= 8
= 1.8KNM
Similarly the B.M. at the mid of span BC due to point load:
WL 10 x 3.6
M1 = = = 9.0KNM
4 4
And B.M. due to the uniformly distributed load
2 2
M 2 = WL = 1.6 x 3.6
= 2.6KNM
8 8
Therefore total B.M. at the mid of span BC = 9.0 + 2.6 = 11.6KNM
Fixing moment at C
2 2
W L3 1.6 x 1.8
MC =
2
= 2
= 2.6KNM
Now draw the u-diagram with the help of the above bending moments.
 drg

 Calculate aẋ’s for the respective span i.e. span AB – BC.

Span AB – BC

2
a1 ẋ1
3

=
x 3 x 1.8 x 1.5 = 5.4
156

[ 1 2
][ ]
Page

a1 ẋ1 = x 9 x 3.6 x 1.8 + x 3.6 x 2.6 x 1.8 = 40.39

2 3
 Now using three moment equations for the spans AB and BC.
a1 ẋ 1 a2 ẋ2
M A L1 + 2 M B ¿ + L2) + M C L2 = - 6( + L ¿
L1 2

5.4 40.39
0 + 2 M B ¿+ 3.6 ¿ + ( 2.6 x 3.6 ¿= -6( ¿
3 + 3.6
13.2MB + 9.36 = - (10.8 + 67.32)
13.2MB = - 78.12
78.12
MB = - 13.2 = - 5.92KNM
Now complete the B.M. diagram.

ii. Calculate the reactions and draw the shear force diagram.
Let RA = Reaction at A
RB = Reaction at B, and
RC = Reaction at C

Span AB
Σ M RB1 = 0
RA x 3 – 1.6 x 3 x 1.5 – 0 + 5.92 = 0
3RA = 7.2 – 5.92 = 1.28
1.28
RA = 3 = 0.43KN
ΣF ↑ = 0
RA + RB1=¿1.6 x 3 = 4.8
RB1 = 4.8 – 0.43 = 4.37
Therefore RB1 = - 4.37KN

 Span BC
Σ MRC 1 = 0
4.5 RB2−¿ 5.92+ 2.6 = 0
4.5 RB2 = 3.32
3.32
157

RB2 = = 0.73777 = 0.74KN

4.5
Page

ΣF ↑ = 0
 RB2 + RC 1=¿10 + (1.6 x 4.5)
RC 1 = 17.2 – 0.74 = 16.46
Therefore RC 1 = - 16.46KNM

 Span CD
Σ MRD1 = 0
1.6 RC 2−¿ 2.6−1.6 x 1.6 x 0.8= 0
1.6 RC 2 = 4.648
4.648
RC 2 = = 2.905KN
1.6
Now complete the shear force diagram.
158
Page
Page 159
 Example
Abeam ABCDE has a built-in support at A and roller supports at B, C and D,
DE being an overhung. AB = 7m, BC = 5m, CD = 4m and DE = 1.5m. The
values of moment of inertia of the section over each of these lengths are 3I,
2I, I and I respectively. The beam carries a point load of 10KN at a point 3m
from A, a uniformly distributed load of 4.5KN/m over whole of BC and
concentrated load of 9KN in CD 1.5m from C and another point load of 3KN
at E, the top of overhung as shown in figure below

Solution

 Given:

Span AB = L1 = 7m and M.I. of span AB =3I

Span BC =L2 = 5m and M.I. of span BC = 2I

Span CD = L3 = 4m and M.I. of span CD = I

Span DE = L4 = 1.5m and M.I. of span DE = I

Load in AB W1 = 10KN

Load in BC w = 4.5KN/m

Load in CD W2= 9KN

Load in DE W3= 9KN

160
Page
 i. Bending moment diagram

 Let:

MA = fixing moment at A

MB = fixing moment at B, and

MC= fixing moment at C

MD= fixing moment at D

 Since the beam is fixed at A, therefore assume a zero span to the left of A.

 Therefore B.M. under 10KN load in span AB = W1ab/L1 = (10 x 3 x 4)/7

= 120/7 = 17.14KNm

Similarly, bending moment at the mid of span BC:

M1= -wL22/8 = -4.5 x 52/8 =112.5/8 = 14.06KNm

And B.M. under the 9KN load in span CD

= W2ab/L3 = (9 x 1.5 x 2.5)/4

= 33.75/4 = 8.44KNm

Similarly, fixing moment at D:

MD= -WL4 = -3 x 1.5 = -4.5KNm

 NB: Now draw the u-diagram with the help of above bending moments.
161
Page
  Calculate a x-1s

 Find a x-1s for the spans 0A and AB.

a0x-0 = 0

And a1x-1 = {(1/2 x 3 x 17.14 x 2 x 4/3) + (1/2 x 3 x 17.14)(4 + 3/3)} = 220

 Similarly, for the spans AB and BC

a1x-1 = {(1/2 x 3 x 17.14 x 3 x 2/3) + (1/2 x 4 x 17.14)(3 + 4/3)} = 200

and a2x-2 = {(2/3 x 5 x 14.06 x 2.5)} = 117.2

 Similarly, for the spans BC and CD

a2x-2 = {(2/3 x 5 x 14.06 x 2.5)} = 117.2

 and a3x-3 = {(1/2 x 2.5 x 8.44 x 2 x 2.5/3) + (1/2 x 1.5 x 8.44)(2.5 x 1.5/3)}

= 36.9

 Now using three moments’ equations for the spans 0A and AB i.e.
162

M0 (L0/I0) + 2MA (L0/I0 + L1/I1) + MB(L1/I1) = -(6 a0x-0/ I0L0 + 6 a1x-1/I1L1)

Page

0 + 2MA(7/3I) + MB (7/3I) = -{(0 + (6 x 220)/3I x 7}

 2MA + MB = - -26.96 ……………………………………………………(i)

 Again using three moments’ equations for the spans AB and BC i.e.

 MA (L1/I1) + 2MB (L1/I1 + L2/I2) + MC(L2/I2) = -(6 a1x-1/ I1L1 + 6 a2x-2/I2L2)

 MA(7/3I) +2 MB (7/3I + 5/2I) + MC(5/2I) = -{(6 x 200)/3I x 7 + (6 x 117.2)/2I x

5}

 7MA/3I + 29MB/3I + 5MC/2I = -(171.4/3I + 140.6/2I)

14MA + 58MB + 15MC – 764.5 …………………………………………(ii)

 Again using three moments’ equations for the spans BC and CD i.e.

 MB (L2/I2) + 2MC (L2/I2 + L3/I3) + MD(L3/I3) = -(6 a2x-2/ I2L2 + 6 a3x-3/I3L3)

 MB(5/2I) +2 MC (5/2I + 4/I) – 4.5 x 4/I) = -{(6 x 117.2)/2I x 5 + (6 x 36.6)/ I x 4}

 5MB/2I + 26MC/2I – 18/I = -(140.6/I + 54.9/I)

5MB + 26MB = -214.4 …………………………………………(iii)

 Now solving equations i, ii, and iii, we get;

MA = -8.78KNm

MB = -9.41KNm

MC = -6.43KNm

 Now complete the B.M. diagram.

163
Page
Page 164
Page 165
Page 166
Page 167
Page 168
Page 169
Page 170
Page 171
Page 172
Page 173
Page 174
Page 175
Page 176
Page 177
Page 178
Page 179
Page 180
Page 181
Page 182
Page 183
Page 184
Page 185
Page 186
Page 187
Page 188
Page 189
Page 190
Page 191
Page 192
Page 193
Page 194
Page 195
Page 196
Page 197
Page 198
Page 199
Page 200
Page 201
Page 202
Page 203
Page 204
Page 205
Page 206
Page 207
Page 208
Page 209
Page 210
Page 211
Page 212
Page 213
Page 214
Page 215
Page 216
Page 217
Page 218
Page 219
Page 220
Page 221
Page 222
Page 223
Page 224
Page 225
Page 226
Page 227
Page 228
Page 229
Page 230
Page 231
Page 232
Page 233
Page 234
Page 235
Page 236
Page 237
Page 238
Page 239
Page 240
Page 241
Page 242
Page 243
Page 244
Page 245
Page 246
Page 247
Page 248
Page 249
Page 250
Page 251
Page 252
Page 253
Page 254
 CONNECTIONS
 The various types of connections used for connecting the structural
members are
a) Riveted connections
b) Bolted connections
c) Pin connections
d) Welded connections

1. Riveted connections
 A piece of round steel forged in place to connect two or more than two
steel members together is known as a rivet.
 The rivets for structural purposes are manufactured from mild steel and
high tensile rivet bars.
 A rivet consists of a head and a body (shank).
 The rivets are manufactured in different lengths to suit different purposes.
 The size of the rivet is expressed by the diameter of the shank.
 The most used rivets in structural steel work are heated uniformly
throughout its length, without burning or excessive scaling, and shall be of
sufficient length to provide a head of standard dimension when those rivets
are driven, these rivets shall completely fill the hole.
 These rivets are known as hot driven rivets.
 For driving the rivets, they are heated till they become red hot and are then
placed in the hole keeping the rivet pressed from one side a number of
blows are applied and a head at the other end is formed.
 The hot driven rivets are divided in the following three types:
a) Power driven rivets
b) Hand driven rivets
c) Field rivets
 The rivets of the first category are more satisfactorily driven than the rivets
255

of the other two categories and rivets of second category are more
satisfactorily driven than rivets of the third category because of the
Page

difference in workmanship.
  The hot driven rivets of 16mm, 18mm, 20mm and 22mm diameter are used
for the structural steel works.
 Some rivets are driven at atmospheric temperature. These rivets are known
as cold driven rivets.
 The cold driven rivets need large pressures to form the head and complete
the driving.
Rivet Heads
 The various types of rivet heads employed for different works are:
i. Snap head (round head or button head)
ii. Pan head
iii. Pan head with tapered neck
iv. Round countersunk head
v. Countersunk head
 The proportions of various shapes of rivet heads have been expressed in
terms of diameter “D” of shank of rivet.
 The snap head are used for rivets connecting structural members. The
countersunk head are used to provide a flush surface.
256
Page
 Rivet Holes
 The rivet holes are made in the plates or structural members by one of the
following two methods:
i. Punching
ii. Drilling
 When the rivet holes are made by punching, the holes are not perfect but
taper.
 A punch damages the materials around the hole. The operation known as
reaming is done in the hole made by punching.
 When the rivet holes are made by drilling, the holes are perfect and provide
good alignment for driving the rivets.
 The diameter of a rivet hole is made larger than the nominal diameter of
the rivet by 1.5 mm or rivets less than or equal to 25 mm diameter and by 2
mm for diameter exceeding 25 mm.
257
Page
 Definition of terms used in riveting
a) Nominal diameter of a rivet
 The nominal diameter of a rivet is the diameter of the cold rivet measured
before driving.
b) Gross diameter of rivet
 The gross diameter of rivet is the diameter of the rivet measured after
driving and the diameter of the rivet hole is adopted as the gross diameter
of rivet.
c) Pitch of rivet (P)
 The Pitch of rivet is the distance between two consecutive rivets measured
parallel to the direction of the force in the structural member lying on the
same rivet line.
 It is the centre to centre distance between the individual fasteners.

d) Back Pitch
 The center distance between two adjacent rows of rivets is defined as back
pitch. It is denoted by pb.
e) Diagonal Pitch
 The smallest distance between centres of two rivet holes in adjacent rows
of a zig-zag riveted joint is called diagonal pitch. Denoted by pd.
f) Margin
g) It is the distance between centre of a rivet hole and nearest edge of the
plate. It is denoted by m.
h) Gauge distance of rivets (g)
 The gauge distance is the transverse distance between two consecutive
rivets of adjacent chains (parallel adjacent lines of fasteners) and is
measured at right angles to the direction of the force in the structural
member.
i) Gross area of rivet
 The gross area of a rivet is the cross-sectional area of a rivet calculated
from the gross diameter of the rivet.
258
Page
 j) Rivet line
 The rivet line is also known as scrieve line or back line or gauge line.
 The rivet line is the imaginary line along which rivets are placed.
 The standard position of rivet lines depends upon the flange widths in the
case of I- sections, channel sections, and tee - sections.
 The standard position of rivet lines for the angle sections depends upon the
length of the legs.
k) Staggered pitch
 The staggered pitch is also known as alternate pitch or reeled pitch.
 The staggered pitch is defined as the measured distance along one rivet line
from the centre of a rivet on it to the centre of the adjoining rivet on the
adjacent parallel rivet line.
 One or both the legs of an angle section may have double rivet lines. The
staggered pitch occurs between the double rivet lines.

Types of riveted joints

 The classification of riveted joints is based on following :

a) According to purpose,
b) According to position of plates connected, and
c) According to arrangement of rivets.

1) According to purpose the riveted joints are classified as :

a. Strong Joints
 In these joints strength is the only criterion. Joints in engineering structure
such as beams, trusses and machine frames are strong joints.
b. Tight Joints
 These joints provide strength as well as are leak proof against low
pressures. Joints in reservoirs, containers and tanks fall under this group.
c. Strong Tight Joints
 These are joints applied in boilers and pressure vessels and ensure both
259

strength and leak proofness.

 This classification has no sound basis and is arbitrary. However, it helps
Page

understand the basis of design and manufacturing.

  The hot working of rivets is one-way of making intimate contact between
plates in the areas of joint.

Riveted joint

 The plates to be jointed are often of the same thickness and their thickness
is denoted by t.
 However, if the thicknesses are different, the lower one will be denoted by
t1. The thickness of the cover plate (also known as strap) in a butt joint will
be denoted as tc.
 The rivet hole diameter is denoted by d. This diameter is normally large
than the diameter of the rivet shank which is denoted by d1.

 A problem of designing of a riveted joint involves determinations of p, pb,

pd, m, t, tc and d, depending upon type of the joint.
 The riveted joints are of two types:
a) Lap joint
b) Butt joint
1) Lap joint
 When one member is placed above the other and the two are connected by
means of rivets the joint is known as lap joint.
 In case, the lap joint, lines of forces are eccentric, this causes bending
stresses, and has the tendency to deform as illustrated below:
260
Page
  In a lap joint the edges of plates are simply laid over each other and riveted.
Figures 3.4(a) and (d) show lap joints. If we pull the plates by application of
tensile forces, they do not fall in the same line and hence cause the rivets
and plates to bend.
 Plates placed end-to-end and jointed through cover plates form single
cover butt joint. Such joints are shown in Figures 3.4(b) and (e).
 You can see that pulling plates apart by colinear tensile forces may still
cause bending of rivets.

 These joints are further classified according to the number of rivets used
and the arrangement of rivets adopted. These include:
i. Single riveted lap joint
ii. Double riveted lap joint
iii. Chain riveted lap joint
iv. Zigzag riveted lap joint
 It may be noted that in a single riveted lap joint there is only one row of
rivets passing through both plates while in a single riveted butt joint either
of single cover or double cover type one row of rivets will pass through
each of the plates.
 Similarly when two rows of rivets pass through both plates of lap joint it is
called double riveted lap joint and two rows of rivets pass through each of
butting plates the joint is a double riveted single cover butt joint.
 The chain riveted and zigzag riveted lap joint are illustrated below.
261
Page
 2) Butt joint
 When plates are placed end to end and flushed with each other and are
joined by means of cover plates, the joint is known as butt joint.
 The butt joints are of two types:
a) Single cover butt joint
b) Double cover butt joint
 In Single cover butt joint, cover plate is provided on one side of main plate.
In this type of joint, bending stress may develop which may cause
deformation of joint.
 In case of Double cover butt joint, cover plates are used on either side of
the main plates.
 There is no possibility of the development of bending stress and
deformation (distortion) of joint in this type of joint.
 Butt joints are also further classified according to the number of rivets used
and the arrangement of rivets adopted. They include:
a) Double cover single riveted butt joint
b) Double cover chain riveted butt joint
c) Double cover Zig-zag riveted butt joint
262
Page
 Transmission of load in riveted joints
 There are two modes of transmission of load in riveted joints. When the
load is transmitted by bearing between plates and shanks of rivets, the
rivets are subjected to shear.
 When the shear of rivets is only a cross-section of the rivet, it is known as
single shear (Fig. 2.7 a ).
 When the shear of rivet is across two cross section of the rivet it is known
as double shear (2.7b).
 When the load is transmitted by shearing between heads of rivets and
plates, the rivets are subjected to tension.
263
Page
 Failure of a riveted joint
 The failure of a riveted joint may take place in any of the following ways:
a) Shear failure of the rivets
b) Shear failure of plates
c) Tearing failure of plates
d) Splitting failure of plates at the edges
e) Bearing failure of plates
f) Bearing failure of rivets

i. Shear failure of the rivets

 The plates riveted together and subjected to tensile loads may result in the
shear of the rivets. The rivets are sheared across their cross-sectional areas.
 Single shear occurring in a joint and double shear occurring in butt joint are
illustrated below.
264
Page
  The failure will occur when all the rivets in a row shear off simultaneously.
 Considers the strength provided by the rivet against this mode of failure,
one consider number of rivets in a pitch length which is obviously one.
 Further, in a lap joint failure due to shear may occur only along one section
of rivet as shown in Figure 3.7(a).
 However, in case of double cover butt joint failure may take place along
two sections in the manner shown in Figure 3.7(b).
 So in case of single shear the area resisting shearing of a rivet,
π 2
As = 4 d
(Since the difference between diameter of hole and diameter of rivet is
very small, diameter of hole is used for diameter of the rivet).

 If permissible shearing stress in single shear of rivet is τ s, then the shearing

strength or shearing load carrying capacity of the joint.
π 2
Ps = τs 4 d …………………………………………………………………………… (a)
 The failure will not occur if
Ps ≥ P ……………………………………………… (b)
 We may also write if n is the number of rivets per pitch length,
π 2
Ps =nτs 4 d …………………………………………………………. (c)
 If the rivet is in double shear as in Figure 3.7(b) the effective area over
which failure occurs in 2As.
 The permissible stress in double shear is 1.75 times that in single shear.
Hence in double shear
π 2
Ps =n x 1.75 τs 4 d …………………………………………………………………… (d)

ii. Shear failure of plates

 A plate may fail in shear along two lines . this may occur when minimum
proper edge distance is not provided.
iii. Tearing failure of plates
 When plates riveted together are are carrying tensile loads, tearing failure
265

of plates may occur, when strength of the plates is less than that of rivets.
 The tearing failure occurs at the net cross sectional area of plates.
Page
  The plate at any other section is obviously stronger, and hence does not
fail.
 If tensile force P is to cause tearing, it will occur along weakest section,
which carries the row of rivets. If only one pitch length g is considered; it is
weakened by one hole diameter d.
 The area that resists the tensile force is
At = (g – d) t
 If the permissible stress for plate in tension is Pt , then tensile strength of
the joint or tensile load carrying capacity of the joint
Pt = σt (g– d) t ……………………………………………………………………… (e)

 If P is the applied tensile force per pitch length then the joint will not fail if
Pt ≥ P ……………………………………………………….. (f)


iv. Splitting failure of plates
 The splitting failure of a plate may occur because of insufficient edge
distance in the riveted joint.
 The splitting (cracking)of plate as shown below takes place in such failure.
266
Page
 v. Bearing failure of plates
 The bearing failure of plates may occur because of insufficient edge
distance in the riveted joint.
 The crushing of plate against the bearing as illustrated below takes place
in such failure.
vi. Bearing failure of rivets
 The bearing failure of a rivet occurs when the rivet is crushed by the
plates.
 The bearing, shearing and splitting failure of plates may be avoided by
providing adequate edge distance.
 To safeguard a riveted joint against other modes of failure, the joint
should be designed properly.
267
Page
  Due to rivet being compressed against the inner surface of the hole, there
is a possibility that either the rivet or the hole surface may be crushed.
 The area, which resists this action, is the projected area of hole or rivet on
diametral plane. The area per rivet is (see Figure 3.8).
Ac = dt
 If permissible crushing or bearing stress of rivet or plate is c the crushing
strength of the joint or load carrying capacity of the joint against crushing
is,
Pc = dt. σc …………………………………………………….. (g)

 The failure in this mode will not occur if

Pc ≥ P …………………………………………..(h)
Where P is applied load per pitch length, and there is one rivet per pitch. If
number of rivets is n in a pitch length then right hand side in Eq. (3.7) is
multiplied by n.

vii. Shearing of Plate Margin near the Rivet Hole

 Figure 3.9 shows this mode of failure in which margin can shear along
planes ab and cd. If the length of margin is m, the area resisting this failure
is,
Ams = 2mt
 If permissible shearing stress of plate is τ s then load carrying capacity of the
joint against shearing of the margin is,
Pms = 2mt τ s
268

 The failure in this case will not occur if

Pms = P
Page
 where P is the applied load per pitch length.

 The assumptions made in calculations of strengths of joint in Equations a - h

are :
a) The tensile load is equally distributed over pitch lengths.
b) The load is equally distributed over all rivets.
c) The bending of rivets does not occur.
d) The rivet holes do not produce stress concentration. The plate at the hole is
not weakened due to increase in diameter of the rivet during second head
formation.
e) The crushing pressure is uniformly distributed over the projected area of
the rivet.
f) Friction between contacting surfaces of plates is neglected.

Strength of riveted joint

 The strength of a riveted joint is determined by computing the following
strengths:
i. Strength of riveted joint against shearing of the rivet ………P s or fs
ii. Strength of riveted joint against bearing of rivets ………………….P b or fb.
iii. Strength of the plate in tearing …………………………… Pt or ft.
 NB: the strength of a riveted joint is the least strength of the above
three strengths viz: fs. Fb, or ft.

1. The strength of a riveted joint against the shearing of the rivets.

 Strength of riveted joint against the shearing of rivets is equal to the
product of strength of one rivet in shear and the number of rivets on each
side of the joint.
 It is given by:
Ps = strength of a rivet in shearing joint x number of rivets on each side of
joint. …………………………………………………………………………….……… (i)
269

 When the rivets are subjected to single shear, then the strength of one
π 2
Page

rivet in single shear = 4 d x τ s ……………………………………………. (ii)

  Therefore the strength of a riveted joint against shearing of rivets.
π 2
Ps = N x ( 4 d x τ s )
Where N = number of rivets on each side of the joint
d = gross diameter of the rivet
τ s = maximum permissible shear stress in the rivet.
 When the rivets are subjected to double shear, then the strength of one
π 2
rivet in double shear = 2 4 d x τ s ……………………………………………….(iii)
 Therefore, the strength of a riveted joint against shearing of rivets
π 2
Ps = N x (2 4 d x τ s ) ……………………………………………….. (3)
 When the strength of riveted joint, against the shearing of rivets is
determined by gauge width of the plate, then the number of rivets, n per
gauge is taken into consideration.
 Therefore
For single shear of rivets
π 2
Ps1 = N x ( 4 d x τ s ) ……………………………………………….. (3)
For double shear of rivets
π 2
Ps2 = N x (2 4 d x τ s ) ……………………………………………….. (4)

2. Strength of riveted joint against the bearing of the rivets.

 The strength of riveted joint against the bearing of the rivets is equal to the
product of strength of one rivet in bearing and the number of rivets on
each side of the joint.
 It is given by:
Pb = strength of a rivet in bearing x number of rivets on each side of the
joint. …………………………………………………………………………………… (iv)
 In case of lap joint, the strength of one rivet in bearing = d x t x σ b
……………………………………………………………………………………………………...(v)
270

Where t = thickness of the thinnest plate.

d = gross diameter of the rivet.
Page

σ b = maximum permissible in the bearing for the rivet.

  In the case of butt joint, the total thicknesses of both cover plates or
thickness of main plate whichever is less is considered for determining the
strength of a rivet in the bearing.
 The strength of a riveted joint against the bearing of rivets
Pb = N x (d x t x σ b )
 When the strength of a riveted joint against the bearing of rivets per gauge
width of the plate is taken into consideration, then the number of rivets n is
also adopted per gauge.
 Therefore
Pb1 = N x (d x t x σ b ) ……………………………………………………………….(6)

3. Strength of plate in tearing:

 The strength of plate in tearing depends upon the resisting section of the
plate. The strength of plate in tearing is given by:
Pt = resisting section x σ t ………………………………………………………… (7)
 When the strength of plate in tearing per gauge width of the plate is found
then, it is given by:
Pt = ( g – d ) x t x σ t ………………………………………………………………….(8)
Where g = width of plate equal to the gauge of the rivets.
 The strength of a riveted joint is the least of Ps, Pb, and Pt. the strength of
riveted joint per gauge width of plate is the least of P s1, Pb1, and Pt1.

Strength of riveted lap joint (Fig. 2.16A)

 The strength of riveted lap joint against shearing of the rivets:
π π
Ps = N x ( 4 d2 x τ s ) = 6 x ( 4 d2 x τ s) ………………………………………….. (vi)
 The strength of riveted joint against bearing of rivets.
Pb = N x (d x t x σ b) = 6 x (d x t x σ b ) ……………………………………….. (vii)
 The strength of plate in tearing
Pt = (b - 3d) x t x σ t ……………………………………………………………….. (viii)
 The strength of riveted joint is the least of Ps. Pb, and Pt. the strength of
271

riveted lap joint per gauge width is the least of P s1, Pb1, and Pt1 whichever is
Page

less, where
 π π
Ps1 = n x ( 4 d2 x τ s ) = 2 x ( 4 d2 x τ s) …………………………………………………(ix)
Pb1 = n x (d x t x σ b) = 2 x (d x t x σ b ) …………………………………………………. (x)
Pt1 = (b - d) x t x σ t ………………………………………………………………………………. (xi)

Strength of riveted butt joint (Fig. 2.16B)

 The strength of riveted butt joint against shearing of rivets:
π π
Ps = N x (2 4 d2 x τ s ) = 9 x (2 4 d2 x τ s) ………………………………….( xii)
 The strength of riveted butt joint against bearing of rivets:
Pb = N x (d x t x σ b) = 9 x (d x t x σ b ) ………………………………………. (xiii)
 The strength of the plate in tearing
Pt = (b - 3d) x t x σ t …………………………………………………………. (xiv)
 The strength of riveted butt joint is the least of Ps, Pb, and Pt. The strength
272

of riveted butt joint per gauge width is the least of Ps1, Pb1, and Pt1
Page

whichever is less, where

 π π
Ps1 = N x ( 4 d2 x τ s ) = 3 x ( 4 d2 x τ s) ………………………………….( xv)
Pb1 = N x (d x t x σ b) = 3x (d x t x σ b ) ………………………. (xvi) and
Pt1 = (g - b) x t x σ t …………………………………………………………. (xvii)
273
Page