DENTAL ANATOMY AND DENTAL HISTOLOGY

OLD QUESTION PAPERS 2 MARKS QUESTION AND ANSWERS .

( FROM 2015-2001 )
GENEZENS,SJDC.
B R V NAGA SAI MANOHAR.

o STRUCTURES DERIVED FROM DENTAL PAPILLA:

1) The dental papilla is a condensation of ectomesenchymal cells called odontoblasts, seen
in histologic sections of a developing tooth.
2) The dental papilla appears after 8-10 weeks intra uteral life.
3) The enamel organ, dental papilla, and dental follicle together forms one unit, called the tooth
germ.
4) Dental papilla serves a central role in is epithelial-mesenchymal interactions responsible for
tooth morphogenesis.
5) The dental papilla gives rise to three components of the tooth: dentinm formed by
odontoblasts, cementum, formed by cementoblasts, and dental pulp.

o CURVE OF MONSON(3):
1) It is obtained by the extension of the curve of Spee and the curve of Wilson to all cusps and
incisal edges.
2) Monson(1920),connected the curve of spee and curve of wilson to all cusps and incisal
edges,and suggested that the mandibular arch adopted itself to the curved segment of a
Sphere.
3) The curve of monsoon is based on the spherical theory of occlusion.
4) It showed that the mandibular teeth moving over the surface of a circle with a diameter of 8
inches.

o GROOVES:
1) It is an shallow linear depression on the surface of a tooth.
2) A Developmental groove is a shallow groove(or)line b/w the primary parts of the crown or root.
3) Buccal and Lingual grooves are developmental grooves gound on the buccal and lingual
surfaces of posterior teeth.
4) A Supplemental groove is less ditinct and does not mark the junction of primary parts.
o CURVE OF WILSON(3):
1) It is a curve that contacts the buccal and lingual cusp tips of mandibular posterior teeth.
2) It is a mediolateral on each side of the arch.
3) It results from the inward inclination of the posterior teeth.
4) Purpose of this arc in occlusal curvature is to complement paths of condyles during
movements of mandible.
5) Crowns of the upper posterior teeth are inclined bucally so lingual cusps appear longer than
buccal cusps.
6) Crowns of the lower posterior teeth are inclined lingually so buccal cusps appear longer than
lingual cusps.

oREACTIONARY DENTIN:
1) If by extensive abrasion,erosion,caries or operative procedures the odontoblast
processes are exposed (or)cut ,the odontoblasts die (or) survive,depending on the
intensity of the injury.If they survive that dentin is known as Reactionary (or)
Regenerated dentin.
2) Reactionary Dentin is that type of tertiary dentin that is deposited by the pre-
existing odontoblasts.
3) Mild Stimulus for Rate of formation is increased.
4) Tubules Remain continue with the secondary dentin.

o REPARATIVE DENTIN(3):
1) If the inducing stimulus causes destruction of the orginal odontoblasts,the newly differentiated
odontoblast like cells secrete less tubular,more Irregular dentin called ‘Reparative Dentin’.
2) Here ,tubules are usually not continuous with those of secondary dentin.
3) Also called as Irregular secondary dentin/Irritation dentin/Tertiary dentin.
4) Radiologically,decreased size of the pulp chambers and Root canals.
 oPlexus of Raschkow(4):
1) A plexus of myelinated nerve fibers located between the core of the pulp of the tooth
and the cell-rich zone.
2) Axons of Raschkow plexus lose their myeline sheath (but not their Schwann cells) as
they penetrate the cell-rich and cell-free zones to make synaptic contact with the
odontoblast cell body in the pulp or odontoblastic process within the dentinal tubule
3) Raschkow plexus is responsible for transmitting pain sensation from the pulp of the
tooth.

F-Arising from the Sub-odontoblastic plexus

E-and passing up between the odontoblasts

A-to enter the dentinal tubule where they enter., B-Pre dentin.,C-Dentin.,

G-on the odontoblast process(D).

o GNARLED ENAMEL(5):
1) Enamel rods are generally not straight through out their length.
2) Most of the enamel rods follow undulating pathway from DEJ to the Tooth surface
3) But In the cusp Tips of Molars ,the group of enamel rods are Twist about one another .It
is referred as Gnarled Enamel.
4) It makes the Enamel strong and more Resistant to Fracture.
oOSTEOCLASTS(3):
1) Osteoclast is Greek Word for “Bone and Broken”
2) It is a type of bone cell that removes bone tissue by Removing the Mineralized matrix of Bone.
3) Osteoclasts with many nuclei resorb more bone than osteoclasts with few nuclei.
4) These cells are variable in shape due to their motility.
5) The cytoplasm of the osteoclast show acid phosphatase containing vesicles and vacuoles.
6) These cells derived from hemopoietic cells of Monocyte Macrophage lineage.

o BLOOD SUPPLY TO MAXILLARY SINUS:

1) Arterial supply:It is supplied by branches of Anterior,Middle and Posterior Superior Alveolar
arteries, branches of Maxillary Artery.
2) Venous drainage: It is drained by Tributaries of –Facial vein,Spheno palatine vein,pterygoid
plexus of veins.
3) Nerve supply:It is supplied by branches of –
i. Anterior,middleand posterior superior Alveolar nerves,branches of Maxillary
artery .
ii. Infra orbital nerve.
4) Lymphatic drainage:It drains into submandibular lymph nodes.Thelymphatic drainage reaches
the specialized cellsin the maxillary sinus via infra orbital foramen (or) through the
anterosuperior wall and then to the submandibular lymph nodes.

oLAMINA DURA(3):
1) Lamina dura is bundle bone that lies adjacent to the periodontal ligament, lining the tooth
socket.
2) The lamina dura surrounds the tooth socket and provides the attachment surface with which
the Sharpey's fibers of the periodontal ligament perforate.
3) On an x-ray a lamina dura will appear as a radiopaque(greater transparency) line surrounding
the tooth root.
4) Lamina dura, along with the periodontal ligament, plays an important role in bone remodeling
and thus in orthodontic tooth movement.
o HERTWIG’S EPITHELIAL ROOT SHEATH(3):
1) The Hertwig epithelial root sheath (HERS) or epithelial root sheath is a proliferation
of epithelial cells located at the cervical loop of the enamel organ in a developing tooth.
2) It initiates the formation of dentin in the root of a tooth by causing
the differentiation of odontoblasts from the dental papilla.
3) Hertwig epithelial root sheath is derived from the inner and outer enamel epithelium of the
enamel organ.
4) The sheath at the apical end shows a horizontal extension,called Epithelial Diaphragm.This
structure determines the number of roots and the location of the Apical foramen.
5) It determines the shape of the roots.
6) HERS disintegrates ,and dental follicle cells come in contact with root dentin.Then they
differentiate into cementoblasts and deposit cementum.

o DILACERATION:
1) Dilaceration is a developmental disturbance in shape of teeth. It refers to an angulation, or a
sharp bend or curve, in the root or crown of a formed tooth.
2) The curve or bend may occur anywhere along the length of the tooth, sometimes at the
cervical portion, at other times midway along the root or even just at the apex of the root,
depending upon the amount of root formed when the injury occurred.
3) Such an injury to a permanent tooth, resulting in dilaceration.
4) Can easily detected by Radiographs.

o DENTAL FORMULA FOR HUMAN DENTITION(2):

1) The dental formula for the primary/deciduous teethin humans is as follows:

2) The dental formula for the permanent human teeth is as follows:

 This formula should be read as:Incisors ,two maxillary and two mandibular;
Canines,one maxillary and one mandibular; Premolars,two maxillary and two
mandibular;Molars,three maxillary and three mandibular – or 16 altogether on
one side Right or Left.
o FUNCTIONS OF TOOTH:
 Each tooth plays a valuable role in your mouth.
 1) The Functions of Incisors:
The incisors are the eight front teeth (four on top and four on the bottom) in our mouth.They have
many functions, such as:
 Incisors cut and slice through food when you take a bite
 It support the lips and face
 It Help us to speak.

2) The Functions of Canines:

These are the sharp, pointy teeth that are sometimes called fang teeth. Canines are also known as
the cornerstone of the dental arch.
 Their sharp point allows them to pierce through and tear the food
 They help guide your teeth when you chew.

3) The Functions of Premolars:

 They help the canines to pierce and tear food.
 They help the molars to crush and grind food during chewing.
 They help with aesthetics and speech, but not as much as the canines and incisors
 Support the facial muscles at the corners of the mouth
4) The Functions of Molars:
 Molars Crush and grind food,
 They support our cheeks,
 The molars play a small role in speech.

oMYOFIBROBLASTS:
 A myofibroblast is a cell that is in between a fibroblast and a smooth muscle cell in phenotype.

 There are many possible ways of myofibroblast development:

1) Partial smooth muscle differentiation of a fibroblastic cell
2) Activation of a stellate cell (e.g. hepatic Ito cells or pancreatic stellate cells).
3) Epithelial to mesenchymal transdifferentiation (EMT) of an epithelial cell.

 Myofibroblasts may interfere with the propagation of electrical signals controlling heart rhythm,
leading to arrhythmia in both patients who have suffered a heart attack and in foetuses.

 These cells are lost through apoptosis after wound healing and it has been suggested that in
several fibrotic diseases (for example liver cirrhosis, kidney fibrosis, retroperitoneal fibrosis)
that this mechanism fails to work, leading to persistence of the myofibroblasts.

o ENUMERATE DUCTAL SYSTEM OF SALIVARY GLANDS:

1) The salivary glands are exocrine glands i.e, glands with ducts,thet produce saliva.The glands
are enclosed in a capsule of connective tissue and internally divided into lobules.
2) The lumens formed by Intercalated ducts,which inturn join to form Straited ducts.These drain
into ducts situated b/w the lobes of glands, called Interlobular ducts (or) Secretory ducts.

o NEURAL CREST CELLS(2):

1) These are multipotent cells.
2) A Unique population of cells develops from the ectoderm along the lateral margins of the
Neural Plate.These are the Neural crest cells.
3) These are ectodermal in origin and extend through out the neural tube.
4) Structures derived from neural crest cells are-connective tissue,Muscle tissue,Nervous
tissue,Sensory ganglia,Autonomic nervous system,Endocrine tissue and Pigment cells.
5) These cells helps in determination of the size,shape and number of the tooth roots.
6) Helps in determination of the anatomy of dento gingival junction.
7) It intiates Tooth formation,amelogenesis and dentinogenesis.
8) The migration of sufficient number of neuralcrest cells is essential for the normal growth of
head region.

o EMBRASURES(13)&SPILLWAY SPACES:
1) Two teeth in the same arch are in contact,their curvatures adjacent to the contact areas form
spillway spaces called Embrasures.
2) A gap between 2 adjacent teeth,as the curve away from the contact area.

Types of embrasures:

i. Labial (or) buccal and lingual embrasures: The spaces that widen out from the area of
contact labially or buccally and lingually. These Embrasures are continuous with the
interproximal spaces between the teeth.
ii. Incisal (or) Occlusal Embrasure: The Spaces above the Occlusal and incisal contact areas
which are bounded by the marginal ridges as they join the cusps and incisal ridges. These
ridges are continous with the Labial (or) Buccal and Lingual Embrasures.

Functions Of Embrasures:
 Provides a Spillway for Food during mastication.
 Prevents Food from being forced through the contact area.
 Makes Teeth more Self Cleansing.

o SUBMERGED TEETH(3):
1) Submerged teeth are deciduous teeth that have undergone variable degree of root resorption
and then have become fixed to the Alveolar bone.
2) Ankylosis of teeth is uncommon,but more in the Deciduous teeth than Permanent teeth.
3) The most common affected tooth is the mandibular Second deciduous molar.
4) Partial root resorption first occursand then tooth fuses to the bone.
5) This prevents normal Exfoliation(process of losing tooth) of the deciduoud tooth and typically
causes Impaction( failure of teeth fully to erupt into the mouth) of the permanent successor
tooth.

o ENAMEL TUFTS AND ENAMEL SPINDLES(4):

ENAMEL TUFTS:

1) These arise from DEJ

2) Reach to 1/5-1/3 the thickness of enamel.
3) In ground section,resembles Tufts of Grass.
4) The inner end arises at the dentin.
5) It consists of hypocalcified enamel rods and interprismatic substance.
6) In simple electron microscope studies revealed;Tubular structures with cross-striations.
7) In transmission electron microscope studies reveales;Plate like structure in the center of the
tufts& orginate from the superficial layer of dentin.
8) The major organic component of the tuft was a 13.17 kd protein;rather than amelogenin.

ENAMEL SPINDLES:

1) Occasionally odontoblast processes pass across the dentinoenamel junction into the
enamel.since many are thickened at their end,they have been termed Enamel spindles.
2) They extend into enamel epithelium before hard substances were formed.
3) In ground sections of dried teeth the organic content of the spindles disintegrates and is
replaced by air,and the spaces appeared dark in transmitted light.
4) These are hypomineralised(or) partially mineralized structures.
5) These are found mainly in the cusp tip regions.

o SECONDARY AND TERTIARY DENTIN(2):

SECONDARY DENTIN:
1) Secondary dentin is formed after the root formation has been completed.
2) It is the narrow band of dentin bordering the pulp.
3) Deposition of secondary dentin is continous but much slower.
4) It has tubular structure which is almost continuous with the primary dentin.
5) There is usually a bend in the tubules where primary and secondary dentin interface.

TERTIARY DENTIN:
 1) Tertiary dentin is produced in reaction to stimulus ,such as
attrition,abrasion,erosion,trauma,caries or restorative dental procedure.
2) It is also called as reactive,reparative (or) irregular secondary dentin.
3) There are two types of tertiary dentin.They are:
i. Reactionary and
ii. Reparative.
i) Reactionary – it is formed by odontoblasts when the injury does not damage the
odontoblast layer.
ii) Reparative – it is formed by replacement of odontoblasts when the injury is so
severe that it damages a part of the primary odontoblast layer.

o MYOEPITHELIAL CELLS(OR)BASKET CELLS(5):

1) They are found in the sweat glands, mammary glands, lacrimal glands, and salivary glands.
2) These cells are closely related to secretory and intercalated duct cells.
3) Also called luminal cells/basal cells/salivary gland tumour.
4) The outline of the acini appears smooth but in the intercalated duct the processes runs
longitudinally on the surface creating a bulge.this appearance is similar like basket holding the
secretory unit,so termed Basket cells.
5) Myo epithelial cells contain cytokeratin intermediate filament and contractile filaments.
6) Presence of cytokeratin confirms the epithelial origin of myoepithelial cells.
7) The myoepithelial cells are innervated through the parasympathetic motor nerve.
8) The precise functional role of myoepithelial cells in salivary secretion is not very clear.
9) ME cells actively can accelerate the intial outflow of saliva fron the acini.
10)Recent studies show ME cells are involved in signalling the secretory cells and protecting
salivary gland tissue.

o CELLULAR CEMENTUM(3):
By cellularity ,cementum classified into;
 Cellular-cementum containing cementocytes in lacunae with in the cementum matrix.
 Acellular- cementum with out any cellsin its matrix.
i. Its deposition rate is faster.
ii. It is formed after acellular cementum
iii. Also called as secondary cementum.
iv. In this type,sharpey’s fibres are partially mineralized.
v. Incremental lines are irregular and placed wide apart with variable thickness b/w them.
vi. It is mainly seen at apical third and inter radicular area through a thin layer is present all
over the root.

o ACELLULAR CEMENTUM:
1) Acellular cementum is otherwise called primary cementum.
2) This is form of cementum in which entrapped cementocytes are not present.
3) It is most commonly seen in cervical third of the roots.
4) Acellular cementum is slowly deposited and the sharpey’sfibres in it are well mineralised.
5) Incremental lines are regular and closely placed.
6) Acellular cementum deposition rate is slower.
7) It’s width is more (or) less constant.

o CEMENTOCYTES:
1) A cell found in lacunae of cellular cementum, frequently having long processes radiating from
the cell body toward theperiodontal surface of the cementum.
2) A typical cementocytehas numerous cell processes (or) canaliculi radiating from its cell
body.
3) Cytoplasm of cementocytes in deeper layers of cementum contains a)few
organelles,b)the endoplasmic reticulum appears dilated,and c)mitochondria sparse.
4) Cementocytes are spider like cells and are similar to osteocytes.
5) These are mainly seen at apical third and viable only near the suface.

o CEMENTICLES(2):
1) Cementicles are small, spherical or ovoid calcified masses embedded within or attached to the
cementum layer on the root surface of a tooth, or lying free within the periodontal ligament.
There are 3 types:
2) Free cementicle - not attached to cementum
3) Attached (sessile) cementicle - attached to the cementum surface(also
termed exocementosis).
4) Embedded (interstitial) cementicle - with advancing age the cementum thickens, and the
cementicle may become incorporated into the cementum layer.
5) Cementicles are usually acellular, and may contain either fibrillar or afibrillar cementum, or a
mixture of both.
6) Generally they are small, Their size is variable and most commonly found at the tip of the root.

o ZONE OF WEIL(3):
1) Cell free zone,immediately beneath the odontoblasts,is a zone that is free of cells,and
contains only the ground substance.It is also called the cell free zone of weil.
2) It is about 40 microns thick
3) It contains few cells.
4) In the zone many processes of the fibroblasts of the cell rich zone,nerves and blood
vessels are observed.
5) The purpose of this zone is to provide space for the moving odontoblasts,as dentin
production occurs.

o PULP STONES(5):
1) Pulp stones,also called as denticles,are small nodular mineralized structures in the pulp
that can be seen as an age change.
2) They can be classified as true(or)false denticles,depending on their microscopic
structures:
-True denticles contain dentinal tubules with odontoblastic processes.
-False denticles are seen as concentric calcifications with out any regular architecture.
3) Both true and false denticles can also be classified into three types based on their
location in pulp:
 -Free denticles are completely surrounded by pulp on all sides.
-Attached denticles are partly with in pulp and partly with in dentin.
-Embedded denticles are seen completely with in the dentin.
4) It is considered that all denticles arise as free denticles initially.As secondary dentin
keeps depositing,they gradually become attached,and then later completely embedded
in dentin.

o ZSIGMONDY PALMER NOTATION:

1) The Palmer notation consists of a symbol (┘└ ┐┌) designating in which quadrant the tooth is
found and a number indicating the position from the midline.
2) Adult teeth are numbered 1 to 8, with deciduous teeth indicated by a letter A to E.
3) For decidious teeth ,denoted as;

RIGHT LEFT

4) For permanent teeth,denoted as;

RIGHT LEFT
5) Palmer system is generally incompatible with computers and word processing
systems.

o CELL RESTS OF SERRES(2):

 Remnants of the dental lamina persist as epithelial pearls (or) islands with in the jaw as
well as in the gingiva.These are referred to as cell rests of serres.

o FUNCTIONS OF SALIVA(2):
 o ANATOMICAL CROWN AND CLINICAL CROWN OF THE
TOOTH(2):

Anatomical crown:
-The part of the tooth which is covered with enamel extending to the cementoenamel junction
of the tooth.
-Its dimension only changes due to trauma.

Clinical crown:
-The portion of the tooth which is not visible in the crown.
-This determination is made depending upon the position of the periodontal tissues and the
amount of the tooth visible.

o PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ENAMEL:

1) Enamel forms a protective covering of variable thickness over the entire surface of
crown.
2) On cusps of molars&premolars thickness-2 to 2.5 mm
3) Enamel more on Lingual surface of maxillary molars
Buccal surface of mandibular molars.
4) It is Hardest Calcified tissue because ‘high content of mineral salts’and ‘their crystalline
arrangement’.
5) Semi-permeable membrane allows 14c-labelled urea,iodine etc;and dyes.
6) Thicker enamel grayish white in colour and decrease in thickness turns
yellowish(due to underlying dentin).
7) At incisal areas may have a bluish tinge-Thin edge consists only a Double layer of
Enamel.
8) The specific gravity is 2.8
 9) Density decreases from the surface of enamel to the dentinoenamel junction.
10) Hydroxyapatite crystalarrange in rods (or) prisms.

o STRIATED DUCTS:
1) It constitutes largest portion of ductal system located with in the lobules of salivary
glands.
2) It recieves the primary saliva from intercalated ducts.
3) These cells are columnar with centrally placed nucleus and pale ,acidophilic cytoplasm.
4) Lateral surfaces are joined by tight junctions.
5) These are located with in the lobules(intralobular).
6) The apical cytoplasm contains;
-small secretory granules (filled with proteins).
-vescicles (endocytosis from lumen).
-peroxysomes.
-numerous lysosomes.
-glycogen deposits.
7)Larger than the acinus.
8)The striated ductal cells contain Kallikrein,an enzyme found in saliva,and synthesize
secretory
Glycoproteins,which are stored in the apical granules.

o TOME’S GRANULES LAYER(2):

1) When dry ground sectionof the root dentin are seen in transmitted light, a zone adjacent
to the cementum appears granular .this is known as Tome’s granular layer.
2) This zone increses slightly in amount from the cemento enamel junction to the root
apex.
3) It is caused by coalescing and looping of the terminal portions of the dentinal tubules.
4) Among the hypomineralised areas,shows highest concentrations of calcium and
phosphorus.
5) It as aspecial arrangement of collagen and non collagenous matrixproteins at the
interface between dentin and cementum.

o SUBODONTOBLASTIC CAPILLARY PLEXUS:

1) The subodontoblastic plexuses is primarily located in the roof and lateral walls of the coronal
pulp.
2) It is less developed in root plexuses.
3) The subodontoblastic capillary plexus form a loop adjacent to the odontoblasts and return
blood into the low pressure venules (Post capillary Venoules).
4) The Terminal Arterioles and Precapillary sphincters control blood flow into specific
subodontoblastic capillaries.
5) Localized vasodilation will increase blood flow toward the adjacent odontoblasts and pulpal
tissue; however, localized vasoconstriction will redirect blood flow through the ArterioVenous
Anastomosis.

o ENAMEL KNOT (2) AND ENAMEL CORD:

Enamel Knot:
1) In tooth development, the enamel knot is a localization of cells on an enamel organ that appear
thickened in the center of the inner enamel epithelium.
2) The enamel knot is frequently associated with an enamel cord.
3) It is formed in the cap stage and undergoes apoptosis in the bell stage.
4) The enamel knot is a signaling center of the tooth that provides positional information for tooth
morphogenesis and regulates the growth of tooth cusps.

Enamel Cord:
1) The enamel cord, also called enamel septum, is a localization of cells on an enamel organ that
appear from the outer enamel epithelium to an enamel knot.
2) The function of the enamel cord and the enamel knot is not known, but they are believed to
play a role in the placement of the first cusp developed in a tooth.

o BUNDLE BONE(5):
1) Bundle bone is that bone in which the principal fibres of the periodontal ligament are
anchored.
2) The term bundle was chosen,because,the bundles of principal fibers continue into the
bone a Sharpey’s fibres.
3) The bundle bone is characterised by the lack of fibrils in the intercellular substance.
4) It contains few fibrils than does lamellated bone,and it appears dark in hematoxylin and
eosin stained sections.
5) The collagen adjacent to the bone is always less mature than that adjacent to the
cementum.
6) Bundle bone is formed in areas of recent bone apposition.

o PREDENTIN(4):
1) The predentin is located always adjacent to the pulp tissue.
2) It is 2 to 6 μm wide,depending on the extent of activity of odontoblast.
3) The predentin is appears to b e pale staining than the mineralized dentin due to differences in
composition of matrix.
4) As the collagen fibres undergo mineralization at the predntin-dentin junction,the predentin
becomesdentin and a new layer of predentin forms circumpulpally.

o NEONATAL LINE(2):
1) It is seen in Enamel a well as Dentin.
2) The enamel of the deciduous teeth develops partly before and partly after birth.
3) The boundary between the two portions of enamel in the deciduous teeth is marked by an
accentuated incremental line of retzius,the the neonatal line(or)neonatal ring.
4) It appears to be result of the abrupt change in environmnt and nutrition of the newborn infant.
5) In the deciduous teeth and in first permanent Molar ,where dentin is formed partly before birth
and partly after birth,the prenatal and post natal dentins are seperated by an accentuated
counter line.it is termed as Neonatal line.

o ARCH TRAITS:
A trait is distinguishing characteristic ,quality,particularity or attribute.
There are
 Set traits
 Arch traits
 Class traits
 Type traits
Arch traits distinguish maxillary from mandibular teeth.

o MAMELONS(2):
1) A mamelon is one of three rounded protuberances which are present on the cutting edge of an
incisor tooth when it first erupts through the gum.
2) Mamelons are quickly worn away by use.
3) Mamelons are easiest to observe on the Maxillary central incisors, and appear as three small
prominences on the incisal edge of the tooth.

o PIT AND FISSURE(2):

PIT:
It is defines as a small pin point depression located at a junction of developmental grroves
(or) at terminals of those grooves.The central pit describes a landmark in the central fossae of
Molars where developmental grooves joins.
FISSURE:
It is defined as deep clefts between adjoinig cusps.They provide areas for retention of caries
producing agents.These areas are impossible to keep clean and highlt susceptible to
advancement of caries.

o NON KERATINOCYTES(3):
1) The epithelium contains a smaller population of cells that so not possess
cytokeratinfilaments;hence they do not have the ability to keratinize.These groups of
cells are termed Nonkeratinocytes.
2) They do not show mitotic activity,under go maturative changes .
3) They do not form desmosomal attachments with adjacent keratinocytes.
4) They appear unstained (or) clear in H&E stains.
5) They are identified by special stains(or)immunocyto chemical methods.
6) These cells migrate to oral epithelium from Neural crest (or)from bone marrow.
7) Melanocytes,Langerhan cells,Merkel cells are the non keratinocytes found in oral
epithelium.
8) Inflammatory cells often seen especially in certain regions,like lymphocytyes also
considered as Non-keratinocytes.

o NATAL AND NEO NATAL TOOTH(2):

1) Natal teeth refers to those teeth,most commonly,the mandibular central incisors that are
already present in the oral cavityof infants at the time of birth.
2) Neonatal teeth are the teeth that erupts into the oral cavity within the first 30 days of life.
3) However,it is now considered appropriate to designate all of them as natal teeth.
4) Earlier ,it was thought that natal teeth were predeciduous supernumery teeth.
5) Recent evidences indicates the most of these are prematurely erupted teeth of the
Deciduous teeth(not supernumery teeth)and they should not be extracted unless they
are mobile.

o PERIKYMATA(2):
1) Perikymata are transverse,wave-like grooves.
2) Believed to be the external manifestations of the striae of retzius.
3) They are continuous around the tooth and usually lie parallel to each other and to the
cementoenamel junction.
 About 30perikymata/mm in the region of cemento enamel junction.
 Abour 10perikymata/mm in the region of near incisal (or) occlusal edges.
4) Their course is regular;but in cervical region it may be quite irregular.
5) These are absent in occlusal part of deciduous teeth but, present in post natal cervical
part (due to undisturbed and even development of enamel before birth).
6) These are lost after eruption.

o ODONTOBLASTS:
1) Odontoblasts are second most prominent cell in pulp.
2) They reside adjacent to the predentin with cell bodies in the pulp and cell processes in
the dentinal tubules.
3) The no.of odontoblasts is corresponds to the no .of dentinal tubules.
4) The cell bodies are columnar in appearance with large oval nuclei fill the basal part of
the cell.
5) Between odontoblasts Gap,Tight and Desmosomal junctions exist.
6) The form and arrangement of the bodies of the odontoblasts are not uniform throughout
the pulp.
7) Ultrastructurally,ring-layered structures have been observed betweenaging
odontoblasts that might be characteristic of aging teeth.
8) These are end cells.They have lost the ability to divide.when they diethey have to be
replaced by cells,which differentiate from the cell-rich zone.

o ACCESSORY CANALS:
1) Accessory canals leading from the radicular pulp laterally through the Root dentin to
the periodontal tissue may be seen anywhere along the root .
2) Most numerous in the apical third of the root.
3) They are clinically significant in spread of infection either from the pulp to the PDL (or)
viceversa.
4) They are occur in areas where there is premature loss of Root sheath cells because
these cells induce the formation of odontoblasts which form the dentin.
5) These may also occur where the developing root encounters a blood vessel.
6) If the vessel is located in the area where the dentin is forming,the hard tissue may
develop around it,making a lateral canal fronm the radicular pulp.

o OSTEOCLASTS(3):
1) An osteoclast is a type of bone cell that breaks down bone tissue.
2) This function is critical in the maintenance, repair, and remodelling of bones.
3) Origin from hematopoietic stem cells of monocyte-macrophage lineage.
4) In light microscope these are large and multinucleated(or)small and mononuclear.
5) In bone, osteoclasts are found in pits in the bone surface which are called resorption bays,
(or) Howship's lacunae.
6) In electron microscope numerous mitochondria and lysosomes,abundant golgi saccules,and
free ribosomes are seen,and rough endoplasmic reticulum is sparse.
7) At a site of active bone resorption, the osteoclast forms a specialized cell membrane, the
"ruffled border," that opposes the surface of the bone tissue.

o EPITHELIAL RESTS OF MALASSEZ(3):

1) The epithelial cell rests of Malassez are part of the periodontal ligament cells around a tooth.
2) These cells were first described by Malassez in 1884.
3) These are remanants of the epithelium of Hertwig’s epithelial root sheath.
4) It plays a role in cementum repair and regeneration.
5) These cells may proliferative to form cysts and tumors or may also undergo calcification to
become CEMENTICLES.
6) These cell rests can be distinguished from fibroblasts in periodontal ligament by the close
packing of their cuboidal cells and the deeply stained nucleus.

o HYALINE LAYER OF HOPEWELL-SMITH(2):

1) First layer of cementum is actually formed by the inner cells of the HERS and is deposited on
the root’s surface is called Intermediate Cementum (or) Hyaline layer of hopewell-smith.
2) Deposition occurs before the Hers disintegrates.Seals off the dentinal tubules.
3) It is situated between the granular dentin layer of tomes and the secondary cementum that is
formed by the cementoblasts.
4) Approximately 10 thick and mineralizes greater than the adjacent dentin (or) the secondary
cementum.
5) Some investigators believed that it may be a form of Enamel.

o FOSSAE(2):
1) An irregular depression (or) concavity on surface of the tooth.
2) They are formed by convergence of Ridges terminating at a central point in the bottom of the
depression where there is a junction of grooves.
3) Lingual fossae are on the lingual surface of the Incisors.
4) Central fossae are on the occlusal surface of molars.
5) Triangular fossae are found on molars and premolars on the occlusal surfaces Mesial (or)
Distal to the marginal ridges.
6) Incisive fossae a slight depression on the anterior surface of the maxilla above the incisor
teeth.
o RIDGE(3)&OBLIQUE RIDGE:
1) A ridge is any linear elevation on the surface of a tooth and is named according to their
location.
2) Marginal ridges are the rounded borders of enamel that form the Mesial and Distal margins of
the occlusal surfaces of Premolars and Molars, as well as Mesial and Distal margins of the
lingual surfaces of lingual surfaces of Incisors andCanines.
3) Triangular ridges are descend from the tips of cusps of Molars and Premolars toward the
central part of the occlusal surfaces.
4) When a buccal and a lingual triangular ridges join,they form a Transverse ridge.It is a union of
two triangular ridges crossing transversly the surface of a posterior tooth.
5) Oblique ridge is union of the triangular ridges of distobuccal cusp and the distal cusp of the
mesiolingual cusp.

o CINGULUM(2):
1. A cingulum is the lingual lobe of an anterior teeth .
2. It makes up the bulk of the cervical third of the lingual surface.
3. Its convexity mesiodistally resembles a girdle encircling the lingual surface at the cervical third.
o DEAD TRACTS(3):
1. Sometimes odontoblastic processes inside dentinal tubules disintegrate due to dental
caries,attrition,erosion,etc;
2. Such tubules are instead filled with air,and in ground sections they appear dark in transmitted
light and white in reflected light.These are called dead tracts.

o CURVE OF SPEE(6):
1) It refers to the antero-posterior curvature of the occlusal suface ,beginnig at the tip of the
lowercuspid and following cusp tip of bicuspids and molars continuing as an arc through the
condyle.
2) The Curve of Spee is distinct from the Curve of Wilson, which is the upward (U-shaped)
curvature of the maxillary and mandibular occlusal planes in the coronal plane.
3) The Curve of Spee is basically a part of a circle (8-inch diameter) which has its circumference
as the anterior ramus of mandible.
4) The curvature of this arc would relate, on average, to part of a circle with a 4-inch radius.
o SHARPEY’S FIBRES(4):
1) Sharpey’s fibres are the principal fibres of the periodontal ligament that insert into the
cementum and into the periosteum of the alveolar bone.
2) These are numerous but smaller at their attachment into cementumthan alveolar bone.
3) The mineralization is at right angles to long axis of fibres,indicating that in function,the fibres
are subjected to the tensional forces.
4) In acellular cementum fully mineralised, in cellular cementum and in bone mineralized partially
at their periphery.
5) Few sharpey’s fibres pass uninterruptedely through the bone of the alveolar boneof the
alveolar processes termed transalveolar fibres .

o INFANTILE SWALLOW:
1) The infantile(visceral) swallow,an essential function in the neonate,is closely associated with
suckling,and both are well developed by about 32 nd week of intra uterine life.
2) It has the following characteristics:
 The jaws are apart , with the tongue between the gum pads.
 The mandible is stabilized mainly by contraction of the muscles innervated by VII cranial
nerve and the interposed tongue.
 The swallow is guided and to a great extent controlled by sensory interchange between
the lips and tongue.

o ARTICULAR DISC OF THE TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT:

1) In young individuals the articular disc is composed of dense fibrous tissue.

2) The interlacking fibres are straight and tightly packed.
3) Elastic fibres are small numbers present in upper lamina of bilaminar region
4) Elastic fibres helps in during retraction(or)during intial phase of elevation of mandible by
means of elastic recoiling.
5) The presence of rounded cells in the articular disc are not true chondrocytes, because they
lack a capsule,surrounding them.
6) The presence of chondrocytes may increase the resistance and resilience of the fibrous tissue.

 Aricular disc is an oval fibrous plate.

 It seperates joint cavity into two compatments.
 It has no blood (or) nerve supply.
 It is thin in the middle and thicker at the ends.
 It is attached to the condyle.
 It allows condyle to rotate and moves with it during glidind movement of the joint.
o DENTAL LAMINA(2):
1) 2 (or) 3 weeks after Rupture of the buccopharyngeal membrane,When the embryo is about 6
weeks old, certain areas of basal cells of the oral ectoderm proliferate more rapidly do the cells
of the adjacent areas.this leads to formation of Primary epithelial band.
2) It is a band of epithelium that has invaded the underlying ectomesenchyme along each of the
horse shoe shaped future dental arches.
3) At about 7th week the primary epithelial band divides into an inner(lingual)process called Dental
lamina and an outer(buccal) process called vestibular lamina.
4) The Distal proliferation of dental lamina is responsible for the location of the germs of the
permanent molars in the mandible and the tuberosity of maxilla.
5) The lingual extension of the dental lamina is named the successional lamina and develops
from the 5th month in uteroto the 10th month of age.

o FATE OF DENTAL LAMINA:

1) The total activity of dental lamina extends over a period of at least 5 years.
2) However,the dental lamina may still be active in the third molar region after it has disappeared.
3) As the teeth continue to develop ,they lose their connection with the dental lamina.
4) They later break up by mesenchymal invasion,which is at first incomplete and does not
perforate the total thickness of the lamina.

o NASMYTH’S MEMBRANE:
1) The remnants of primary enamel cuticle is called nasmyth’s membrane.
2) The function of enamel cuticle is to protect the surface of enamel from the resorptive activity of
the adjacent vascular tissue prior to the eruption of the tooth.
3) It is probably visible to light microscope because of its wavy course.
4) Electron microscope studies indiactes similar to basal lamina.
5) It is secreted by ameloblasts when enamel formation is completed.

o MINOR SALIVARY GLAND:

1) There are 600-1000 minor salivary glands lying in the oral cavity and the oropharynx.
2) These are located beneath the epithelium in almost all parts of the oralcavity.
3) These glands consists of several smallgroups of secretory units opening via short ducts
directly into the mouth.
4) The minor salivary glands are classified according to their anatomic positions
Examples;
 Labial glands,
 Buccal glands,
 Lingual glands,
 Palatine and glossopalatine glands,
 Vonebner’sglands – of all the minor salivary glands these are the posterior lingual SEROUS
glands.
5) They are not present in the gingiva,anterior raphe region of the hardpalate (or) the anterior two
thirds of the dorsum of the tongue.
6) Contribution to whole saliva 5 to 10%.more secretion during sleep.

o LANGERHAN’S CELLS(2):
1) The langerhans cell is an clear cell(or)dendritic cell found in the upper layers of the Skin and
the Mucosal epithelium.
2) There is correlation in the occurrence of stratum granulosum and langerhans cells.
3) Biebeck granules are present.
4) The langerhans cell is a cell of hematopoietic origin.
5) It penetrate the epithelium from lamina propria.
6) Langerhans cells present the antigen to specific helper T-cells.
7) It help involved in immune response.

o CALCITONIN(2):
1) Calcitonin is secreted when blood calcium levels rise.
2) It inhibits bone resorption and promotes calcium salt deposition in bone matrix,effectively
reducing blood calcium levels.
3) As blood calcium levels fall,calcitonin release also falls.
4) Calcitonin also reduces the number and activity of osteoclasts.

o CIRCUMPULPAL DENTIN:
1) It forms the remaining primary dentin(or)bulk of tooth.
2) It represents all of the dentin formed prior to root completion.
3) Collagen fibres are smaller in diameter and more closely packed together.
4) Collagen fibres are parallel to the dentino enamel junction.
5) It is mineralizes either by globular (or) linear pattern.

o ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE(2):
1) Alkaline phosphatase activity in human gingiva is specifically demonstrable in the capillary
endothelium of the lamina propria.
2) Oral epithelium of rat exhibits an increased alkaline phosphatase activity during estrous
cycle,corresponding to phosphatase changes in the vaginal epithelium.
3) It is implicated in the mechanism of keratinization,although its particular role in this process is
still doubtful.
4) The basement membranes associated with salivary glands acini exhibit high alkaline
phosphatase activity.
5) Similar activity in tastebuds are also been reported.

o XYLENE:
1) In pathology laboratory employs xylene for different puposes
2) For example;clearing in tissue processing,deparaffinization before staining.
3) Although it’s carcinogenic nature has not been influentially proved in humans.
4) Prolonged exposure to xylene vapors can cause various health complications.
5) Xylene free tissue processing protocols have already been widely adapted in many
laboratories.
6) Use of iso-propylalchol for dehydration in tissue processing eliminates the use of xylene.
7) Various mineral and vegetable oils have also been used successfully as xylene substitues for
clearing substitues.

o DENTAL FOLLICLE:
1) Associated with the development of the enamel organ and the dental papilla,there is a
marginal condensation in the ectomesenchyme surrounding the enamel organ and dental
papilla.
2) Gradually ,in this zone , adenser and more fibrous layer develops,which is the primitive dental
sac.
3) Dental follicle (or) Dental sac.

o GLANDS OF BLANDIN AND NUHN:

1) These are seen in minor salivary glands.
2) The glands of the tongue can be divided into several groups.The anterior lingual glands are
located near apex of the tongue.These are called glands of blandin and nuhn.
3) These are chiefly mucous in nature.
4) The ducts open on the ventral surface of the tongue near the lingual frenum.
5) The posterior lingual mucous glands are located lateral and posterior to the circumvallate
papillaand in association with the lingual tonsil.
6) The ducts are open on dorsal surface of the tongue.

o BIRBECK GRANULES:
1) Langerhan cell has a convuluted nucleus and characteristic rod-like granulesin the
cytoplasm,termed birbeck granules.
2) This cell is free of melanin and does not give a dopa reaction.
3) Langerhan cell stains with goldchloride,ATPase and immunofluorescent markers.

o VON EBNER’S GLANDS:

1) The posterior serous minor salivary glands are von ebner’s glands.
2) Naturally ,their secretions have been described as serving to wash out the channel of the
papilla and ready the taste receptors for a new stimulus.
3) These glands have significant protective and digestive functions.
4) Histochemically studies have localized the antibacterial enymes Peroxidase and Lysozyme to
these glands in humans.
5) Biochemically,the presence of a secretory enzyme with lipolytic activity;similarly this is
detected in aspirates from esophagus and stomach.

o ROBINSON’S ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE THEORY OF MINERALIZATION:

1) Mineralization is a Process taking place in all the calcified structures in the body like the bone
& enamel.
2) It is defined as the deposition of the mineral salts in and around the organic matrix to make it a
calcified structure.
3) According to him the presence of alkaline phosphatase releases the ions which take part
mineralization and increases their concentration to such a level that their precipitation is seen.
4) Objections: As alkaline phosphatase is present even in tissues which do not calcify.

o STRATUM GRANULOSUM(2):
1) This layer contains flatter and wider cells.,and cells are larger than spinous cells.
2) This layer contains basophilic keratohyalin granules.
3) This layer still synthesizes protein,but synthesis rates are differ,at stratum corneum rate is
diminishes.
4) Tonofilaments are more dense in quantity and are often seen associated with keratohyalin
granules.
5) The cell surfaces are become more regular and more closely applied to adjacent cell surfaces.
6) The lamellar granule forms in upper spinous and granular cell layers known as odland
bodies(or)keratinosome(or)membrane coating granule.
7) These granules discharge their contents into the intercellular spaces forming an intercellular
lamellar material ,which contributes to permeability barrier,and it forms at junction of granular
and cornified cell layers.
8) The inner unit of the cell membrane thickens,forming the ‘cornified cell envelope’.

o CIRCUMVALLATE PAPILLAE(2):
1) Circumvallate means surrounded by a walled channel (or) depression.
2) Circumvallate papillae(or vallate papillae) are characteristically seen just infront of the sulcus
terminalis,on either side of the midline.
3) These are about 8 to 10 in number.It’s taste quality is bitter.
4) Each papilla is surrounded by a circular depression (or) furrow in the mucous membrane.
5) Epithelium is ofstratified squamous type. The dorsal surface shows keratinization occasionally.
6) Connective tissue core shows many secondary papillae,especially towards the dorsal surface.
 7) Few minor serous salivary glands are noticed in the sub mucousa beneath these papillae.
8) These glands are the only minor salivary glands that are serous in nature,and they open their
secretions into the channel of the circumvallate papillae. These are called von ebner glands.

o FILIFORM PAPILLAE:
1) Filiform means thread like. These are pointed ,conical structures in the anterior two-third of the
tongue,and are arranged in numerous rows parallel to the sulcus terminalis.
2) These are most numerous among all papillae.
3) These papillae do not contain taste buds.
4) Histologically, these are made up of stratified squamous keratinized epithelium,containig a
connective tissue core.
5) The tip of the papilla usually shows more keratin.

o ODONTOCLASTS(3):
1) The cells responsible for the removal of dental hard tissue are identical to osteoclasts,are
called odontoclasts.
2) These are large ,multinucleated cells occupying resorption bays on the surface of a dental
hard tissue( dentin,cementum and enamel).
3) Smaller than osteoclasts,cytoplasm has mitochondria and vacuoles and show ruffled border
and clear zone peripheral to it.
4) These are seen in surfaces of dentin,cementum and enamel which are to be resorbed.
5) These are also Seen in pulp chamber and root canal of resorbing deciduous teeth.
6) These are derived from tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase(TRAP) and circulating monocytes.
7) Odontoclast differentiation promoted by Receptor Activator of Nuclear factor Kappa B
Ligand(RANKL) and inhibited by osteoprotegerin(OPG).

o SEQUENCE OF ERUPTION OF DECIDUOUS TEETH(2):

In maxillary arch;
A-B-D-C-E.
In mandibular arch;
A-B-D-C-E.
A-central incisor
B-lateral incisor
D-first molar
C-canine
E-second molar.
o SEQUENCE OF ERUPTION OF PRIMARY TEETH(2):
In maxillary arch;
6-1-2-4-5-3-7
In mandibular arch;
6-1-2-3-4-5-7
1-central incisor
2-lateral incisor
3-canine
4-first premolar
5-second premolar
6-First molar
7-second molar.

o LINE ANGLES AND POINT ANGLES(2):

LINE ANGLE:
1) A Line angle is formed by the junction of two surfaces.
2) It is combination of the two surfaces that join.
3) For example,on an anterior tooth,the juction of the mesial and labial surfaces is called
mesiolabial line angle.
4) The line angles of the Anterior teeth are as follows;
͏ Mesiolabial Mesiolingual Labio incisal
͏ Distolabial Distolingual linguoincisal
5) Mesioincisal and Distoincisal angles are usually nonexistent.
6) The line angles of the posterior teeth are as follows;
͏ Mesiobuccal Mesiolingual Mesioocclusal
͏ Distobuccal Distolingual Distoocclusal
Buccoocclusal
Linguoocclusal
POINT ANGLE:
1) A Point angle is formed by the juction of three surfaces.
2) It is combination of the names of the surfaces forming it.
3) For example,the junction of the Mesial,Buccal,Occlusal surfaces of a molar is called
Mesiobucco-occlusal point angle.
4) The point angles of the Anterior teeth are;
͏ Mesiolabialincisal Mesiolinguoincisal
͏ Distolabioincisal Distolinguoincisal
5) The point angles of the Posterior teeth are;
͏ Mesiobucco-occlusal Mesiolinguo-occlusal
͏ Distobucco –occlusal Distolinguo –occlusal

o LOBE:
1) A lobe is one of the primary sections of formation in the development of the crown.
2) Cusps and Mamelons are representative of lobes.
3) A Mamelon is found on the incisal ridges of newly erupted and permanent incisor teeth .

o INFERIOR ALVEOLAR NERVE:

1) Inferior alveolar nerve is an chief branch of Mandibular nerve leaves the skull through foramen
ovale to lower jaw.
2) It runs directly downwards across the medial surface of the Lateral pterygoid,at the lower
border of which it is directed laterally and downwards across outer surface of Medial pterygoid
muscle to reach the Mandibular foramen.
3) Just before entering foramen,it releases mylohyoid branch,a motor nerve branch to mylohyoid
muscle and Anterior belly of digastric muscle.
4) Inferior alveolar nerve passes through mandibular canal beneath the roots of molars and
premolars.
5) The nerves to the Teeth do not arise as individual branches but as two(or)three larger
branches that form a plexus from which InferiorDentalBranches.
6) These branches enters individual tooth roots and interdental branches supply Alveolar
bone,periodontal ligament,and gingiva.
7) At Mental foramen,nerve divides and a smaller incisive branch continues forward to supply
Anterior teeth,and bone
8) A large mental branch emerges through the foramen to supply the skin of the lower lip and
chin.

o MENTAL FORAMEN(2):
1) An important landmark on lateral aspect of the mandible is Mental Foramen.
2) This is opening of the anterior end of the mandibular canal is directed upward,backward and
laterally.
3) It is usually located midway between the superior and inferior border of the body of the
mandible,when teeth are in position,below the Second Premolar teeth,a little below the apex of
the root.
4) It is not constant position,it may present between First premolar and the Second premolar
teeth.
5) After teeth lost and resorption of bone has taken place,this foramen may appear near the crest
of the alveolar border.
6) Before first permanent molar has come into eruption,this foramen appears immediately below
the first primary molar and nearer the lower border.

o ARTICULAR CAPSULE:
1) The capsule is a dense fibrous membrane that surrounds the joint and incorporates
the articular eminence.
2) It attaches to the articular eminence, the articular disc and the neck of the mandibular condyle.
3) The articular capsule (capsular ligament) is a thin, loose envelope, attached above to the
circumference of the mandibular fossa and the articular tubercle immediately in front; below,
to the neck of the condyle of the mandible.
4) The anterolateral side of capsulemay be thickened to form a band reffered to as the
Temporomandibular Ligament.
5) The capsule consists of an internal synovial layer and an outer fibrous layer containing
veins,nerves,and collagenfibres.
6) The innervations of capsule is arise from trigeminal nerve,and several types of receptors
including free nerve endings.
7) The vascular supply arises from the maxillary,temporal and masseteric arteries.

o MYLOHYOID RIDGE:
1) A ridge on the lingual surface of the mandible that extends at an angle from the level of
the roots of the last molar to the floor of the mouth and serves as the origin of the mylohyoid
muscle.
2) It is sharp(or)irregular covered by mucous membrane.
3) The area under this ridge is destabilize.
4) Anteriorly,this ridge with mylohyoidmuscle is close to inferior surface of the mandible.
5) Posteriorly,after resorption,it over and over again flushes with the remaining ridge.

o TASTE BUD(3):
1) Taste buds contain the taste receptors.
2) They are located around the small structures known as papillae found on the upper surface of
the tongue, soft palate, upper esophagus, the cheek and epiglottis.
3) These structures are involved in detecting the five elements of taste
perception: salty, sour, bitter, sweet and umami.
4) About 50-150 taste cells found in a taste bud.
5) Single taste cell is restricted to only single type of receptor.
6) Taste buds have three types of cells;
a) Supporting cells
b) Sensory cells and
c) Basal cells.
7) Taste bud has a pore that opens out to surface of the tongue.

oOSTEOCYTES:
1) An osteocyte, a star-shaped type of bone cell, is the most commonly found cell in mature bone
tissue.
2) They are derived from osteoprogenitors, some of which differentiate into active osteoblasts.
3) In mature bone, osteocytes and their processes reside inside spaces
called lacunae and canaliculi, respectively.
4) Only one osteocyte is found in each lacunae.
5) These are mature,permanent bone cells.
6) Osteocytes sense the changes in environment and send signals that affect response of other
cells involved in bone remodeling.
7) The death of osteocytes leadsto resorption of the matrix by osteoclasts.
8) During preparations of ground sections osteocytes are lost,but the spaces are filled with debris
and appear black,when viewed under microscope,using transmitted light.
o MICROTOME(2):
1) A microtome is a tool used to cut extremely thin slices of material, known as sections.
2) Microtomes use steel, glass, or diamond blades depending upon the specimen being sliced
and the desired thickness of the sections being cut.
3) Microtomes are used in microscopy, allowing for the preparation of samples for observation
under transmitted light or electron radiation.
4) Steel blades are used to prepare sections of animal or plant tissues light microscopy histology.
5) Glass knives are used to slice sections for light microscopy and to slice very thin sections
for electron microscopy
6) diamond knives are used to slice hard materials such as bone, teeth and plant matter for both
light microscopy and for electron microscopy.

o LIGAMENTS OF TMJ(4):
1) Ligaments associated with the TMJ are composed of collagen and act predominantly as chains
to motion of the condyle and disc.
2) Three ligaments are present – collateral, capsular and temporomandibular ligaments because
they serve as major anatomic components of the joints.
3) Two other ligaments – Sphenomandibular and Stylomandibular –are considered as accessory
ligaments because ,although they attach to osseus structures at some distance from the
joints,they serve to some degree as passive chains on mandibular actions.
4) Sphenomandibular-it is medial to TMJ and runs from the spine of the sphenoid to lingula on
the ramus of the mandible.
5) Stylomandibular-it is posterior to the TMJ and runs from the styloid process of temporal bone
to the posterior margin & angle of mandible.

o ODLAND BODIES:
1) Odland bodies/keratinosome/membrane coating granule are modified lysosomes.
2) Keratinosomes are numerous dense granules.
3) Measures about 300 nm in diameter.
4) These are found in uppermost cells of stratum spinosum.
5) It contains large amounts of acid phosphatase ,an enzyme involved in the destruction of
organelle membranes, which usually occur between granulosum and corneum strata and
during intercellular cementation of cornified cells.
6) It contains free sterols,polar lipids and hydrolytic enzymes.

o MECKEL’S CARTILAGE(3):
1) In humans, the cartilaginous bar of the mandibular arch is formed by what are known
as Meckel’s cartilages (right and left).
2) Forms at 6th week of development.
3) It is a solid hyaline cartilage surrounded by a fibro-cellular capsule.
4) Above this the incus and malleus are developed.
5) Meckel's Cartilage arises from the first pharyngeal arch
6) The dorsal end of each cartilage is connected with the ear-capsule and is ossified to form
the malleus;
7) The ventral ends meet each other in the region of the symphysis menti, and are usually
regarded as undergoing ossification to form that portion of the mandiblewhich contains
the incisor teeth.

o FDI TOOTH NUMBERING SYSTEM:

1) A two digit system proposed by federation dentaire internationale(FDI) for both primary
and permanent dentitions.
2) Two-digit numbering system in which the first number represents a tooth's quadrant and the
second number represents the number of the tooth from the midline of the face.
3) For the primary teeth;

4) For the permanent teeth;

o CUSP/TUBERCLE OF CARABELLI(3):
1) The cusp of Carabelli, or Carabelli's tubercle is a small additional cusp at the
mesiopalatal line angle of maxillary first molars.
2) This extra cusp is usually found on the first molar, and becomes progressively less likely in the
second, third molars.
3) This cusp is entirely absent in some individuals and present in others in a variety of forms.
4) In some cases, Carabelli's cusp may rival the main cusps in size.
5) The cusp of Carabelli is affected by multiple genes.

o ENAMEL LAMELLAE(2):
1) These are thin,leaf like structures.
2) Develop in plane of tension.
3) Extend from enamel surface towards the dentinoenamel junction.
4) Confused with cracks caused by grinding(decalcification).
5) Extend in longitudinal and radial direction from tip of crown toward the cervical region.
 6) Represent site of weakness in the tooth and three types; A,B and C.
7) Enamel lamellae form a road of entry of bacteria that indicates caries.

TYPE A TYPE B TYPE C

CONSISTENCY Poorly calcified rod Degenerated cells. Organic matter from
segments. saliva.

TOOTH Unerupted. Unerupted Erupted.

LOCATION Reached to enamel. Reach into the dentin. Reach into the dentin.

OCCURRENCE Less common. Less common. More common.

o HUNTER-SCHREGER BANDS(3):
͏ These are due to Change in the direction of rods(widely accepted)-it is Functional adaptation.
͏ Variations in calcification of enamel.
͏ Alternating zones having different permeability and organic material.
͏ It is an optical phenomenon.
1) These are Dark and Light alternating strips.
2) Having varying widths.
3) Seen in large ground section(oblique direction).
4) These are orginate from dentinoenamel junction.
5) The rods (or) prisms which are cut longitudinally to produce the dark bands-Parazones.
6) The rods (or) prisms which are cut transversely to produce the light bands –diazones.
7) Anglebetween parazones and diazones about 40°.

o UVULA:
1) It is a conic projection from the posterior edge of the middle of the soft palate,
2) Composed of connective tissue containing a number of racemose glands, and some muscular
fibers.
3) It also contains a large number of serous glands that produce a lot of thin saliva.
4) During swallowing, the soft palate and the uvula move together to close off the nasopharynx,
and prevent food from entering the nasal cavity.
5) It has a function in speech as In many languages, the uvula is used to articulate a range of
consonant sounds, known as uvular consonants.
6) In inflammation the mucous membrane around the uvula may swell, causing the uvula to
expand 3–5 times its normal size. This condition is known as uvulitis.

o PTYALIN:
1) A form of amylase in the saliva of humans and some animals that catalyzes the hydrolysis of st
arch into maltose and dextrin .
2) Ptyalin helps digestion by breaking down starches and glycogens as they enter your mouth.
3) After the starches and glycogen are covered with saliva, they are broken down into maltose
and glucose -- simple sugars that can be used more readily by the body.
4) After the ptyalin speeds up the chemical reaction that breaks down these molecules, it simply
unbinds from them and binds to a different set of molecules.
5) Ptyalin can be used again and again, and this is what allows us to continue eating starches
and glycogen.

o VITAMIN-C:
1) vitamin C, which is also known as ascorbic acid, is a water soluble vitamin.
2) Vitamin C is involved in hundreds of vital biological processes in the body.
3) Vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy
4) Humans are among the few species that cannot manufacture vitamin C and must obtain it from
food.
5) Vitamin C is critical to immune function as it is involved in antibody production and white blood
cell function and activity.
6) Vitamin C requirements are raised when the immune system is under stress.
7) Vitamin C is a powerful water soluble antioxidant and plays a vital role in protecting against
oxidative damage caused by free radicals.
8) It is also necessary for iron absorption and plays a role in the conversion of cholesterol to bile
acids for excretion.
9) Vitamin C deficiency may also play a role in macular degeneration of the eye, arthritis,the
common cold,gum disease, low sperm counts and skin ulcers.

o RUGAE:
1) Rugae are anatomical folds or wrinkles, the irregular fibrous connective tissue located on the
anterior third of the palate, behind the incisive papilla. They are also called 'plica palatine.'
2) Palatal rugae are formed in the third month in utero from the hard connective tissue covering
bone.
3) The pattern orientation is formed by about 12 th to 14 th week of prenatal life and remains stable
until the oral mucosa degenerates after death.
4) Histologically, the rugae are stratified squamous (layered scales), mainly parakeratinized,
epithelium on a connective tissue base, similar to the adjacent tissue of the palate.
5) Rugae are protected from trauma by their internal position in the head, and from heat by the
tongue and the buccal pad of fat.
o CONTACT POINT:
1) An part of the proximal surface of a tooth that touches the adjacent tooth mesially or distally.
2) It prevents the food from packing in between the teeth and thus preventing the impingement
(injury) to the gingival tissues.
3) Properly located contact area allow normal healthy interdental papilla to fill the interproximal
space.

o GREATER PALATINE FORAMEN:

1) A foramen in each posterior side of the palate giving passage to the greater palatine artery
and to a palatine nerve.
2) Transmit the greater palatine nerve and vessels to the hard palate.
3) Greater palatine nerve-identifiable as the larger nerve running in the descending palatine
canal.
4) The nerve exits to the oral cavity via the greater palatine foramen on the horizontal plate of the
palatine bone which is located medial to the third molar.
5) This nerve carries sensory information from the alveolar mucosa of the oral cavity as well as
the hard palate.
6) This nerve communicates with the Nasopalatine nerve that runs through the incisive canal
posterior to the maxillary central incisors.
7) The nerve also carries parasympathetic and sympathetic information to the mucous glands of
the hard palate that line the roof of the oral cavity.
8) The nerve also carries parasympathetic and sympathetic information to the mucous glands of
the hard palate that line the roof of the oral cavity..

o HAVERSIAN SYSTEM:
1) The osteon or haversian system is the fundamental functional unit of much compact bone.
2) Each osteon consists of concentric layers, or lamellae, of compact bone tissue that surround a
central canal, the haversian canal.
3) The haversian canal contains the bone's blood supplies.
4) Near the surface of the compact bone, the lamellae are arranged parallel to the surface; these
are called circumferential lamellae.
5) Some of the osteoblasts develop into osteocytes, each living within its own small space,
or lacuna.
6) Osteocytes make contact with thecytoplasmic processes of their counterparts via a network of
small transverse canals, or canaliculi.
7) The space between osteons is occupied by interstitial lamellae, which are the remnants of
osteons that were partially resorbed during the process of bone remodeling.
8) Osteons are connected to each other and the periosteum by oblique channels
called Volkmann's canals or perforating canals.
o INCISIVE PAPILLA(2):
1) The incisive papilla otherwise known as palatine papilla
2) It is a small pear or oval shaped mucosal prominence situated at the midline of the palate,
posterior to the palatal surface of the central incisors.
3) The incisive papilla is generally situated over the incisive foramen through which emerge the
nasopalatine nerves and palatine vessels.
4) It is lined by simple or pseudostratified columnar epithelium which is frequently keratinized.
5) In dentulous subjects, it is seen in various forms either discrete or continuous with the
interdental papilla of the upper central incisors.
6) In the edentulous maxilla it becomes round, present behind the crest of the residual ridge or on
the tip of the ridge.

o NERVE SUPPLY OF PALATE:

1) Greater & lesser palatine nerves enter the palate through greater and lesser palatine foramina.
2) Nasopalatine nerve enters the front of the hard palate through the incisive foramina.
3) Glossopharyngeal nerve also supplies soft palate.
4) Motor nerve supply are cranial part of accessory through pharyngeal plexus(except tensor
palati by mandibular).
5) BLOOD SUPPLY:
The greater palatine branch of maxillary artery,the ascending palatine branch of facial
artery,and the ascending pharyngeal artery.

o EFFECT OF VITAMIN-C DEFICIENCY ON ORAL TISSUES:

1) oral manifestations-Scurvy-red swollen gingivae; gingival friability; periodontal
destruction ; sore burning mouth; soft tissue ulceration; increased risk of candidiasis;
malformed teeth (inadequate dentine).
2) General -scurvy- Keratosis of hair follicles with 'corkscrew' hair, Perifollicular haemorrhages,
Swollen, spongy gums with bleeding and superadded infection, loosening of teeth and
hemorrhages, Anaemia, Failure of wound healing.

o INTERTUBULAR DENTIN:
1) It forms main bulk of the dentin;present between the dentinal tubules specifically between
zones of peritubular dentin.
2) Organic matrix is half of its volume and collagen fibres are oriented around the dentinal
tubules.
 3) The fibrils range from 0.5 to 0.2 μm in diameter and exhibitcross banding at 64 nm
intervals,which is typical for collagen.
4) Hydroxyapatite crystals,which average 0.1 μm in length are formed along the fibres with their
long axes oriented parallel to the collagen fibres.

o TRANSSEPTAL FIBRES:
1) These fibers have usually been described as across the interproximal tissue between adjacent
teeth, into which they are embedded.
2) However, two other types of fibers have been described in this group:

 semicircular fibers - fibers that run through the facial and lingual gingiva around each tooth,
attaching to the interproximal surfaces of the same tooth.
 transgingival fibers - fibers that run between two non-adjacent teeth and are embedded in
the cementum of their proximal surfaces, passing around the tooth in the middle of the two teeth
attached with these fibers.

o ACTIVE & PASSIVE ERUPTION OF TOOTH(2):

ACTIVE ERUPTION:
͏ The bodily movement of tooth from its site of development to its functional position in the oral
cavity.
PASSIVE ERUPTION:
͏ Apparent lenghtening of the crown due to loss of attachment (or) recession of gingiva.

o PATHWAY OF TASTE:
1) Taste pathway electrical signals carried by 3 pathways;
o Chorda-tympani
- Present front and side.
o Glossopharyngeal
- Present on back
o Vagus
- Mouth & larynx.
2) Nucleus of the solitary Tract (Brain stem)
3) Gustatory thalamus.
4) Primary taste areas
o Insular / opercular cortex.
5) Secondary taste areas.
o Orbitofrontal cortex.

o SHEDDING OF DECIDUOUS TEETH:

I) Pattern of shedding:
For a deciduous incisor(or) canine,root resorption intially occurs on the lingual surface
adjacent to the developing permanent tooth.with successive movement and relocation of the tooth
in the growing jaws,the developing permanent tooth comes to lie directly beneath the deciduous
tooth and further resorption occurs from the apex.
For,a deciduous molar,root resorption often commences on the inner surfaces where
the permanent premolars intially develop.
The premolars later come to lie beneath the roots of the deciduous molar and further
Resorption occurs from the root apices.The shift in the position of the deciduous tooth relative to
The permanent successor may account for the irregular nature of the root resorption.

II) Mechanism of resorption and histology of shedding:

The intiation of the root resorption may be an inherent developmental process or it may
related to pressure from the permanent successor against the overlying bone or tooth.

o MELANOCYTE:
1) Melanocytes are melanin-producing cells located in the bottom layer (the stratum basale).
 2) Melanin is the pigment primarily responsible for skin color. Once synthesised, melanin is
contained in a special organelle called a melanosome., and moved along arm-like structures
called dendrites, so as to reach the keratinocytes.
3) The melanocytes are derived from the embryologic neural crest and migrate into the
epithelium.
4) Oral pigmentation can be studied by the use of eitherthe dopa reaction (or) silver-stainig
techniques.
5) And also stained by mason-fontana stain.
6) Typically, between 1000 and 2000 melanocytes per square millimeter of skin are found.
7) Melanin pigment dispersed in the connective tissue will be phogocytosed by the macrophages.
8) These macrophages are known as Melanophages ,also stain positively for dopa.
9) Silver stains reveals a spider like (dendritic) appearance.

o CAP STAGE:
1) This stage is characterised by continuation of the ingrowth of the oral epithelium into the
mesenchyme.
2) Tooth bud of the dental lamina proliferates unequally in different parts of the bud
- Forms a cap shaped tissue attached to the remaining dental lamina.
- Looks like a cap sitting on a ball of condensing mesenchyme.
3) This stage marks the beginning of histo differentiation(differentiation of tissues).
4) The tooth germ also begins to take on form-start of morphodifferentiation.
5) A depression forms in the deepest part of each tooth bud and forms the cap (or Dental organ)
–produces the future enamel (ectodermal origin).
6) Below this cap is a condensing mass of mesenchyme-Dental papilla-produces the future
Dentin and pulp tissue(mesenchymal origin).
7) The basement membrane seperating the dental organ and the dental papilla becomes the
future site for the Dentinoenamel junction(DEJ).
o STAGES OF DEGLUTITION:
The process of swallowing can be divided into three stages :
1. Oral Stage
2. Pharyngeal Stage
3. Esophageal Stage
The oral stage is voluntary while the pharyngeal and esophageal stages of swallowing are
involuntary.
ORAL SWALLOWING:
 When food is chewed sufficiently, the tongue pushes up the food against the palate and
squeezes it into the back of the throat (pharynx). All these actions are voluntary.

PHARYNGEAL SWALLOWING:
1) As the bolus enters the back of the throat, the second stage of swallowing, known as
pharyngeal swallowing.
 2) The deglutition center (swallowing center) are areas in the medulla and pons that respond to
the incoming impulses by sending motor signals back to the pharynx and the upper esophagus
(swallowing reflex).
3) These motor impulses travel via the cranial nerves (V, IX, X, XII) and a few superior cervical
nerves.
ESOPHAGEAL SWALLOWING:
 The esophageal stage of swallowing involves the passage of food down the esophagus (gullet)
through the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) to empty into the stomach. This process is
discussed further under esophageal motility.

o CELLULAR ELEMENTS OF PULP:

The cellular elements of pulp are;
 Fibroblast/fibrocyte.
 Odontoblast.
 Undifferentiated mesenchymal cell
 Pulpal stem cells
 Defense cells.
- Neutrophils
- Basophils
- Esinophils
- Lymphocyte
- Blood monocyte
- Macrophage
- Dendritic cell
- Plasma cell
The dual function of fibroblast is a) it has capability of ingesting and degrading the organic matrix.
b) pathway of both synthesis and degradation in the cell.

o DEFENSE CELLS OF PULP:

 Neutrophils-Neutrophils are initially recruited to the inflamed tissue to engulf and destroy
invading microorganisms.
 Basophils-appear in many specific kinds of inflammatory reactions, particularly those that
cause allergic symptoms
 Esinophils-these are present in some allergic type of inflammation.
 Lymphocytes-they are transported to such sites in response to injury and then present directly
in the involved tissue as well as in blood.
 Monocytes-These are phagocytosis, antigen presentation, and cytokine production.
 Macrophages-these are phagocytes,which are engulfment and digestion of foreign material.
 Dendritic cells-cell-surface antigens on migrating DendriticCells greatly affect the quality and
quantity of subsequent immune responses
 Plasma cells-plasma cells function is production of antibodies.
o OSTEOCLASIS:
1) The surgical destruction of bone tissue.
2) Osteoclasis is performed to reconstruct a bone that is malformed, often a broken bone that
healed improperly.
3) The bone is broken and then reshaped with the aid of metal pins, casting, and bracing.
4) In this,risk is surgical area can become infected.

o MUCOUS ACINI:
1) These are elliptical in shape.
2) Larger in size.
3) These acini have larger lumen.
4) It lacks intercellular canaliculi.
5) Mucous acini secretions have no enzymatic activity.
6) It produces more carbohydratecomponents than proteins secretoryglycoproteins have O-linked
oligosaccharide chains.
7) Mucous acini usually stain pale, while serous acini usually stain dark.

o SEROUS ACINI:
1) These are spherical in shape.
2) Smaller in size.
3) It has smaller lumen.
4) Intercellular canaliculi is present.
5) Its secretion is enzymatic activity contains acid phosphatase,esterases,glucuronidase etc,
6) Produce secretoryproteins,carbohydrate content less secretory glycoproteins have N-linked
oligosaccharide chains.
7) Extensive orugh endoplasmic reticulum –in parallel aggregates-lateral and basal to nucleus.
8) Golgi apparatus located apical to nucleus.
9) Secretory granules are smaller ,seen at apical area covered by unit membrane.

o CANINE FOSSA:
1) In the musculoskeletal anatomy of the human head and neck, lateral to the incisive fossa is a
depression called the canine fossa.
2) It is larger and deeper than the comparable incisive fossa, and is separated from it by a vertical
ridge, the canine eminence, corresponding to the socket of the canine tooth.
3) The levator anguli oris is a facial muscle of the mouth arising from the canine fossa,
immediately below the infraorbital foramen.

o DEMILUNES:
1) Demilunes have historically been considered to be integral components of the secretory tree of
mixed salivary glands.
2) A serous demilune is a cap in the shape of a half-moon on some salivary glands.
3) Serous demilunes are the serous cells at the distal end of mucous tubuloalveolar secretory unit
of certain salivary glands.
4) When the gland has this demilunar structure, it produces both serous and mucous secretions,
and is thus classified as "mixed".
5) These demilune cells secrete the proteins that contain the enzyme lysozyme, which degrades
the cell walls of bacteria.

o PHYSIOLOGICAL MESIAL MIGRATION:

1) Mesial drift or Mesial migration is the natural tendency for the teeth to move towards the front
of the mouth, i.e., towards the lips.
2) This makes sense because chewing movements lead to swirl of the lower jaw and to bending
of the teeth in the tooth sockets themselves, causing friction on the teeth’s contact points.
3) The teeth grind each other down at the contact points.
4) If the teeth didn’t “want” to move towards the front, one would eventually develop gaps
between the teeth.
5) However, if a tooth is missing, a typical consequence is that the teeth will tilt into the existing
gap due to the mesial drift.

o CUSHION-HAMMOCK LIGAMENT:
1) It is the part of the periodontium below the growing end of the root of the tooth.
2) This is a ligament at the base of the socket passing from one bony wall to the other.
3) This ligament protects the bone at the base from resorption and allows only an outward groth
of the teeth.
4) It cannot acts like a FIXED BASE.
5) This ligament was never found histologically.

o STELLATE RETICULUM:
1) The stellate reticulum is a group of cells located in the center of the enamel organ of
a developing tooth.
2) These cells are star shaped between IEE and OEE and synthesize glycosaminoglycans(glyco
protein).
3) It is formed in the cap stage.
4) Intercellular spaces filled with mucopolysaccharides.
5) Stellate reticulum is lost after the first layer of enamel is laid down.
6) Stellate reticulum brings cells in inner enamel epithelium closer to blood vessels at the
periphery.
7) The transitory structures: enamel knot,enamel cord,enamel septum,enamel navel that
disappears before enamel formation.

o SPONGY BONE:
1) Trabecular bone or spongy bone, is one of two types of osseous tissue that form bones.
2) The other osseous tissue type is cortical bone also called compact bone.
3) Spongy bone and compact bone have the same cells and intercellular matrix.,but differ in the
arrangement of components.
4) It look likes apoorly organised tissue in contrast to compact bone.
5) The bony substance consists of large slender spicules called TRABECULAR.
6) The trabeculae are upto 50 μm thick.
7) The trabeculae are oriented along lines of stress to with stand the forces applied to bone.
8) The marrow spaces are large and trabeculae bone surrounds itfrom where they derive their
nutrition through diffusion.

o FUNCTIONS OF MAXILLARY SINUSES(2):

1) The maxillary sinus is one of the four paranasal sinuses, which are sinuses located near the
nose.
2) The maxillary sinus is the largest of the paranasal sinuses.
3) The two maxillary sinuses are located below the cheeks, above the teeth and on the sides of
the nose.
4) Functions are:
 Speech and provides voice resonance
 Reduce the weight of the skull
 Warmth inhaled oxygen
 Filtration of the inspired air
 Immunological barrier
 Regulation of intra nasal pressure.
 Acts as thermal insulator to protect organ such as the eye and the cranium from variation in
intranasal temperature.
 Serves as accessory olfactory organs
 Mucus production and storage
 Limit extent of facial injury from trauma

o CENTRIC RELATIONSHIP:
1) Centric relation is the relationship of the mandible to maxilla when the properly associated to
condyle –disk assemblies are in the most superior position against the elevation irrespective of
vertical dimension or tooth position.
2) At the most superior position,the condyle disk assemblies are braced medially ,thus centric
relation is also the mid most position.
3) A properly aligned condyle disc assembly in centric relation can resist maximum loading by the
elevator muscles with no sign of discomfort.
4) It is restricted to a Purely Rotary Movement about the transverse horizontal axis.

o LINING OF MAXILLARY SINUS:

1) The pyramid-shaped maxillary sinus (or antrum of Highmore) is the largest of the paranasal
sinuses,and drains into the middle meatus of the nose.
2) The sinus is lined with mucoperiosteum, with cilia that strike toward the ostia.
3) Histologically a bilaminar membrane with ciliated columnar epithelial cells on the internal (or
cavernous) side and periosteum on the osseous side.
4) The mucous membranes receive their postganglionic parasympathetic nerve innervation
for mucous secretion originating from thegreater petrosal nerve (a branch of the facial nerve).
5) The roof is formed by floor of the orbit. It is traversed by infraorbital nerves and vessels.
6) The floor is formed by the alveolar process of the maxilla.

o INTERGLOBULAR DENTIN(2):
1) The peripheral portion of circumpulpal dentin,just below the mantle dentin,shows
mineralization in the form of globules.
2) These globules fail to fuse occasionally , resulting in small hypomineralized areas called
Interglobular Dentin.
3) It is seen most commonly in cervical and middle thirds of the crown.
4) Dentinal tubules are unaltered and pass through the interglobular dentin undistributed.
5) Generally star shaped with curved outlines of globular masses.

o LEEWAY SPACE OF NANCE(3):

1) The combined MesioDistal width of the permanent canines and premolars is usually less than
that of the deciduous canines and molars.
2) This space is called Leeway space of Nance.
3) In maxillary arch; leeway space is 1.8 mm (0.9mm in each arch).
4) In mandibular arch; leeway space is 3.4 mm (1.7mm in each arch).
5) This excess space is utilized for the mesial drift of mandibular molars to establish class I molar
relation.

o FORMALIN:
1) In dental practice, formalin is in use as an antiseptic and sterilize in the treatment of
decomposing pulps, alveolar abscesses, etc.
2) Also as a local application to ulcers of the mouth, abrasions, etc.
3) One and a half per cent.,formalin solutions are used as gargles and mouth washes.
4) Two and one-half per cent. solutions for ulcers, skin diseases, etc
5) To make a one per cent. solution, one part of formalin is added to 40 parts of water.
6) For pulp-exposure a 2 per cent solution may be applied before capping.

o TETANY(2):
1) A condition characterized by painful muscular spasms,caused by imperfect calcium
metabolism.
2) Tetany is characterised by tingling of lips,dingertips,and feet and increased muscle
tension,leading to stiffness and painfull spasms of smooth and skeletal muscles of extremities
and face.
3) It can also be caused by magnesium deficiency or too little potassium. Having too much acid
(acidosis) or too much alkali (alkalosis) in the body can also result in tetany.
4) Injecting calcium directly into the bloodstream is the most common approach, though taking
calcium orally (along with vitamin D, for absorption) may be required to prevent it from
reoccurring.

o GUBERNACULAR CORD:
1) The connective tissue overlying a successional tooth that connects wih the lamina propria of
the oral mucosa by means of a strand of fibrous connective tissue that contains remnants of
dental lamina.
2) This structure is located within the gubernacular canal, which can be identified as a small
opening in the alveolar region of the lingual or palatal surface of the deciduous teeth.

o SCLEROTIC DENTIN:
1) Dentin that has become translucent due to calcification of the dentinaltubules as a result of inju
ry or normal aging. Also called transparent dentin .
2) Due to irritating stimuli-caries,attrition,erosion,cavity preparation leads to deposition of apatite
crystals&collagen in Dentinal tubules.
3) In elderly people it occurs mostly in roots.
4) Higher mineralized,harder and denser than normal dentin.
5) Appears light in transmitted light and dark in reflected light.

o MACROPHAGES:
1) A large phagocytic cell found in stationary form in the tissues or as a mobile white blood cell,
especially at sites of infection.
2) It is an mature form of monocyte.
3) Macrophages that encourage inflammation are called M1 macrophages, whereas those that
decrease inflammation and encourage tissue repair are called M2 macrophages.
4) Each type of macrophage, determined by its location, has a specific name:
CELL NAME ANATOMICAL LOCATION

Monocytes bonemarrow/blood
Kuffercells liver
Alveolar macrophages(dust cells) pulmonary alveoli of lungs
Tissue macrophages(histiocytes) connective tissue
Langerhans cells skin and mucousa
Microglia central nervous system
Osteoclasts bone.

o PARAFFIN WAX:
1) Paraffin wax is a white or colourless soft solid derivable from petroleum or coal , that consists
of a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules containing between twenty and forty carbon atoms.
2) It is separate from kerosene, another petroleum product that is sometimes called paraffin.
3) In a pathology laboratory, paraffin wax is used to impregnate tissue prior to sectioning thin
samples of tissue.
4) Water is removed from tissue through ascending strengths of alcohol (75% to absolute) and
the tissue is cleared in an organic solvent such as xylene.
5) The tissue is then placed in paraffin wax for a number of hours and then set in a mold with wax
to cool and solidify; sections are cut then on a microtome.

o PERIODONTAL LIGAMENT TRACTION THEORY:

1) This theory proposes that the cells and fibres of the ligament pull the tooth into occlusion.
2) Formation and renewal of the periodontal ligament has been considered as a factor in tooth
eruption because of the traction power of the fibroblasts.
3) It is the most accepted theory.
4) Due to contraction of the fibroblast situated in the periodontal ligament,a pressure is created
which favours the eruption.
5) Fibronexus-favours the eruption causes contraction of all fibroblasts together and contraction
of periodontal ligament.
6) Certain drugs which prevent collagen formation then no eruption occurs., because collagen
fibres of periodontal ligament is not formed.

o INTERMEDIATE PLEXUSES IN PDL:

1) The principal fibres frequently run a wavy course from cementum to bone.
2) It may appears as fibres arising from cementum and bone are joined in the mid region of the
periodontal ligament space,giving rise to a zone of distinct appearance called Intermediate
plexuses.

o EXCRETORY DUCT OF MAJOR SALIVARY GLANDS:

1) In the duct system, the lumina are formed by intercalated ducts(simple cuboidal epithelium),
which in turn join to form striated ducts(cuboidal or low columnar cells with rounded nuclei).
2) These drain into ducts situated between the lobes of the gland (called interlobar
ducts[columnar cells] or secretory ducts).
3) These are found on most major and minor glands (exception may be the sublingual gland).
4) Excretory ducts of human major salivary glands are lined by an epithelium consisting of
principal cells and by a discontinuous row of basal cells.
5) Small basal cells that sit on the basal lamina but do not reach the lumen.

o LINE ANGLES IN A MAXILLARY CENTRAL INCISOR:

 The line angles in maxillary central incisor are:
͏ Mesiolabial Mesiolingual Labio incisal
 ͏ Distolabial Distolingual linguoincisal

o GOBLET CELL:
1) Goblet cells are mucous secreting cells that can be seen among the epithelial cells of the
mucous membrane.
2) A goblet cell is a glandular, modified simple columnar epithelial cell whose function is to
secrete gel-forming mucins, the major components of mucus.
3) Goblet cells are modified simple columnar epithelial cells, having a height of four times that of
their width.
4) The cytoplasm of goblet cells tends to be displaced toward the basal end of the cell body by
the large mucin granules, which accumulate near the apical surface of the cell along the Golgi
apparatus, which lies between the granules and the nucleus.
5) They stain easily with the PAS staining method.

o MAST CELLS:
1) The mast cell is very similar in both appearance and function to the basophil, another type
of white blood cell.
2) Mast cells are mobile, bone-marrow-derived, granule-containing immune cells that are found in
all connective tissue and mucosal areas and in the peripheral and central nervous systems.
3) Mast cells are able to phagocytose, process and present antigens as effectively as
macrophages.
4) In human periodontal disease there is an increase in the number of mast cells that may be
participating either in the destructive events or in the defense mechanism of periodontal
disease via secretion of cytokines.

o VONKORFF’S FIBRES(2):
1) In the mantle dentin ,the arrangement of collagen bundles are more regular and the fibres
are thicker.
2) These fibres are known as Von Korff Fibres or Agyrophilic fibres as they are stained by silver
stain.
3) These fibres are produced by fibroblasts.
4) These are larger diameter collagen fibres pependicular to DEJ. Mainly are Type III collagen.

o INCREMENTAL LINES IN HARD TISSUES(2):

Hard tissues are enamel,dentin,cementum and bone.

IN ENAMEL:
1) Enamel rods are formed linearly by successive apposition of enamel in distinct
enlargement.the resulting variations in structure and mineralization are called “Incremental
striae of RETZIUS”.
2) In horizontal sections they appear as concentric cicles.
 3) In longitudinal sections the lines pass through the cuspal and incisal areas in symmetric arc
pattern.
4) These are brownish bands in ground section.
5) Ethiology;
͏ Periodic bending of enamel rods,
͏ Variation in organic structure,
͏ Physiologic calcification rhythm.

IN DENTIN:
1) Like the lines of Retzius in enamel, the Incremental lines of VON EBNER ,show the growth
factor and the daily deposition of Dentin.
2) They are hypomineralized lines of dentin and corresponds the rests of odontoblasts.
3) They are at right angles to the dentinal tubules and represent rhythmic, recurrent daily
deposition of dentin.
4) These are also called as imbrication lines.

IN CEMENTUM:
1) Cementum is deposited in an irregular rhythm, resulting in unevenly spaced incremental lines
of SALTER
2) Unlike enamel and dentin, the exact periodicity between the incremental lines is unknown.
3) In acellular cementum, incremental lines tend to be close together, thin and even.
4) Cellular cementum, the lines are further apart, thicker, and more irregular.
5) The appearance of incremental lines in cementum is mainly due to differences in the degree of
mineralisation, but these must also reflect differences in composition of the underlying matrix.
IN BONE:
1) RESTING LINES;
͏ They appear in sections stained with (H&E) as dark blue lines which are either straight
or lightly wavy.
͏ They demonstrate the incremental pattern of bone formation.
͏ The resting lines correspond to the rest period between the successive layers of bone.
2) REVERSAL LINES;
͏ They appear in sections stained with (H&E) as dark blue scalloped lines.
͏ They demonstrate the osteoclastic activity on the bone undergoing resorption ,followed
by osteoblastic new bone formation over the old bone.
͏ Both old bone and new bone are sepearated by scalloped line ,in which the convexities
are towards the old resorbed bone.

o GINGIVAL COL(3):
1) The interdental gingiva occupies the gingival embrasure, which is the interproximal space
beneath the area of tooth contact. Theinterdental papilla can be pyramidal or have a "col"
shape.
2) Features of the gingival col：
 The thinness of the epithelium
 The epithelium is non- keratinised
 Its potential as a stagnation site make it highly susceptible to inflammatory disease.

3) The col lies directly below the contact points of the teeth. The epithelium of the col is
continuous with the junctional epithelium on each side of it and is similarly derived from the
reduced enamel epithelium
4) The thinness of the epithelium and its similarity to junctional epithelium may be seen. In this
specimen, there is a substantial infiltrate of inflammatory cells.

o NEURAL CONTROL OF MASTICATION:

1) Muscles of mastication-innervated by the motor branch of the fifth cranial nerve.
2) The chewing process is controlled by nuclei of the brain stem.
3) Stimulation of specific reticular areas in the brain stem taste centers-rhythmically chewing
movements.
4) Stimulation of areas in the
 Hypothalamus,Amygdala, and even the cerebral cortex near the sensory areas for taste
and smell cause chewing.

o FIXATIVES IN TISSUE PROCESSING!

o FIXING OF SECTIONS!
o BENEDICT’S SHIFT!
o ROOT AND ROOT CANALS IN PERMANENT MANDIBULAR FIRST MOLAR!

o HISTOLOGY OF FUNGIFORM PAPILLA!

o HISTOLOGY OF ANTEROLATERAL ZONE OF PAPILLA!