Pneumatics and hydraulics

Hydraulic valves
Dr. Ahmad Al-Mahasneh
 Hydraulic Valves
• Fluid power is controlled primarily through the use of control devices called valves.
• The selection of these valves involves not only the type but also the size, actuating technique, and remote-control
capability.
• There are three basic types of valves: (1) directional control valves, (2) pressure control valves, and (3) flow control
valves.
• Directional control valves determine the path through which a fluid traverses a given circuit. For example, they establish
the direction of motion of a hydraulic cylinder or motor. This control of the fluid path is accomplished primarily by check
valves; shuttle valves; and two-way, three-way, and four-way directional control valves.
• Pressure control valves protect the system against overpressure, which may occur due to excessive actuator loads or due
to the closing of a valve.
• In general pressure control is accomplished by pressure relief, pressure reducing, sequence, unloading, and
counterbalance valves.
• In addition, fluid flow rate must be controlled in various lines of a hydraulic circuit. For example, the control of actuator
speeds depends on flow rates.
• This type of control is accomplished through the use of flow control valves.
• Noncompensated flow control valves are used where precise speed control is not required since flow rate varies with
pressure drop across a flow control valve.
• Pressure-compensated flow control valves automatically adjust to changes in pressure drop to produce a constant flow
rate.
 Hydraulic Valves usage example
• A welding machine application in which a directional control
valve, a check valve, and a sequence valve are used as
components of a hydraulic circuit for positioning and holding
parts during a welding operation.
• This particular application requires a sequencing system for fast
and positive holding of these parts.
• This is accomplished by placing a sequence valve in the line
leading to the second of the two hydraulic cylinders.
• When the four-way directional control valve is actuated, the
first cylinder extends to the end of its stroke to complete the
“positioning” cycle.
• Oil pressure then builds up, overcoming the sequence valve
setting.
• This opens the sequence valve to allow oil to flow to the second
cylinder so that it can extend to complete the “hold” cycle.
• The check valve allows the second cylinder to retract, along
with the first cylinder, when the four-way valve is shifted to
allow oil to flow to the rod end of both cylinders.
 Directional control valves
• Directional control valves are used to control the
direction of flow in a hydraulic circuit.
• Any valve (regardless of its design) contains
ports that are external openings through which
fluid can enter and leave via connecting
pipelines.
• The number of ports on a directional control
valve (DCV) is identified using the term way.
• Thus, for example, a valve with four ports is a
four-way valve.
 Check Valve
• The simplest type of direction control valve is a check valve which is a
two-way valve because it contains two ports.
• The purpose of a check valve is to permit free flow in one direction and
prevent any flow in the opposite direction.
• Fluid flows through the valve in the space between the seat and poppet.
• A light spring holds the poppet in the closed position. In the free-flow
direction, the fluid pressure overcomes the spring force at about 5 psi.
• If flow is attempted in the opposite direction, the fluid pressure pushes the
poppet (along with the spring force) in the closed position. Therefore, no
flow is permitted.
• The higher the pressure, the greater will be the force pushing the poppet
against its seat.
• Thus, increased pressure will not result in any tendency to allow flow in
the no-flow direction.
 Pilot-Operated Check Valve
• A second type of check valve is the pilot-operated check valve.
• This type of check valve always permits free flow in one direction but permits flow in the normally blocked
opposite direction only if pilot pressure is applied at the pilot pressure port of the valve.
• The light spring holds the poppet seated in a no-flow condition by pushing against the pilot piston. The purpose
of the separate drain port is to prevent oil from creating a pressure buildup on the bottom of the piston.
• The dashed represents the pilot pressure line connected to the pilot pressure port of the valve.
• Pilot check valves are frequently used for locking hydraulic cylinders in position.
 Three-Way Valves
• Three-way directional control valves, which contain three ports, are typically of the spool design rather
than poppet design.
• A spool is a circular shaft containing lands that are large diameter sections machined to slide in a very
close fitting bore of the valve body.
• The radial clearance between the land and bore is usually less than 0.001 in.
• The grooves between the lands provide the flow paths between ports.
• These valves are designed to operate with two or three unique positions of the spool.
• The spool can be positioned manually, mechanically, by using pilot pressure, or by using electrical
solenoids.
• Such a valve is called a three-way, two-position directional control valve.
• The flow paths are shown by two schematic drawings (one for each spool position) as well as by a graphic
symbol (containing two side-by-side rectangles).
• In discussing the operation of these valves, the rectangles are commonly called “envelopes.”
• The following is a description of the flow paths through the three-way valve:
• Spool Position 1: Flow can go from pump port P (the port connected to the pump
• discharge pipe) to outlet port A as shown by the straight line and arrow in the left
• envelope. In this spool position, tank port T (the port connected to the pipe leading
• to the oil tank) is blocked.
• Spool Position 2: Flow can go from port A to port T. Port P is blocked by the
• spool. Note that the three ports are labeled for only one of the two envelopes
• Three-way valves are typically used to control the flow directions to and from single-acting cylinders.
 Four-Way Valves
• A four-way, two-position directional control valve.
• Observe that fluid entering the valve at the pump port can be directed to either
outlet port A or B.
• The following is a description of the flow paths through this four-way valve:
• Spool Position 1: Flow can go from P to A and B to T.
• Spool Position 2: Flow can go from P to B and A to T.
• Observe that the graphic symbol shows only one tank port T (for a total of four
• ports) even though the actual valve may have two, as shown in the schematic
drawings.
• However, each tank port provides the same function, and thus there are only four
different ports from a functional standpoint.
• The two internal flow-to-tank passageways can be combined inside the actual
valve to provide a single tank port.
• Recall that the graphic symbol is concerned with only the function of a
component and not its internal design.
• Four-way valves are typically used to control the flow directions to and from
double-acting cylinders, a four-way valve permits the cylinder to both extend (left
envelope) and retract (right envelope) under hydraulic pressure.
 Manually Actuated Valves
• Since the spool is spring-loaded at both ends, it is a spring-centered, three-
position directional control valve.
• Thus, when the valve is unactuated (no hand force on lever), the valve will
assume its center position due to the balancing opposing spring forces.
• Note in the graphic symbol that the ports are labeled on the center envelope,
which represents the flow path configuration in the spring-centered position of
the spool.
• Also observe the spring and lever actuation symbols used at the ends of the
right and left envelopes.
• These imply a spring-centered, manually actuated valve.
• It should be noted that a three-position valve is used when it is necessary to
stop or hold a hydraulic actuator at some intermediate position within its entire
stroke range.
• In a two-position, four-way valve that is spring offset. In this case the lever
shifts the spool, and the spring returns the spool to its original position when
the lever is released.
 Mechanically Actuated Valves
• A two-position, four-way, spring-offset
valve that is mechanically rather than
manually actuated.
• A spool end containing a roller that is
typically actuated by a cam-type
mechanism.
• Note that the graphic symbol is the
same except that actuation is depicted
as being mechanical (the circle
represents the cam-driven roller) rather
than manual.
 Pilot-Actuated Valves
• Directional control valves can also be shifted by applying air
pressure against a piston at either end of the valve spool.
• Spring (located at both ends of the spool) push against centering
washers to center the spool when no air is applied.
• When air is introduced through the left end passage, its pressure
pushes against the piston to shift the spool to the right.
• Removal of this left end air supply and introduction of air through
the right end passage causes the spool to shift to the left.
• Therefore, this is a four-way, three-position, spring-centered, air
pilot–actuated directional control valve.
• The dashed lines represent pilot pressure lines.
 Solenoid-Actuated Valves
• A very common way to actuate a spool valve is by using a solenoid.
• When the electric coil (solenoid) is energized, it creates a magnetic force that pulls the armature into the coil.
• This causes the armature to push on the push pin to move the spool of the valve.
• Solenoids are actuators that are bolted to the valve housing which gives a cutaway view of an actual solenoid-actuated directional
control valve.
• Like mechanical or pilot actuators, solenoids work against a push pin, which is sealed to prevent external leakage of oil.
• There are two types of solenoid designs used to dissipate the heat created by the electric current flowing in the wire of the coil.
• The first type simply dissipates the heat to the surrounding air and is referred to as an air gap solenoid.
• In the second type,a wet pin solenoid, the push pin contains an internal passageway that allows tank port oil to communicate between
the housing of the valve and the housing of the solenoid.
• Wet pin solenoids do a better job in dissipating heat because the cool oil represents a good heat sink to absorb the heat from the
solenoid. As the oil circulates, the heat is carried into the hydraulic system where it can be easily dealt with.
• The fluid around the armature serves to cool it and cushion its stroke without appreciably affecting response time.
• There are no seals around this armature to wear or restrict its movement.
• This allows all the power developed by the solenoid to be transmitted to the valve spool without having to overcome seal friction.
Impact loads, which frequently cause premature solenoid failure, are eliminated with this construction.
• This valve has a solenoid at each end of the spool. Specifically, it is a solenoid-actuated, four-way, three-position, spring-centered
directional control valve.
Solenoid-Actuated Valves
 Center Flow Path Configurations for Three-Position,
Four-Way Valves
• Most three-position valves have a variety of possible flow path configurations.
• Each four-way valve has an identical flow path configuration in the actuated position but a different
spring-centered flow path.
• Note that the open-center-type connects all ports together.
• In this design the pump flow can return directly back to the tank at essentially atmospheric
pressure.
• At the same time, the actuator (cylinder or motor) can be moved freely by applying an external
force.
• The closed-center design has all ports blocked.
• In this way the pump flow can be used for other parts of the circuit. At the same time, the actuator
connected to ports A and B is hydraulically locked.
• This means it cannot be moved by the application of an external force.
• The tandem design also results in a locked actuator. However, it also unloads the pump at
essentially atmospheric pressure.
• For example, the closed-center design forces the pump to produce flow at the high-pressure setting
of the pressure relief valve.
• This not only wastes pump power but promotes wear and shortens pump life, especially if
operation in the center position occurs for long periods.
 Shuttle Valves
• A shuttle valve is another type of directional control valve.
• It permits a system to operate from either of two fluid power sources.
• One application is for safety in the event that the main pump can no longer
provide hydraulic power to operate emergency devices.
• The shuttle valve will shift to allow fluid to flow from a secondary backup
pump
• A shuttle valve consists of a floating piston that can be shuttled to one side
or the other of the valve depending on which side of the piston has the
greater pressure.
• Shuttle valves may be spring-loaded in one direction to favor one of the
supply sources or unbiased so that the direction of flow through the valve
is determined by circuit conditions.
• A shuttle valve is essentially a direct-acting double-check valve with a
cross-bleed
• As shown by the double arrows on the graphic symbol, reverse flow is
permitted.
 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
• Simple Pressure Relief Valves
• The most widely used type of pressure control valve is the
pressure relief valve, since it is found in practically every
hydraulic system.
• It is normally a closed valve whose function is to limit the
pressure to a specified maximum value by diverting pump
flow back to the tank.
• A poppet is held seated inside the valve by the force of a stiff
compression spring.
• When the system pressure reaches a high enough value, the
resulting hydraulic force (acting on the piston-shaped poppet)
exceeds the spring force and the poppet is forced off its seat.
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
Pressure-Reducing Valves
• A second type of pressure control valve is the pressure-reducing
valve.
• This type of valve (which is normally open) is used to maintain
reduced pressures in specified locations of hydraulic systems.
• It is actuated by downstream pressure and tends to close as this
pressure reaches the valve setting.
• If downstream pressure is below the valve setting, fluid will flow
freely from the inlet to the outlet.
• Note that there is an internal passageway from the outlet, which
transmits outlet pressure to the spool end opposite the spring.
• When the outlet (downstream) pressure increases to the valve
setting, the spool moves to the right to partially block the outlet
port.
 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
Unloading Valves
• This valve is used to permit a pump to build pressure to an adjustable
pressure setting and then allow it to discharge oil to the tank at essentially
zero pressure as long as pilot pressure is maintained on the valve from a
remote source. Hence, the pump has essentially no load and is therefore
developing a minimum amount of power.

• This is the case in spite of the fact that the pump is delivering a full pump
flow because the pressure is practically zero.

• This is not the same with a pressure relief valve because the pump is
delivering full pump flow at the pressure relief valve setting and thus is
operating at maximum power conditions.
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
Sequence Valves
• The sequence valve is designed to cause a hydraulic system to operate in a pressure
sequence.
• After the components connected to port A have reached the adjusted pressure of the
sequence valve, the valve passes fluid through port B to do additional work in a different
portion of the system.
• The high-flow poppet of the sequence valve is controlled by the spring-loaded cone.
Flow entering at port A is blocked by the poppet at low pressures.
• The pressure signal at A passes through orifices to the topside of the poppet and to the
cone.
• There is no flow through these sections until the pressure rises at A to the maximum
permitted by the adjustably set spring-loaded cone.
• When the pressure at A reaches that value, the main poppet lifts, passing flow to port B.
• It maintains the adjusted pressure at port A until the pressure at B rises to the same value.
• A small pilot flow (about 1/4 gpm) goes through the control piston and past the pilot cone
to the external drain at this time.
• When the pressure at B rises to the pressure at A, the control piston seats and prevents
further pilot flow loss.
• The main poppet opens fully and allows the pressure at A and B to rise to higher values
together.
• Flow may go either way at this time.
• The spring cavity of the control cone drains externally from port Y, generally to the tank.
• This sequence valve may be remotely controlled from vent port X.
 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
• The counterbalance valve (CBV).
• The purpose of a counterbalance valve is to maintain control of a
vertical hydraulic cylinder to prevent it from descending due to the
weight of its external load.
• the primary port of this valve is connected to the bottom of the
cylinder, and the secondary port is connected to a directional
control valve (DCV).
• The pressure setting of the counterbalance valve is somewhat
higher than is necessary to prevent the cylinder load from falling
due to its weight.
• when pump flow is directed (via the DCV) to the top of the
cylinder, the cylinder piston is pushed downward.
• This causes pressure at the primary port to increase to a value above
the pressure setting of the counterbalance valve and thus raise the
spool of the CBV.
• This then opens a flow path through the counterbalance valve for
discharge through the secondary port to the DCV and back to the
tank.
FLOW CONTROL VALVES
• Orifice as a Flow Meter or Flow Control Device
• Such a device can be used as a flowmeter by measuring the pressure drop (Δp) across the orifice. This is
because for a given orifice, there is a unique relation- ship between (Δp) and Q (the flow rate through the
orifice and thus the flow rate in the pipe).
• It can be shown that the following English-units equation relates the (Δp) vs. Q relationship for an orifice
installed in a pipe to measure liquid flow rate.
1 INTRODUCTION
 The process of increasing the pressure of a gas (usually air), by reducing its
volume is called compression.
 A compressor is a mechanical device that is used to compress gases.
 A compressor compresses the low pressure gas and delivers it at a higher
pressure in the right quality.

Working Principle
 Compressor is a work absorbing device.
 It increases the pressure of a gas by doing work on it.
 This means it requires work input and a prime mover is required for its
working.
 The most common choice for a prime mover is the electric motor, but IC engineor
a turbine can also be used.

Air compressors
 A compressor used for compressing air is called an air compressor.
 Air from atmosphere is sucked into the compressor.
 The compressor then compresses air to a high pressure and delivers it to astorage
tank (reservoir).
 From the reservoir compressed air can be supplied to desired locations throughpipe
lines.

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of an Air Compressor unit.

2 INDUSTRIAL USES OF COMPRESSED AIR
Air compressors are used for supplying high-pressure air. Compressed air accounts for
about 10% of the global energy used in industry today. There are many uses of
high-pressure air in the industry.
The main uses of compressed air are :
 In compressed air engines (air motors) used in coal mines,
 Fuel injectors; to inject or spray fuel into the cylinder of a Diesel engine.
 Operating pneumatic machines and equipments such as drills, hammers etc.
 Air brakes for locomotives and railway carnages, buses and trucks.
 Water pumps and sprays paint machines,
 For starting of aircraft engines and large (heavy) Diesel engines,
 For industrial cleaning; such as to clean workshop machines, generators,
automobiles etc.,
 To operate blast furnaces and gas turbine plants.
 Supercharging in I.C. engines.

Applications of Compressors:

 We may not realize the importance of compressors in our daily life.

 But the range of application of compressors is very wide.
 From small units such as refrigerator compressors to the huge industrial
units.
 Reciprocating compressors are most commonly used, ranging in sizes from
0.1 hp to 25 hp.
 Rotary compressors are available from small size (in cars) to 500 hp.
 Centrifugal compressors are often used in sizes ranging up to 10,000 hp.
 The type and size of the compressor depends upon its application and
cost.
3 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS
Depending upon on the principle of compression employed, compressors are
classified into two major categories:
1. Positive displacement compressors
2. Dynamic displacement compressors

3.1 Positive Displacement Compressors

 In these types of air compressors, compression is achieved by positive displacement of a
solid boundary, which compress the gas in a closed compression chamber.
 The compressor may have single or multiple intakes and compression chambers.
 These compressors are capable of producing very large pressure ratios.

Working
 Atmospheric air is drawn into the compression chamber(s) through intakevalves,
 The valves are then closed and the volume of each chamber is graduallydecreased
mechanically.
 As a result air gets compressed in the chambers.
 When the designed pressure is reached, the delivery valve(s) are opened andthe
compressed air is discharged into the reservoirs.

Types
Based on the compression mechanism used, Positive displacement compressors aredivided
into two main groups:
 Reciprocating compressors
 Rotary compressors

Figure 2: Types of Compressors.

Dynamic Displacement Compressors
 Also called steady flow or turbo-compressors.
 The dynamic compressors have a rotating impeller.
 Here compression of gas does not occur in a closed volume.
 The flow of gas is continuous in these compressors.
 The dynamic action of impeller on the gas increases its pressure.
 They are widely used in chemical and petroleum refineries.

Types:
Steady flow compressors are of two types:
 Centrifugal Compressor
 Axial Compressor

Advantages :
 Can handle large quantities of air or gas at lower pressures.
 Being high speed machines, they are smaller in size,
 Provide uniform delivery of gas without requiring a large receiver,
 Deliver more clean air, as there are fewer sliding parts requiring
lubrication,
 Present no balancing problems,
 Lower maintenance expenses,
 Require less operating attention.

Figure 3: Classification of
Compressor
4 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
 Reciprocating compressor is a positive displacement machine with constructional
details similar to an IC engines.
 But, Unlike an IC engine there is no combustion of a gas to drive the piston,
instead the piston is now used to compresses the gas in a closed volume.

Figure 4 : A Reciprocating air compressor unit.

Constructional details:
 A reciprocating Air Compressor consists of a piston which reciprocates inside a
cylinder.
 The piston is connected to the crankshaft by means of a connecting rod and a
crank.
 In this way the rotary movement of the crankshaft is converted into the
reciprocating motion of the piston.
 Suction and delivery valves are provided at the top of the cylinder.

Figure 5: Constructional details of a single acting reciprocating air

compressor.
 Working of Reciprocating Compressor:
 The whole compression cycle can be easily understood with the help of a seriesof
processes on the pv-diagram as shown in figure-6.

Figure 6: Single stage compression.

Process 3-4; Expansion

 At the start of the cycle the piston is at its TDC or ODC position enclosing asmall
volume of air in the clearance space.
 This initial volume of air is called the clearance volume- VC.
 The clearance volume is provided to prevent the piston from hitting the cylinder
head and the valves.
 At the TDC/ODC position both the suction and the delivery valves are closed.
 The piston now begins its inward or the downward stroke.
 Due to the movement of the piston, air in the clearance volume expands andpressure
inside the cylinder reduces.
 The expansion of clearance air continues till the cylinder pressure reaches the
atmospheric value.

Process 4-1; Suction

 With further movement of the piston, cylinder pressure falls below atmospheric.
 As a result, the air outside forces the inlet valve to open and make its wayinto the
cylinder; this process is called suction.
 As piston continues its stroke, more and more air gets sucked into the cylinder.
 The suction process continues till the end of the down-stroke.
Process 1-2; Compression
 At the end of suction stroke, when the piston reaches BDC or IDC position, its
direction of motion is reversed because of the slider-crank mechanism.
 The piston now begins its upward stroke and the cylinder volume decreasescausing
an increase of air pressure.
 After a short while the pressure inside the cylinder exceeds the atmosphericpressure
and as a result the inlet valve gets closed.
 The pressure of air inside the cylinder continues to increase steadily with theout-stroke
of the piston.

Process 2-3; Delivery

 When the air pressure inside the cylinder reaches the desired value, the delivery
valve gets opened.
 During the remainder of the out-stroke the delivery valve stays open and thehigh
pressure air is delivered to the storage tank.
 As the piston reaches its top dead centre position the delivery valve is closed.
 At the end of stroke, a small volume of compressed air is left in clearance space.
 The final state is now same as the initial state and the cycle gets repeated.

5 COMPRESSION NEGLECTING CLEARANCE VOLUME:

 For the sake of simplicity the compression cycle is first studied neglecting the
clearance volume, as represented by p-v diagram; figure-7.
 During the suction stroke the air is drawn into the cylinder along line 4-1.
 All valves being closed, air is compressed along the compression curve 1-2.
 At point 2, discharge valve opens and compressed air is delivered along line 2-3.
 The net work required per cycle, for compression and the delivery of compressedair,
is given by the area enclosed by the pv-diagram.

Figure 7: Compression neglecting clearance volume.

5.1 Types of Compression Curves
 PV diagram for compression process without clearance volume is shown in fig-8.
 Compression of air may be carried out along the following three types of curves:

Figure 8; Types of Compression Curves.

Isentropic compression
⚫ If the compression occurs very rapidly in a non-conducting cylinder.
⚫ Then there is little time available for heat transfer and the process will benearly
isentropic.
⚫ The law for isentropic compression is
𝑃𝑉𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
Isothermal compression
⚫ The compression of air is now carried out slowly.
⚫ In this case the heat of the compression gets extracted from the air by thecooling
water circulating in the cylinder jackets.
⚫ The compression will then approach isothermal conditions.
⚫ The law for an isothermal or hyperbolic compression is
PV = const.
here the value of index n is 1.
Polytropic compression
⚫ In actual practice neither isentropic nor the isothermal conditions exists.
⚫ The actual compression process is between the two; called polytropic
compression.
⚫ The compression curve follows the law:
𝑃𝑉𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
Where, n is the index of compression.
6 AIR COMPRESSOR TERMINOLOGY
The following terminology should be well understood analysing the performance of air
compressors.
Free air delivered FAD
It is the volume of air delivered under the conditions of temperature and pressure
existing at the compressor intake, i.e., volume of air delivered at surrounding air
temperature and pressure.
Capacity of a compressor
It is the quantity of the free air actually delivered by a compressor in cubic metres
per minute.
Swept Volume
It is the volume in cubic metres obtained as the product of the piston area in m2
and the piston stroke in metre.
Indicated power or air power
It is the power determined from the actual indicator diagram taken during a test
on the compressor.
Shaft or brake power
It is the power delivered to the shaft of the compressor or the power required to
drive the compressor. The compressor may be driven by an engineor an electric
motor.
Shaft or brake power – Air/ indicated power = [Friction power]

Isothermal power
It is the power of a compressor calculated from the theoretical indicatordiagram
drawn by assuming the isothermal compression.

Volumetric efficiency
It is the ratio of the actual volume of the free air at standard atmospheric conditions
discharged in one delivery stroke, to the volume swept by the pistonduring the
stroke.
7 EFFECT OF CLEARANCE VOLUME
 The clearance space is provided in an actual compressor to prevent the piston
from striking the cylinder head.
 The suction process taking place in the compressor with clearance space isdifferent
from the suction without clearance as shown in figure-8.

(a) Without clearance volume (b) With clearance volume

Figure 8, Single stage polytropic compression cycle.

 With the presence of the clearance volume, all the compressed air in thecylinder is
not delivered from it at the end of stroke.
 But, a small amount of compressed air is left in the clearance space.
 This high pressure air in clearance space will first re-expand polytropically alongthe
curve 3-4.
 At state point-4, suction valves open and the suction of fresh charge begins.
 Thus, it can be clearly seen that the volume of air drawn into the cylinder withthe
presence of the clearance volume gets considerably reduced.
Volume of suction air with clearance volume gets reduced from 𝑉1 to 𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑟 .
 Therefore, there occurs a significant reduction in the volumetric efficiency ofthe
compressor due to the presence of clearance volume.

 The volumetric efficiency of compressor with clearance volume can be written as

𝑉1 − 𝑉4 𝑉1 − 𝑉4
𝜇𝑣𝑜𝑙 = =
𝑉 − 𝑉3
1 𝑉𝑆𝑤

 In practice the clearance volume is limited to, two or three per cent of thedisplacement
or swept volume.