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Unit-I Differential Calculus

Introduction

Successive differentiation is the process of differentiating a given function successively n times

and the results of such differentiation are called Successive derivatives. The higher order
differential coefficients are of utmost importance in scientific and engineering applications.

Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a differentiable function and let its successive derivatives be denoted by
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 , … 𝑓 (𝑛 ) (𝑥)

Formulae of Nth Derivative of elementary function

dn m m−n
1. ax + b = m m − 1 m − 2 … m − n + 1 ax + b an
dx n
dn n
2. ax + b = n! an
dx n
dn 1 −1 n n!
3. = (ax +b) n +1 an
dx n ax +b
dn 1 −1 n (m+n−1)!
4. = an
dx n (ax +b) m (ax +b) n +m
dn −1 n −1 n−1 !
5. Log ax + b = an
dx n (ax +b) n
dn
6. amx = mn Loga n
amx
dx n
dn
7. emx = mn emx
dx n
dn nπ
8. sin ax + b = an sin ax + b +
dx n 2
dn n nπ
9. cos ax + b = a cos ax + b +
dx n 2
dn ax 2 2 n/2 b
10. e sin bx + c = a + b eax sin bx + c + n tan −1 a
dx n
dn b
11. eax cos bx + c = a2 + b2 n/2
eax cos bx + c + n tan −1 a
dx n
dn
12. x n = n!
dx n

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Trigonometric formulae
1
1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 2 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
1
2. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 2 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
1
3. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝜃 = 4 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃
1
4. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 = 4 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃
1
5. 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 = 2 sin 𝐴 + 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 − 𝐵
1
6. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 = 2 sin 𝐴 + 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 − 𝐵
1
7. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 = 2 cos 𝐴 + 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 − 𝐵
1
8. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 = cos 𝐴 − 𝐵 − cos 𝐴 + 𝐵
2
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 −𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
9. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
2𝑖 2
𝑒 𝜃 −𝑒 −𝜃 𝑒 𝜃 +𝑒 −𝜃
10. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑕𝜃 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑕𝜃 =
2 2

Partial fraction method

Function Partial fraction form

𝑎𝑥 +𝑏 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
(i) + (𝑥−𝑏) + (𝑥−𝑐)
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑏 (𝑥−𝑐) (𝑥−𝑎)
𝑎𝑥 +𝑏 𝐴 𝐵
(ii) + (𝑥−𝑎) 2
𝑥−𝑎 2 (𝑥−𝑎)

Note (a) Partial fraction method is applicable only when the degree of denominator equation

is greater than the degree of numerator equation.

(b) When the degree of numerator equation is greater than the degree of denominator

equation we use division method first and then partial fraction method.
1 2
(c) Third term= [ 2 ×coefficient of x]

Leibnitz Theorem:

If yn = (uv) n
n(n−1) n n−1 (n−2)
Then yn = un v + n un−1 v1 + un−2 v2 + un−3 v3 + ⋯ + u vn
2! 3!

Where the suffixes denote the order of the derivatives.

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Maclaurin’s series:

Maclaurin’s theorem: If the function 𝑓(𝑥) of 𝑥 can be expanded in a series of ascending powers
of 𝑥 then the expansion is

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥𝑛
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 0 + 𝑥𝑓 ′ 0 + 𝑓 ′′ 0 + 𝑓 ′′′ 0 + ⋯ + 𝑓𝑛 0 + ⋯
2! 3! 𝑛!

Formulae:
𝑑
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛 −1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
𝑒𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑢𝑣 = 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑢
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣 𝑢−𝑢 𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣2

𝑑 1 1 𝑑
= − [𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 ]2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1 𝑑
𝐿𝑜𝑔[𝑓 𝑥 ] = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 𝑥 = 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑
Note: 𝑑𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑕𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑕𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑕𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑕𝑥 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑕0 = 0 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑕0 = 1

Taylor’s series:

(i) If f(x + h) can be expanded in a series of ascending powers of h then the expansion is

h2 h3
f x + h = f x + h f′ x + f ′′ x + f ′′′ x + ⋯
2! 3!

(ii) If f(x) can be expanded in a series of ascending powers of (x − a) then the expansion is

(x−a)2 (x−a)3
f x = f a + x − a f′ a + f ′′ a + f ′′′ a + ⋯
2! 3!

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Standard series:
x3 x5 x7
1. Sinx = x − 3! + 5! − 7! + ⋯
x3 x5 x7
2. sinhx = x + 3! + 5! + 7! + ⋯
x2 x4 x6
3. cosx = 1 − 2! + 4! − 6! + ⋯
x2 x4 x6
4. coshx = 1 + 2! + 4! + 6! + ⋯
x3 2x 5
5. tanx = x + + +⋯
3 15
x3 2x 5
6. tanhx = x − + +⋯
3 15
x3 x5 x7
7. tan −1 x = x − + − +⋯
3 5 7
x3 x5 x7
8. tanh −1 x = x + + + +⋯
3 5 7
x3 3x 5
9. sin−1 x = x + + +⋯
6 40
x2 x3 x4
10. Log 1 + x = x − + − +⋯
2 3 4
x2 x3 x4
11. Log 1 − x = −x − − − −⋯
2 3 4
n n(n−1) 2
12. 1 + x = 1 + nx + x +⋯
2!
−1
13. 1 + x = 1 − x + x2 − x3 + ⋯
−1
14. 1 − x = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + ⋯

L-Hospital’s Rule (Cauchy’s Rule)

Let 𝑓(𝑥) and ɸ(𝑥) be functions of 𝑥 which can be expanded and 𝑓 𝑎 = 0, ɸ 𝑎 = 0 then

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
lim = lim
𝑥→𝑎 ɸ(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 ɸ′ (𝑥)

Note: (a) L-Hospital’s Rule is applicable if the limit is in indeterminate form i.e.
0 ∞ 0 ∞
, , 0. ∞, ∞. ∞, ∞ , 0 , 00 , ∞∞ , 0∞ , ∞0
0 ∞

(b) 𝐿𝑜𝑔0 = −∞, 𝐿𝑜𝑔∞ = ∞

Standard limits:
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑥
1. lim = 1 OR lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑥
2. lim = 1 OR lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝑎 𝑥 −1 1/𝑥
3. lim = 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑎 4. lim 1 + 𝑥 =𝑒
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0

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 Unit-II Infinite series

Sequence: An ordered set of real numbers 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4, … 𝑎𝑛 is called a sequence and it is

denoted by ( 𝑎𝑛 ) Or { 𝑎𝑛 }.

If the numbers of terms are unlimited, then the sequence is said to be infinite sequence and 𝑎𝑛 is
its general term or nth term.

For Examples (a) 1,3,5,7, … . 2𝑛 − 1 ….

1 1 1 1
(b) 1, , 3 , 4 , … . , 𝑛 , ….
2

𝑛−1
(c) 1, −1, 1 , −1 , 1 , −1 … , −1 …. are infinite sequences.
𝑙𝑖𝑚
Limit of sequence: If a sequence tends to a limit L, then we write 𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 = L

where 𝑎𝑛 is the nth term of the infinite sequence.

Convergent, Divergent and oscillatory sequences:

Convergent sequence: If the limit of a sequence is finite (unique), then the sequence is said to be
convergent sequence.

Divergent sequence: If the limit of a sequence is infinite, then the sequence is said to be
divergent sequence.

Oscillatory sequence: If the limit of a sequence does not tend to a unique limit (Only one), then
the sequence is said to be oscillatory sequence.

Series: A series is the sum of sequences. Let 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , … . 𝑢𝑛 , …. be a given sequence, and then
the expansion 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛 + ⋯ is called the series associated with the given
sequence. It is denoted by ∞ 𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 or 𝑢𝑛 .
∞
∴ 𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛 + ⋯

Partial sum of the series:

Consider the infinite series 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛 + ⋯ then the partial sum of the

series is denoted by 𝑆𝑛 and is defined as the sum of the first n terms of the series.

i.e. 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛

Convergent, Divergent and oscillatory series:

𝑙𝑖𝑚
Convergent series: If 𝑛→∞ 𝑆𝑛 =L (Finite number) then the series 𝑢𝑛 is said to be convergent.
𝑙𝑖𝑚
Divergent Series: If 𝑛→∞ 𝑆𝑛 = ∞ (Infinity) then the series 𝑢𝑛 is said to be divergent.

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 𝑙𝑖𝑚
Oscillatory Series: If 𝑛→∞ 𝑆𝑛 does not tend to a unique limit, then the series is said to be
oscillatory.

Series in Arithmetic progression:

The given series is in arithmetic progression if the difference between any two consecutive terms
is constant (same).The constant difference is known as common difference.

For e.g. (a) The series 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ⋯ is in arithmetic progression with common difference 2

∵ 3 − 1 = 2, 5 − 3 = 2, 7 − 5 = 2 ….

The nth term of arithmetic progression is given by: 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑

where 𝑎 =first term of the series, 𝑑 = common difference

The sum of first n terms of an arithmetic progression is given by:

𝑛 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = [ 2𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑 ] OR 𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎+𝑙)
2 2

Where 𝑎 =first term of the series, 𝑑 = common difference, 𝑙 = Last term of the series.

Series in Geometric Progression:

The given series is in Geometric progression if the ratio of any term after the first term to its
preceding term is constant (same).The constant ratio is called ratio of G.P.

For.e.g . The series 1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 3 + ⋯ is in geometric progression with common ratio 𝑟.

𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟3
∵ = 𝑟, = 𝑟, = 𝑟 …..
1 𝑟 𝑟2

The nth term of a Geometric progression is given by: 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑎 𝑟 𝑛−1

Where 𝑎 =first term of the series, 𝑟 = common ration

𝑎
The sum of infinite series in G.P.is given by: 𝑆∞ = 1−𝑟 , 𝑟 <1

Where 𝑎 =first term of the series, 𝑟 = common ration

Convergence of Geometric series: The geometric series r n is

(i) Convergent if |r| < 1 (ii) Divergent if r ≥ 1 (iii) Oscillatory if r ≤ −1.

1
P-Series: The series of the form is called p-series.
𝑛𝑃

The p-series is (a) Convergent if 𝑝 > 1 (b) Divergent if 𝑝 ≤ 1

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Positive term series: An infinite series in which all the terms of the series are positive is called
positive term series.

Comparison test: If two positive terms series 𝑢𝑛 and 𝑣𝑛 be such that:

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢 𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑣 = 𝑘(finite number),then both series converge or diverge together.
𝑛

𝑢𝑛
Note: 𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑚
→∞ = 𝑘( finite number non zero )
𝑣𝑛

Method of solving examples based on comparison test:

Step1: Find out the nth term of the given series and take as 𝑢𝑛 .

Step2: Take the highest degree term of n common from the numerator and denominator.

Step3: Simplify and select 𝑣𝑛 in the form of p-series.

𝑢𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢𝑛
Step4: Find and then find 𝑛→∞ .
𝑣𝑛 𝑣𝑛

𝑢𝑛
Step5: If 𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑚
→∞ = 𝑘(finite number and non zero) then both the series 𝑢𝑛 and 𝑣𝑛 converge
𝑣𝑛
or diverge together.

Step6: Check the convergence of the series 𝑣𝑛 by using p-series.

Step7: If the series 𝑣𝑛 is convergent, then the given series 𝑢𝑛 is also convergent.

Step8: If the series 𝑣𝑛 is divergent, then the given series 𝑢𝑛 is also divergent.

D-Alembert’s Ratio test:

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢 𝑛 +1
If 𝑢𝑛 is a positive term series such that 𝑛 →∞ 𝑢 = 𝑘 then
𝑛

(a) The series is convergent if 𝑘 < 1

(b) The series is divergent if 𝑘 > 1
(c) Case fails if 𝑘 = 1 OR

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢 𝑛
If 𝑢𝑛 is a positive term series such that 𝑛 →∞ 𝑢 = 𝑘 then
𝑛 +1

(a) The series is convergent if 𝑘 > 1

(b) The series is divergent if 𝑘 < 1
(c) Case fails if 𝑘 = 1

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Method of solving examples:

Step1. Find the nth term of the given series and take as 𝑢𝑛 .

Step2. Find 𝑢𝑛 +1
𝑢 𝑛 +1
Step3.Find 𝑢𝑛

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢 𝑛 +1
Step4.Find 𝑛 →∞ = 𝑘 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝑢𝑛

Step5. If 𝑘 < 1 then the series is convergent

Step6.If 𝑘 > 1 then the series is divergent

Step7.If 𝑘 = 1 case fails, Apply comparison test.

CAUCHYS ROOT TEST:

𝑙𝑖𝑚 1/𝑛
If 𝑢𝑛 is a positive term series such that 𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑘 , then

(a) The series is convergent if 𝑘 < 1

(b) The series is divergent if 𝑘 > 1
(c) If 𝑘 = 1 case fails, Apply D-Alembert’s ratio test

Note: We use above test whenever the power of the nth term of the given series is
𝑛, 𝑛2 , 𝑛3 , … 𝑒𝑡𝑐.

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 Unit-III Differential Equations

Differential Equation: An equation containing derivatives or differential coefficients is called

differential equation
dy
Linear Differential equation: A differential equation of the form dx + Py = Q where P and Q
are functions of x or a constant is called linear differential equation.
dy dy
For example: dx + x y = sinx, + cotx y = x 2 etc.
dx

There are two forms of linear differential equation:

dy
(a) dx + Py = Q

Where P and Q are functions of x or constants

dx
(b) dy + Px = Q Where P and Q are functions of y or constants.

Derivatives Formulae:
d
1. x n = n x n−1
dx
d
2. e x = ex
dx
d 1
3. logx =
dx x
d
4. C = 0 where C is constant
dx
d
5. sinx = cosx
dx
d
6. cosx = −sinx
dx
d
7. tanx = sec 2 x
dx
d
8. cotx = −cosec 2 x
dx
d
9. secx = secx tanx
dx
d
10. dx cosecx = −cosecx cotx
d 1
11. dx tan −1 x = 1+x 2
d
12. dx sinhx = coshx
d
13. dx coshx = sinhx

Page 10 of 22
Formulae of integration:

1. dx = x
x n +1
2. x n dx = n+1
(ax +b) n +1
3. (ax + b)n dx = a(n+1)
cosax
4. sinax dx = − a
sinax
5. cosax dx = a
x x
6. e dx = e
e ax
7. eax dx = a
8. sinx dx = −cosx
9. cosx dx = sinx
10. sec 2 x = tanx
11. cosec 2 x dx = −cotx
12. secx tanx dx = secx
13. cosecx cotx dx = −cosecx
14. secx dx = log secx + tanx
15. cosecx dx = log 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
16. tanx dx = log secx
17. cotx dx = log sinx
f ′ (x)
18. dx = log f x
f(x)
f ′ (x)
19. dx = 2 f x
f(x)

20. logx dx = x logx − x

Note: (i) For evaluating integration wherever the power of exponential function is
x 2 or x 3 or x 4 or any trigonometric function or any inverse trigonometric function we use
substitution method.

(ii) For evaluating integration wherever two trigonometric functions or hyperbolic functions are
in multiplication we use substitution method.

(iii) Sometimes for evaluating integration we use adjustment method or formula method.

(iv) Sometimes for evaluating integration we use partial fraction method.

Page 11 of 22
 Type-I
𝐝𝐲
Examples Based on 𝐝𝐱 + 𝐏𝐲 = 𝐐

Method of solving examples

StepI: Write down the given differential equation.

StepII: Convert given differential equation into linear differential equation of the form
dy
+ Py = Q
dx

dy
StepIII: Find out P and Q by comparing given LDE with dx + Py = Q

StepIV: Find Pdx after finding integration if possible use n logm = logmn
Pdx
StepV: Find I. F. = e if possible use the formula eLoga = a

StepVI: The solution of the given linear differential equation is given by the formula

y I. F = Q I. F dx + C

StepVII: Put up the value of I.F. and simplify the integration

The result we obtain is the required solution.

m
Note: logm + logn = log mn , logm − logn = log n

Type-II
dx
Examples Based on dy + Px = Q

Method of solving examples

StepI: Write down the given differential equation.

StepII: Convert given differential equation into linear differential equation of the form
dx
+ Px = Q
dy

dx
StepIII: Find out P and Q by comparing given LDE with dy + Px = Q

StepIV: Find Pdy after finding integration if possible use n logm = logmn
Pdy
StepV: Find I. F. = e if possible use the formula eLoga = a

Page 12 of 22
StepVI: The solution of the given linear differential equation is given by the formula

x I. F = Q I. F dy + C

StepVII: Put up the value of I.F. and simplify the integration

The result we obtain is the required solution.

dy
Bernoulli’s differential equation: A differential equation of the form + Py = Q y n
dx

Where P and Q are functions of x or constants are called Bernoulli’s differential equation.

Type-III
𝐝𝐲
Examples Based on 𝐝𝐱 + 𝐏𝐲 = 𝐐 𝐲 𝐧

Method of solving examples

dy
StepI: Write down the given differential equation + Py = Qy n ……….. (1)
dx

StepII: Convert given Bernoulli’s differential equation into linear differential equation of the
dy
form + Py = Q by using the following step.
dx

StepIII: Dividing both sides of equation (1) by y n we get

1 dy Py Qy n
+ yn =
y n dx yn

dy
y −n + P y y −n = Q
dx

dy
y −n + P y1−n = Q ……. (2)
dx

Put y1−n = z

Diff.w.r.t. x
d d
y1−n = dx z
dx

dy dz d
(1 − n) y1−n−1 = dx ∵ dx x n = nx n−1
dx

dy dz
(1 − n) y −n = dx
dx

dy dz
(1 − n) y −n = dx
dx

dy 1 dz
y −n =
dx (1−n) dx

Page 13 of 22
Equation (2) becomes
1 dz
+ Pz = Q
(1−n) dx

Multiplying both sides by (1 − n)

(1−n) dz
+ (1 − n)Pz = (1 − n)Q
(1−n) dx

dz
+ (1 − n)Pz = (1 − n)Q
dx

dy
This is linear differential equation of the form + Py = Q
dx

StepIV: Find out P and Q

StepV: Find Pdx after finding integration if possible use n logm = logmn
Pdx
StepVI: Find I. F. = e if possible use the formula eLoga = a

StepVII: The solution of the differential equation is given

z I. F = Q I. F dx + C

StepVIII: Put up the value of I.F. and simplify the integration.

StepIX: At the end again put up the value of z

The result we obtain is the required solution.

Exact differential equation: A differential equation of the form Mdx + Ndy = 0 is said to be
∂M ∂N
exact if it satisfies the condition =
∂y ∂x

∂M
Where = Partial derivative of M with respect to y keeping x conatant
∂y

∂N
= Partial derivative of N with respect to x keeping y conatant
∂x

Note: The necessary and sufficient condition that the equation Mdx + Ndy = 0 is exact is
∂M ∂N
=
∂y ∂x

Method of solving examples

StepI: Write down the given differential equation

StepII: Convert given differential equation into the form Mdx + Ndy = 0

StepIII: Take M and N

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 ∂M ∂N
StepIV: Find and
∂y ∂x

∂M ∂N
StepV: If = then given differential equation is exact.
∂y ∂x

StepVI: Its solution is given by the formula

y constant
M dx + (Terms of N not containing x) dy = C [C = constant of integration]

Put up the values and simplify the integration the result we get is the required solution.

Page 15 of 22
 Unit-IV Applications of Differential Equations

Application of differential equation to Mechanics:

Let a body of mass m start moving from a fixed point O along a straight line OX under the action
of force F. Let P be the position of the body at any instant t where OP = x then
dx
(a) Velocity of the body = dt

dv dv
(b) Acceleration of the body = OR v
dt dx

∴ By Newton’s Law

Force = m × a
dv dv
F = m dt OR mv dx (Based on the example)

Where F is effective force.

∴ Equation of motion of a body is given by

Force acting on the body = Force of gravity − Resistance of the medium

Note:

1. Force of gravity of body of mass m falling downward = mg

2. Force of gravity of body of mass m projected vertically upward = −mg

3. When a body falls freely, Force of gravity = Resistance of the medium

Application of differential equation to Electrical circuit:

If q be the electrical charge on a condenser of capacity C and i be the current then

𝑑𝑞
(a) 𝑖 = OR 𝑞 = 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

(b) The potential drop across the resistance R = Ri

di
(c) The potential drop across inductance L = L dt

q
(d) The potential drop across capacitance C = C

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1. The differential equation of L-C-R circuit is given by
di q
L + C + Ri = E
dt

Where L =Inductance, i = current, q =charge, C =capacitance, R=Resistance, E= emf

2. The differential equation of L-R circuit is given by

di
L + Ri = E
dt

Where L =Inductance, i = current, R=Resistance, E= emf

3. The differential equation of L-C circuit is given by

di q
L +C =E
dt

Where L =Inductance, i = current , q =charge, C =capacitance, E= emf

4. The differential equation of C-R circuit is given by

q
+ Ri = E
C

Where q =charge, C =capacitance, R=Resistance, E= emf

5. The differential equation of L-R circuit without emf is given by

di
L + Ri = 0 [∵ E = 0]
dt

Where L =Inductance, R=Resistance, E= 0

Formulae:

e ax
1. eax sinbx dx = a 2 +b 2 (a sinbx − b cosbx)

e ax
2. eax cosbx dx = a 2 +b 2 (a cosbx + b sinbx)

3. sinA cosB − cosA sinB = sin A − B

4. cosA cosB + sinA sinB = cos A − B

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Orthogonal Trajectories: Two families of curves are said to be orthogonal if every member of
family cuts each member other family at right angles.

Method of finding orthogonal trajectories:

(A) For Cartesian equation 𝐟 𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐜 = 𝟎

StepI: Write down the given equation make as equation (1)

StepII: Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x

StepIII: The result we obtain make as equation (2)

StepIV: Eliminating arbitrary constant C from equation (2) with the help of equation (1)
dy dx
StepV: Replace by − dy
dx

StepVI: Make variable separable (separating variables)

StepVII: Integrating both sides and simplify

The result we obtain is the required orthogonal trajectories of the given equation.

(B) For Polar equation 𝐟 𝐫, 𝛉, 𝐂 = 𝟎

StepI: Write down the given equation make as equation (1)

StepII: Differentiating (1) w.r.t. θ

StepIII: The result we obtain make as equation (2)

StepIV: Eliminating arbitrary constant C from equation (2) with the help of equation (1)
dr dθ
StepV: Replace by −r 2
dθ dr

StepVI: Make variable separable (separating variables)

StepVII: Integrating both sides and simplify

The result we obtain is the required orthogonal trajectories of the given equation.

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 Unit-V Partial Differentiation

Formulae

1.
𝜕
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛 −1
𝜕𝑥

2.
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑢𝑣 = 𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝑣 + 𝑣 𝜕𝑥 𝑢
𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕
𝑣 𝑢−𝑢 𝑣
3.
𝜕 𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
=
𝜕𝑥 𝑣 𝑣2

4.
𝜕 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝜕
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑛 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

5.
𝜕 1 1 𝜕
=− 𝑓 𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥

6.
𝜕 1 𝜕
𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑥

7.
𝜕 𝜕
𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

8.
𝜕 1 𝜕
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 𝑥
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑓(𝑥) 𝜕𝑥

9.
𝜕 1 𝜕
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑓 𝑥 = 1+ 𝑓 𝑓 𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥

Total Differentiation:

Implicit relation: An equation of the form f x, y = 0 OR f x, y = c which cannot be

necessarily solved for one of the variable say x in terms of y or y in terms of x is called implicit
𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑥
relation. In case of implicit relation =− 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦

Chain Rule: If u = f x, y , x = ɸ t , y = ψ t then

Tree diagram:

x y

𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦
By Tree diagram = 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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Homogeneous function: A function u = f(x, y) is said to be homogeneous function of order n if
the degree of each of its term is same.

The general form of homogeneous function of order n is of the form

𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦
𝑢 = 𝑥𝑛 𝐹 Or 𝑢 = 𝑦 𝑛 𝐹 Or 𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝐹 Or 𝑢 = 𝑦 𝑛 𝐹
𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑥

Euler’s theorem: If 𝑢 is a homogeneous function of x, y of degree n then

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢
(i) 𝑥 +𝑦 = nu (ii) 𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2 = 𝑛 𝑛 − 1 𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Note: If 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a homogeneous function of x, y and z of degree n then

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧 = 𝑛𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Deduction from Euler’s theorem: If u is not a homogeneous function of x, y of degree n such

that u = ɸ Hn Where Hn is a homogeneous function of x, y of degree, then
∂u ∂u F(u)
(i) x +y =n
∂x ∂y F ′ (u)

∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u F(u)
(ii) x 2 ∂x 2 + 2xy + y 2 ∂y 2 = G u G′ u − 1 Where G u = n
∂x ∂y F ′ (u)

Note: A function u = f(x, y) is said to be homogeneous function of degree n in x and y if it can

y x x y
be expressed in the form u = x n F or u = y n F or u = x n F or u = y n F
x y y x

Change of independent variable:

If z = f x, y , x = f 1 u, v , y = f 2 (u, v) then

Tree diagram:

x y

u v u v

∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
By Tree diagram = ∂x + ∂y = ∂x + ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂v

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Jacobian:

If u = f1 x, y , y = f2 x, y then
∂u ∂u
u,v ∂(u,v) ∂x ∂y
J=J = = ∂v ∂v
x,y ∂(x,y)
∂x ∂y

Similarly, If u = f 1 x, y, z , v = f 2 x, y, z , w = f 3 x, y, z then
∂u ∂u ∂u
∂x ∂y ∂z
u,v,w ∂(u,v,w) ∂v ∂v ∂v
J=J = = ∂x ∂y ∂z
x,y,z ∂(x,y,z)
∂w ∂w ∂w
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂(u,v) ∂(x,y)
If J = and J′ = ∂(u,v) then J J ′ = 1
∂(x,y)

Page 21 of 22
 Unit-VI Applications of Partial Differentiation

Introduction

In this chapter we shall determine the values of function which are greatest or least in their
neighbourhood; technically we have called as maxima and minima values of function.
Knowledge of these values is helpful in tracing and the greatest and least values of a function in
any given finite interval.

Extreme value: A maximum or minimum value of a function is called its extreme value.

Stationary Point (Value): The point (a,b) is said to be stationary point of f(x,y) if at (a,b)
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
= 0 and = 0 i.e.the function is stationary at (a,b).
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Conditions for f(x,y) to be maximum or minimum:

The necessary condition for f(x,y) to have a maximum or minimum at (a,b) are that
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
= 0 and =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Working rule to find the maximum and minimum value of f(x,y)

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
1. Find and
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
2. Take 𝜕𝑥 = 0 and = 0 solve these equations for x and y.
𝜕𝑦
Let, (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), 𝑥3 , 𝑦3 , … be the pairs of values.
𝜕 2𝑓 𝜕 2𝑓 𝜕 2𝑓
3. Calculate the values of 𝑟 = 𝜕𝑥 2 , 𝑠 = 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 , 𝑡 = 𝜕𝑦 2 for each pair of values.
4. (i) If 𝑟𝑡 − 𝑠 2 < 0 then there is no maxima and no minima
(ii) ) If 𝑟𝑡 − 𝑠 2 > 0 and 𝑟 < 0 then there is maxima
(iii) If 𝑟𝑡 − 𝑠 2 > 0 and 𝑟 > 0 then there is minima
(iv) If 𝑟𝑡 − 𝑠 2 = 0 , further investigation is required

‘‘Systematic step by step solution is the only key to open the door of
Mathematics ’’

By: Prof.Shaikh Zameer H.

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