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Wideband Transimpedance Amplifiers for Optoelectronics: Applications to

Dynamic Interferometry

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 Revista elektron, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 16-22 (2017)

Wideband Transimpedance Amplifiers for

Optoelectronics: Applications to Dynamic
Interferometry
Lucas M. Riobó1 ∗† , Francisco E. Veiras∗† ,Marı́a T. Garea∗ and Patricio A. Sorichetti∗
∗ Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ingenierı́a. Departamento de Fı́sica. GLOmAe.
Av. Paseo Colón 850, CABA C1063ACV, Argentina
† CONICET

Godoy Cruz 2290 (C1425FQB) CABA - República Argentina

1
[email protected]
Recibido: 23/06/17; Aceptado:14/07/17

Abstract—This paper describes the design and performance interest is encoded on θ(~r, t). Thus, we need to detect and
of transimpedance amplifiers (TIAs) for optoelectronic process I(~r, t) without any kind of distortion.
systems, optimized for optical dynamic interferometry. In An interferometry system can be divided in three func-
order to perform the analysis of the amplifiers, we show some
experimental schemes, where different topologies were used. tional blocks. The first block is the experimental scheme
We describe the relevance of each TIA implemented and the on which the device under test (DUT) is placed and the
corresponding guidelines and design considerations. interfering beams are generated and combined. The second
block is the detection block whose front-end can be either
Resumen— Este artı́culo describe el diseño y desempeño a camera or single photodetectors, or both. The third block
de amplificadores de transimpedancia (TIAs) para
optoelectrónica, optimizados para su uso en aplicaciones is the processing block that is used to extract the required
de interferometrı́a óptica dinámica. Para desarrollar el information.
análisis de los amplificadores, mostramos algunos esquemas Due to the limited capturing rate of the camera, initially
experimentales donde se utilizan distintas topologı́as. En cada camera-based interferometers were mainly used for quasi
esquema desarrollado, describiremos la relevancia de cada static measurements. For high-frequency vibration measure-
TIA, mencionando lineamientos y consideraciones de diseño.
ment, there are various techniques that allow steady-state
I. I NTRODUCTION : D ETECTION OF OPTICAL surface vibration mode measurements, but these can only
INTERFEROMETRIC SIGNALS be applied in principle on periodical disturbances [10].
In optical sensing systems, the current generated from Non periodical measurements can be made by high speed
photodetectors is generally small. Moreover, most of the cameras, having frame rates in excess of 250 frames per
subsequent processing occurs in the voltage domain. Thus, a second. However, they can be very expensive in comparison
conversion from current to voltage is required. A current to to high speed single photodetectors. Moreover, they may not
voltage converter is also called a transimpedance amplifier be capable of working with low intensity signals. In addition,
(TIA). TIAs are commonly used in many applications that if low-speed CCDs are used, the time for acquiring the inter-
require high dynamic range, speed and sensivity, such as ferograms may be quite long and this makes the technique
optical communications and optical metrology systems [1]. poorly suited to be used in an industrial environment [11].
It is known that optical interferometric methods allow In this work, we are interested in the detection of time
the measurement of sub-nanometer dynamic displacements varying interferometric signals. For this purpose we use
[2], [3]. These techniques have been applied to a variety photodiodes as photodetectors. A photodiode converts the
of determinations [4], [5] and are particularly interesting in photon energy of light into an electrical signal by releas-
the case of electromechanical properties of materials [6], ing and accelerating current-conducting carriers within the
single nanoparticle detection in fluids [7] or observation of semiconductor. In this case, the diode junction is customized
gravitational waves [8]. Since the light used for sensing improving their spectral response and efficiency as in PIN
usually does not alter the sample under study, optical in- and avalanche alternatives Also, multiple-element and lateral
terferometric techniques also present significant advantages photodiodes provide position-sensing through the relative
for non-destructive testing (NDT) [9]. magnitudes of multiple output currents. By itself, a photo-
A general expression of a two-beam interferometric signal diode can produce a voltage output as required for most
is shown on (14): electronic instrumentation. However, this operating mode
(photovoltaic mode) produces a highly nonlinear response
I(~r, t) = A(~r, t) + B(~r, t) cos θ(~r, t) (1) and a very restricted bandwidth. Instead, accepting the diode
output as a current (photoconductive mode) and performing
where A(~r, t) is the background intensity, B(~r, t) is the a current-to-voltage conversion dramatically improves its
fringe contrast and θ(~r, t) is the phase difference between performance [1].
the interfering waves. These parameters can be both space In the following sections, we present three different inter-
(~r) and time (t) dependent. Usually, the information of ferometric schemes, each of them using a specific detection

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setup. The first setup is the simplest form of current to The active surface area of the photodiodes plays a key role
voltage conversion. We take advantage of its simplicity to on the performance of the detector. If it is very small, the
study the detection process of photodiodes and also to define effect of speckle in the interferogram will decrease the signal
our design considerations in optoelectronic measurements. to noise ratio (SNR) of the detected signal. If the area
In the second setup we present a photodiode transimpedance of the photodiode is too large, the SNR will also decay
amplifier. We describe the critical parameters involved in the because we lose spatial resolution [13]. Since the position
design of a transimpedance amplifier destined to measure of the photodiodes can be adjusted, we can use large area
interferometric signals with low modulation depth. The last detectors in order to measure the intensity signals (Fig. 1)
setup is a wideband photodiode transimpedance amplifier without saturation and loss of spatial resolution in expense
which can detect high speed optical signals. Finally, the of signal strength. Therefore, the current to voltage converter
results of this work are discussed. needs to be sensitive to the intensity variations produced by
∆φv−h (t) under low spatial modulation depth.
II. F IRST APPROACH : DETECTION OF LOW SPEED
PHENOMENA A. Characteristics of the current to voltage converter
Consider the birefringent phase demodulator shown in As we can see in (3), to effectively retrieve ∆φv−h (t),
Fig.1, detailed in [12]. the current to voltage conversion needs to be linear. The
photodiode response is linear when we sample the pho-
(A) Phase demodulator
tocurrent under the conditions VBIAS ≥ 0 and VBIAS >
Polarization modulated light VOU T = IT R (Fig.1 (B)). The total current provided by
Phase modulator (DUT) the photodiode is IT = IP H + IDark , where IP H is the
Ω
PC
photocurrent and IDark is the dark current. The dark current
He-Ne laser DAQ
is the current that will flow through the photodiode under no-
Grounded interface Photodiodes light conditions and it increases with VBIAS . The bandwidth
Quartz crystal (ϴ = 45º) (BW ) of the system is determined by the sample resistor
Polarizer
R and the junction capacitance of the photodiode CP H ,
Interference plane
which decreases with VBIAS : BW = 1/(2πRCP H ). The
(B) Photodiode
Interference plane
VBIAS noise sources are mainly: shot noise in the photodiodes,
IT thermal noise in the sample resistor R, and external coupled
y To DAQ
VOUT interfering signals. A complete study of different noise
R
z
contributions on the current to voltage converter is detailed
in [14].
Fig. 1. Birefringent phase demodulator. (A) An array of photodiodes
In our experimental setup we used four photodiodes
is placed in the interference plane. The photocurrent IT is converted to Vishay BPW43 [15] reverse biased at 9 V with a battery,
a voltage signal (VOU T ) by a resistor R and then sampled by a data each with a sample resistor R = 1 MΩ. The measured SNR
acquisition system (DAQ) and processed by a computer (PC) [13]. (B)
Distribution of the photodiodes and connection scheme.
is approximately 80 dB on a 10 kHz bandwidth. A picture
of the detector is shown on Fig.2.
A spatiotemporal interferogram is produced by the system
itself and detected by an array of photodiodes. Each photo-
diode is placed in a position r~i = (yi , zi ) where the intensity
is

I(~
ri , t) = A(~
ri ) + B(~
ri ) cos [∆φo−e (~
ri ) + ∆φv−h (t)] (2)
Here ∆φo−e (~ri ) is a fixed spatial phase and ∆φv−h (t) is
the phase produced by the device under test. This phase can
be recovered by applying
"P #
N ˜ ri , t)
i=1 ni I(~
∆φv−h (t) = arctan PN
b (3)
˜ ri , t)
i=1 di I(~

where ∆φb v−h (t) is the estimated phase and N is the total
number of photodetectors. Each intensity is converted into a
photocurrent and then converted again into a voltage signal Fig. 2. Detector implemented. The photodiodes are placed into a metal
by a resistor R. Both weighted summations of photodiode box to prevent external noise sources from entering the system. [13]
signals in the numerator and denominator can be performed
electronically. Therefore, in a post processing stage, the This current to voltage converter has the advantage of be-
arctangent can be calculated. ing simple to construct and understand. The main limitation
The interferogram provided by the system in Fig.1 can be of this configuration is the bandwidth, which turns out to
very diffuse, depending on the optical components used. In be a critical issue when detecting low intensity signals. The
addition, the interferogram has a large background intensity. bandwidth can be increased by means of a reduction of the

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 Revista elektron, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 16-22 (2017)

value of R at the expense of reducing the SNR. Another way

of widening the bandwidth is by increasing the reverse bias
I DC = A + B cos θ(t) (7)
of the photodiodes. However, this increases the dark current
and consequently reduces the SNR of the detector. In the AC 4π
I = −B d(t) sin θ(t) (8)
next section, we analyze the transimpedance amplifier (TIA) λ
based on operational amplifiers. The TIA is the topology The displacement d(t) is encoded in the I AC component
most frequently used to detect optical signals. Compared of the interferometric signal (Eq.(8)) and θ modulates both
to the current to voltage converter previously described, it I AC and I DC components. The I DC component (Eq.(7))
improves the linearity of the photodiode, the SNR and the limits the performance of the detector when measuring high
bandwidth. However, the analysis of the TIA is far more speed signals by reducing the dynamic range of the sensor,
complex: the inclusion of an active element and a feedback as well as its effective bandwidth [1], [16], [17]. In summary,
network requires careful attention to stability issues and the interferogram consists of a small amplitude, high speed
noise contributors of the operational amplifier. signal buried in a high amplitude, near-constant background
intensity. Since θ(t) varies randomly, it is difficult to extract
III. S ECOND APPROACH : DETECTION OF HIGH SPEED d(t) when measuring small displacements [9]. In conse-
PHENOMENA quence, it is necessary to improve the ratio between I AC and
Consider the experimental setup of Fig. 3. The detailed I DC . For this purpose, we designed the detection scheme
description of the system and the operation principles are in showed in Fig.4.
[6].
Photodiodes
and Polarizer Films
TIA
Detection System QWP
I3
I1 To Acquisition
I2 and Processing system
Lens
Interferometer I4
d(t)
HWP PBS MO output beams
TIA

He-Ne
632.8 nm
Fig. 4. Detection Block. The interferograms are produced by polarized
DUT films and detected with photodiodes. Dotted lines indicate the direction of
QWP2 the transmission axis of the films. The current provided by the photodiodes
QWP1 is converted into voltage signals vI,Q (t) by Transimpedance Amplifiers
(TIAs). [6]

Mirror
The detector produces four phase shifted interferograms
Fig. 3. A Polarization Michelson interferometer. HWP: half waveplate, (similar to the ones in Eq. (2)) that are converted into
PBS: polarized beam splitter, QWP1,2 : quarter waveplates, MO: micro- voltage signals by TIAs as we show in Fig. 4. The TIAs
scope objective. d(t) is the off-plane displacement of the Device Under
Test (DUT) to be measured. [6] are made by operational amplifiers in differential mode. The
output signals of the TIAs are voltage signals that depend
The physical displacement of the DUT modulates the on the difference in the currents of the photodiodes (i.e., the
polarization state of the light reaching the detector. If there difference of the interferograms). The output signals vI and
is a single polarizer in the detection block, we have an vQ are, respectively,
interferogram I(t), vI (t) = Rλ [I1 (t) − I3 (t)]R (9)

4π
 vQ (t) = Rλ [I2 (t) − I4 (t)]R (10)
I(t) = A + B cos d(t) + θ(t) (4)
λ where the identical resistors R determine the transimpedance
gain of each TIA at the low frequency limit. The photodetec-
where λ is the wavelength of the laser source, d(t) is
tors (assumed identical) have responsivities Rλ . This way,
the displacement of the DUT and θ(t) is a random phase
the products Rλ IN (t) represent the currents produced by
difference between the branches of the interferometer. If the
the photodiodes.
displacement d(t) is less than λ/2, the detected intensity is
  A. Sensor implementation and characterization
4π
I(t) = A + B cos θ(t) − d(t) sin θ(t) (5) The sensor consists of four photodiodes BPW34s [18]
λ and two FET-input operational amplifiers OPA657 [19] in
On high speed applications, such as in ultrasonics, d(t) transimpedance configuration. Its topology is shown in Fig.
varies much faster than θ(t). Then we can write I(t) as the 5. The transimpedance amplifier was designed to achieve
sum of two terms, maximum transimpedance gain in a 10 MHz bandwidth
and to minimize the total input noise current √ IEQ (i.e.
I(t) = IDC + IAC (6) maximizing the SNR). IEQ is measured in A/ Hz and
represents the minimum input current, integrated over the
where, bandwidth of the amplifier, which yielded a SNR of 0 dB

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 Revista elektron, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 16-22 (2017)

up to the cutoff frequency. In order to achieve a maximally with female BNC connectors. The voltage supply pins of
flat second order Butterworth frequency response, we must each TIA are decoupled to ground by capacitors. The bias
fulfil the following relation: voltage of the photodiodes is decoupled by a second-order
r passive filter (cutoff frequency below 40 kHz). The size of
1 GBP the PCB is 40 mm × 30 mm and the effective illuminated
= (11)
2πRF CF 4πRF CD area (which includes the four photodiodes) is 7 mm × 7
where RF is the feedback resistance (transimpedance gain at mm. The sensor developed is shown in Fig. 6.
low frequency) and CF is the feedback capacitance. Parallel
to RF and CD is the total input capacitance at the inverter
pin of the operational amplifier. This capacitance includes
both the photodiode capacitance and the capacitance of the
operational amplifier inputs. GBP is the gain-bandwidth
product of the amplifier. RF is calculated to achieve a
bandwidth of 10 MHz using,
r
GBP
f−3dB = (12) Fig. 6. Physical implementation of the Quad Optical Sensor. [6]
2πRF CD
Instead of introducing an extra component, we take ad- A separate test setup (Fig. 7) is used to characterize the
vantage of the parasitic capacitance of the resistor as the electro-optical response of the sensor in the frequency range
compensation capacitor CF to avoid instability issues. The from 100 kHz to 10 MHz. A LED light source with
total input noise current of the amplifier is, sinusoidal intensity modulation illuminates the four photo-
s diodes uniformly. The modulation amplitude and linearity is

4kT
2
(eN 2πCD f−3dB )2 verified independently using a ThorLabs PDA 155 optical
IEQ = 2
IN + + (13) detector [21].
RF 3
where IN is the input current noise for the operational
Modulated
amplifier inverting input and eN is the input voltage noise.
Full calculations and design considerations for Eqs. (11), Sensor
(12), and (13) are found in [1], [14], [19], [20]. Light Source

Bias and Decoupling Caps. for TIA

CH-B
PCB TOP VIEW
Signal Generator Oscilloscope
V+
10n 100n C5
+
V-

GND

X3-3 C3 C4 10u
GND

HP 8648A
X3-2

CH-A Tektronix TDS210

X3-1
22-23-2031
V+

10n 100n C6
+

V- C1 C2 10u

TIA (I and Q) 100k

R1
V-
GND
BPW34 Fig. 7. Experimental scheme used for the characterization of the sensor.
2

D1 OPA657 1-227161-0
VD- 4
47
3
1
R2
[6]
PCB BOTTOM VIEW
BPW34
D2 X1
5

IC1
100k
R5

V+

GND Each photodiode is characterized separately, covering the

Photodiode Bias and Filtering others with an opaque screen. At the low frequency limit
47 47
V- VD-
R3
100n
R4
10p
(100 kHz), the output signals from the four photodiodes
C7 C9
have the same amplitude within the measurement uncer-
GND
tainty (±0.1 dB). The frequency of the intensity modulation
(A) (B) is swept linearly. The output signal is captured with an
oscilloscope and then processed using a Fourier transform-
Fig. 5. Electrical implementation of the Quad Optical Sensor. (A)
Schematic Diagram. (B) PCB Diagram. Red color is for top copper, blue based algorithm. A good match between the overall response
is for bottom copper, vias are green, and the component mask is grey. of photodiodes and TIAs is achieved along the full frequency
range, as shown in Fig. 8.
The photodiodes are very close to the inverter pin of the The relative amplitude response of the four photodiodes is
operational amplifiers and the decoupling capacitors are very shown in Fig. 8 (A). The -3 dB frequency is approximately
close to their power supply. In this work, the transimpedance 8 MHz. There is also a good match of the phase response
is set R = 100 kΩ to maximize the SNR in a bandwidth of and group delay of the photodiodes and amplifiers, as shown
10 MHz. The printed circuit board (PCB) is etched on a FR4 in Fig. 8 (B) and Fig. 8 (C). The phase response is approx-
substrate and has ground planes over both sides of the PCB imately linear up to 3.7 MHz with a slope of 0.5 µrad/s.
to reduce electrical noise and interference through ground In summary, each photodetector and TIA has a flat relative
loops and to prevent crosstalk between adjacent circuit amplitude and a linear phase response up to 3 MHz. These
traces. The output paths of each TIA (one for photodiodes 1 results show that we can use the sensor to analyze amplitude
and 3 and the other for photodiodes 2 and 4) are impedance- and phase responses of sub-nanometric DMI systems up to
matched to 50 Ω, have equal lengths, and are terminated this frequency. In practice, if amplitude response is required

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 Revista elektron, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 16-22 (2017)

Acquisition and Processing

Relative Amplitude [dB]
2
2
0 1
3 P
-2
4
-4
d(t)
-6
PBS MO
Zero Order

AOM
-8 He-Ne
1 10 632.8 nm
Frequency [MHz]
+1 DUT
x10-5 Or
QWP

Group Delay [rad*s]

de
3 r
-0.6
1234
4 RF Generator Mirror
Phase [rad]

-0.5
0
1 @70 MHz
−1
−1.5
- (B) 2 (C) Fig. 9. A heterodyne Polarization Michelson interferometer. HWP: half
−2
waveplate, AOM: Acousto-Optic Modulator, PBS: polarized beam splitter,
−2.5 QWP: quarter waveplate, MO: microscope objective. P: Polarizer. d(t) is
1 10 1 10 the off-plane displacement of the device under test (DUT) to be measured.
Frequency [MHz] Frequency [MHz]

Fig. 8. Measured frequency response of the sensor. (A) Relative amplitude,

(B) Phase, (C) Group Delay. Measurement uncertainties are smaller than
the beam in order to reflect into the PBS, recombining with
the thickness of the dotted lines. [6] the reference beam. Using a polarizer (P), we force the
interference between the beams

only, the frequency range may be extended up to 8 MHz. 

4π

The measured response agrees with the design simulations. I(t) = A + B cos 2πfAOM t + d(t) + θ(t) (14)
λ
The differential nature of the circuit (Fig. 5) reduces
all DC components and therefore increases the dynamic Heterodyne techniques offer the advantage of reducing the
range of the amplifiers without compromising their gain- number of optical components and noise. The introduction
bandwidth product [1]. We increase the common mode of a carrier signal fAOM allows us to neglect the influence
rejection ratio (CMRR) of the system by biasing both of 1/f noise and reach the shot noise limit detection
photodiodes to the same bias voltage Vbias . In this case, [23]. However, demodulation electronics are more complex
the impact on the performance of the detector due to a and the bandwidth of the front ends are quite broader in
high I DC component is reduced, since we have a distributed comparison to the ones in homodyne systems.
photodetector configuration where each photodiode receives
nearly a quarter of the total optical power delivered by the A. Front-end design and characterization
interferometer output. Since the outputs of the photodiodes An electrical implementation of the front-end is shown in
are balanced, the output signals of the TIAs are practically Fig.10. The PCB was carefully designed to reduce parasitic
insensitive to stray incoherent light and to intensity modula- capacitance in the sensitive parts of the circuit, such as the
tion of the laser source. This improves the overall robustness inverting pin of the operational amplifier and the feedback
of the system and the signal to noise ratio (SNR) of the resistor.
output signal of the TIAs [22].
In the next section, we analyze a design optimized for
wideband applications, such as those found in heterodyne
interferometry.
IV. T HIRD APPROACH : WIDEBAND OPTICAL DETECTION
An interferometric signal I(t) is produced by the het-
erodyne polarization Michelson interferometer described in
Fig. 9. The polarization plane of a linearly polarized He-Ne
laser is adjusted by means of a half-wave plate (HWP) to
ensure that only the polarization normal to the plane of the
experiment enters an acousto–optic modulator (AOM). The
AOM is fed by an amplified radio–frequency (RF) generator
which inputs a sinusoid with a frequency fAOM = 70
MHz. The AOM is oriented at the Bragg angle to improve
Fig. 10. Front end electrical implementation. (A) Schematic Design.
the diffraction efficiency to the first order. The first-order (B) PCB. Design. The ground plane at the bottom under the operational
diffracted beam passes through a Polarization Beam Splitter amplifier is removed to reduce parasitic capacitance in sensitive pins of the
(PBS) using a fixed mirror, and serves as the reference beam. amplifier and feedback resistor.
The test beam is focused on the Device Under Test (DUT)
with a microscope objective (MO), passing twice through a To test the TIA, the photodiode (OPF482 OPTEK Tech-
quarter waveplate (QWP) oriented at 45◦ from the horizontal nology [24]) was replaced by its Thevenin electrical rep-
plane of the experiment, rotating the polarization plane of resentation: a highly valued resitor RP H and its junction

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 Revista elektron, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 16-22 (2017)

capacitance CP H at the corresponding reverse voltage. The V. C ONCLUSIONS

test setup is shown in Fig. 11. We described the design and performance of three tran-
simpedance amplifiers optimized for optical dynamic inter-
Photodiode CF ferometry. In the first case, the most significant charace-
Thevenin model Oscilloscope
Tektronix TDS2024B
teristics of the detector arise from the photodiode param-
RPH RF eters. In the second case, we present the typical topology
Signal Generator
TIA of the operational amplifier TIA, for medium frequency
HP 8648A
CH A CH B
CPH applications. Moreover, we present an approach to balanced
detection to improve the quality of the measurement and
the resolution of the entire interferometric scheme. Finally,
Fig. 11. Test setup for wideband TIA characterization. RF and CF are
the feedback elements of the operational amplifier.
we present a wideband TIA implementation for heterodyne
optoelectronics. The design considerations are similar to
the second case: the gain and bandwidth must be set to
In Fig.12 we show the measured transfer function of two
maximize the SNR in the band of interest, but good practices
implemented TIAs. One TIA uses the OPA657 operational
in high speed PCB layout must be applied to overcome
amplifier from Texas Instruments [19] and the other one
parasitics. As a prospective, we will analyze the design of
uses the LTC6268-10 from Linear Technology [25]. The
ultra high speed transimpedance amplifiers for optical pulse
photodiode parameters are RP H = 22 kΩ and CP H = 2
measurements.
pF in both cases.
VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
OPA657 - RF: 10KΩ - CF: 300 fF LTC6268-10 - RF: 22KΩ - CF: 100 fF
Phase [rad] Magnitude [dB]

Phase [rad] Magnitude [dB]

79

78 81.5
82 This work is supported by four UBACYT
77
80.5
81
grants from Universidad de Buenos Aires (2014-
76 80

75
79.5
79
2017 UBACYT 20020130100346BA, UBACYT
6 7 8 6 7 8
10 10 10
10 10
Frequency [Hz]
10
Frequency [Hz] 2016-2017 20020150200143BA, UBACYT 2017-
3
3 2019 20020160100042BA, UBACYT 2017-2019
2.5 2.8

2 2.6
20020160100052BA). The corresponding author
1.5
7 8
2.4
6 7 8
acknowledges a doctoral scholarship from CONICET.
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]
R EFERENCES
Fig. 12. Transfer function measurement of developed TIAs.
[1] J. Graeme, Photodiode Amplifiers: Op Amp Solutions, ser.
Gain technology. McGraw Hill, 1996. [Online]. Available:
The measured −3 dB frequency in the first TIA is 140 https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sHV0c5hBW4QC
[2] D. Guo, M. Wang, and H. Hao, “Displacement measurement using a
MHz and has a linear phase response up to 20 MHz. In laser feedback grating interferometer,” Applied optics, vol. 54, no. 31,
the second case, the −3 dB frequency is 320 MHz approx- pp. 9320–9325, 2015.
imately and has a linear phase response up to 40 MHz. [3] N. E. Myridis, “Fundamentals of picoscience, edited by klaus d.
sattler,” Contemporary Physics, vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 95–95, 2015.
The LTC6268-10 has a broader frequency response and has [Online]. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00107514.2014.962096
less noise than the OPA657. These characteristics arise from [4] L. Miccio, P. Memmolo, F. Merola, S. Fusco, V. Embrione,
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