Qualitative research

focuses on topics open for discussion and debate, describing aspects through surveys, observations,
interviews, and analysis of artefacts, language, religion, and ethnicity, relie on numerical data and
statistics. It asks open-ended questions to explore and understand societal aspects without
necessarily predicting outcomes or hypotheses.

Quantitative research
aims to prove or disprove something definitively, often dealing with variables and hypothesis testing
through statistical analysis of concrete data such as economic, political, and demographic factors.

In data collection
qualitative research typically uses diverse sources like newspapers, journals, observations, and
interviews, allowing flexibility, while quantitative research relies on numerical data and statistics,
maintaining a more rigid structure.

Interviews

Interviews are commonly chosen for student dissertations and theses, possibly due to their
familiarity in various contexts, from formal job interviews to entertaining celebrity chat shows.
However, the ease of using interviews as a research method is a misconception. Effective interviews
require careful design, preparation, and execution, addressing specific research questions related to
participants' feelings, interpretations, beliefs, or reality construction.

Strength:

Often involves face-to-face contact, fostering rapport and nuanced understanding.

Potential Weakness:

Physical presence can impact data gathering.

Open and Closed Questions

Open Questions:
 An open question permits any response, allowing for a broad range of opinions or
information.

Closed Questions:
 In contrast, a closed question limits responses, often to specific choices like yes/no or
predefined options.
  Closed questions facilitate easy analysis and generation of quantitative data but may lack
nuance in capturing interviewees' detailed perspectives.

Types of interviews

Fontana and Frey (1994) classify interviews based on the depth required for research questions.

Structured interviews employ a predefined set of standardized questions, offering a broad

perspective but limiting in-depth exploration (the interviewer maintains a neutral persona).

Semi-structured interviews use predetermined questions with the flexibility to explore new avenues.
(In this type of interview, a set of questions (interview schedule) provides a loose structure, allowing
deviation based on interviewee responses).

Unstructured interviews lack predetermined questions, allowing interviewees to delve deeply into
issues. The choice of interview type depends on the specific research question and its data collection
requirements. It is often referred to as 'conversational interviews,' they resemble more of a
conversation than a traditional interview. However, unstructured interviews can yield profound and
meaningful data if managed with sensitivity.

Practical Issues with Interviewing

Accessing interviewees:

• Interviews offer depth over breadth, with participant selection based on their value to the study

• The Sampling procedures vary, including interviewing those with diverse opinions, convenience
sampling, or using snowball sampling.

Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling method where new units are recruited by other
units to form part of the sample. Snowball sampling can be a useful way to conduct research about
people with specific traits who might otherwise be difficult to identify (e.g., people with a rare
disease).

(Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling method where units are selected for
inclusion in the sample because they are the easiest for the researcher to access. This can be due to
geographical proximity, availability at a given time, or willingness to participate in the research.)

Managing the process:

• involves deciding on a pilot study to test and refine research procedures, methodologies, and
instruments to ensure their effectiveness and feasibility before implementing them on a larger scale.
Recording methods:
• It depends on the interview type, with structured interviews using response sheets and less
structured ones being audio or video recorded.

• Ethical considerations, especially with children, must be considered when using audio or visual
recording.

Diaries
A diary study is a research method used to collect qualitative data about user behaviors,
activities, and experiences over time. In a diary study, data is self-reported by participants
longitudinally — that is, over an extended period of time that can range from a few days to even a
month or longer.

Observations
Observations, as a research technique, are widely employed in both general social research
and educational research. While interviews focus on "hearing data," observations are considered the
art of "seeing data." The approach to observing data depends on the research project's nature and
the questions posed. Observations can be categorized based on the desired structure: systematic
recording of predetermined activities (structured observation) or watching and recording elements
of a social scene, possibly while participating (unstructured observation).

Structured observations are often associated with quantitative research, as the structured nature
allows for the generation of numerical data. For instance, a study on risk, gender, and outdoor
education involved recording the frequency of warnings given by male and female teachers during
Forest School activities. Different recording techniques, such as frequency count, duration recording,
or interval recording, offer insights into specific aspects of behavior.

On the other hand, a qualitative approach to observation embraces a less structured design frame. In
participant observation, the researcher aims to understand the social world from within,
participating in the observed social setting. The degree of participation can vary, classified into
categories like 'complete-member-researcher,' 'active-member-researcher,' or 'peripheral-member-
researcher.' These distinctions highlight the researcher's role in the observed social scene. In
educational research, particularly in classrooms, complete participation may not be feasible, leading
to considerations of the researcher's level of involvement.

Documentary analysis

Documentary analysis is a form of qualitative research that involves interpreting documents

to give voice and meaning to an assessment topic. Researchers often overlook the significance of
written words, but Prior (2003) emphasizes the value of written words in understanding social action,
similar to the spoken word.
 Secondary data analysis

Secondary data analysis uses data collected by somebody else. This contrasts with primary
data analysis, which involves a researcher collecting predefined data to answer a specific question.
Secondary data analysis has numerous benefits, not least that it is a time and cost-effective way of
obtaining data without doing the research yourself. this data allows you to access information on a
large and diverse population to which you would otherwise not have access.

Preparing Questionnaires

1-Plan Structure:
Carefully structure the questionnaire to generate data answering research questions or testing
hypotheses.

2-Consider Subcategories:
Identify and address subcategories within the research population, such as gender, to tailor
questions accordingly.

3-Tips for Devising a Questionnaire:

• KISS Principle: Keep It Short and Simple for practical questionnaire construction.

• Relevance: Ask questions directly related to research questions; include relevant variables if
crucial to the study.

• Avoid Ambiguity: Ensure clarity in questions to prevent misunderstandings; be specific and

precise.

• Avoid Leading Questions and Negatives: Craft questions impartially; balance positive and
negative inquiries.

4-Draft and Pilot:

Develop and test the questionnaire to eliminate ambiguities or errors; ensure questions are
understandable and answerable.

5-Modification for Useful Data:

Refine questions to encourage participants to provide numerical data, simplifying analysis.

6-Limit Open Text Boxes:

Avoid unless prepared for potential challenges in data quantity and analysis, as they may yield too
little or too much qualitative data
 Maximising your response

When designing a questionnaire, consider the participant's perspective, acknowledging their

valuable time and potential lack of knowledge or interest in your research area. A well-structured
and easily understandable questionnaire tends to yield higher response rates. Similar to interviews,
begin with questions that put the respondent at ease and avoid starting with potentially
uncomfortable inquiries. If using open-ended questions, place them towards the end of the
questionnaire. Provide a concise letter of explanation, outlining your project and indicating the
estimated completion time, using a friendly tone devoid of academic jargon.