Notes in EAPP 12

1st Sem, 2nd Quarter

Quarter 2 – Module 1
Analyzes the Arguments Used by the Writer/s in Manifestoes

VOCABULARY LIST
Manifesto- a document publicly declaring the position or program of its issuer. It advances a
set of ideas, opinions, or views but it can also lay out a plan of action. While it can address any
topic, it most often concerns art, literature, or politics.
Arguments- reasons or the reasoning given for or against a matter under discussion — compare evidence,
proof

LEARNING CONCEPTS
Reading latest articles such as those that are printed on newspapers and even those that are shown on the television is
a must- to- do thing that you should be concerned of because it helps you be acquainted with what is happening
around you. This might give you knowledge on the present societal and political issues such as the dispute between
the government and the leftist and the updates about the COVID- 19 Pandemic. It might also give you idea on the
updates about the trends in literature and the arts. Also, official statements of essential individuals in our society must
also be given consideration. But how would we know that you are reading the right thing?

It is where you need to learn about Manifesto.

Have you ever heard about a manifesto?

Manifesto is a document publicly declaring the position or program of its issuer. It advances a set of ideas, opinions,
or views but it can also lay out a plan of action. While it can address any topic, it most often concerns art, literature,
or politics. Manifesto are generally written in the name of a group sharing a common perspective, ideology, or
purpose rather than in the name of a single individual.

Table 1. Major Categories of Manifesto according to FIRSTPOST.com

If you are going to notice the highlighted words from the characteristics of the different categories of manifesto, the
common thing about them is that a, MANIFESTO or the writer of a manifesto, aims for a change in state or in other
words, the author is trying to convince the reader to believe the concept that he/she is trying to convey by giving
arguments or logical reasons that will catch the attention of the reader and eventually believing it.
How are these changes carried out with just the use of written words? - It is when the author provides reasons
accompanied with evidences to prove the belief, they wanted the reader to believe in or the so- called arguments.
As a reader, the challenge however lies on how will you understand the meaning that the author or writer wanted you
to know.

How will you know the arguments presented?

Let’s take a few moments to review your past lesson about arguments

❖ Arguments is defined as a reason or the reasoning given for or against a matter under
discussion — compare evidence, proof
However, change can only be achieved if the reader fully understands the argument that is
accompanied with evidences(reasons) that the author is trying to emphasize. To do that, take a look at
these steps below.
Quarter 2 – Module 2
DEFENDS A STAND ON AN ISSUE BY PRESENTING REASONABLE ARGUMENTS
SUPPORTED BY PROPERLY CITED FACTUAL EVIDENCES

VOCABULARY LIST
Let’s enrich your vocabulary with these terms that you will encounter throughout this
lesson.
● Stand - viewpoint
● Claims - these are statements that support the author’s stand; ARGUMENT
● Evidences - these are proofs or evidences to strengthen the author’s claim
● Fallacy - an error in reasoning which weakens an argument
● Counterclaims – arguments opposing a stand

A. LOGICAL FALLACIES
What are these logical fallacies? Why is there a need for you to be familiar with it?
LOGICAL FALLACIES are ERRORS IN REASONING that INVALIDATE AN
ARGUMENT. As a critical thinker you have to identify and examine fallacies and manipulative
language. It is therefore important that you know some of the common fallacies.
Warning: Do not use these kinds of logical fallacies when you defend your stand. It weakens your
arguments. So, what are the things that you have to do in order to refrain from these fallacies? Study
the next topic.

B. FACTORS ON AUTHENTICITY AND VALIDITY OF EVIDENCES/INFORMATION

While there is a wealth of information found in various sources electronically or nonelectronically,

you should also keep in mind that not all of these pieces of information are accurate, relevant, valid or
credible. Hence, it is important to evaluate sources of information that you plan to include in your academic
writing venture.

Note: There is always a risk that the sources taken from the Internet or anywhere else have biased or
incorrect information, so you have to evaluate and filter your sources before using them. The following are
some of the criteria assessing whether the source is suitable to use for academic purposes. The criteria
include relevance, authority, currency, contents and location of sources.

1. Relevance of the Source

● How well does the source support your stand?
● You can check the title, table of contents, summary, introduction or
headings of the text to have a sense of its content.
2. Authority/Author’s Qualifications
● Is the author’s name identified?
● Is the author’s background, education or training related to the topic?
● If the source does not have an author, think twice before using it.
● Legitimate academic texts must include citations. Citations demonstrate
that the writer has thoroughly researched the topic and is not plagiarizing
the material.
3. Currency/Date of Publication
● What is the date of the publication?
● In most fields, the data from the older publications may no longer be valid.
As much as possible, the date pf publication should be at most five years
earlier.
4. Contents/Accuracy of Information
● Does the author have a lot of citations in his or her text and/or bibliography
or works cited section?
● You do not want to use source that is disputable, so make sure to verify your
findings with multiple sources.
5. Location of Sources
● Where was the source published? Was it published digitally or in print?
● Is it a book, an academic journal or a reputable news source as
www.nytimes.com or www.economist.com?
● Does it provide complete publication information such as author/s, editor/s,
title, date of publication and publisher?
● What is the URL of the website?
● Avoid using blogs or personal homepage and wiki sites (Wikipedia,
Wiktionary, Wikiquotes)
● If the URL includes the top-level domain .edu, then that means that it has
been published by an academic institution such as university
● Common URLs include .gov (government), .org (organizations), .com
(commercial sites) and .net (network infrastructures). In academic writing,
reputable sites are those with .edu, .gov, .net and .org in URL.
Source: Barrot, J, T. & Sipacio P.J (2016). Communicative Today English for Academic
and Professional Purposes for Senior High School. C&E Publishing, Inc.

Below are the words you will encounter in the discussion in the next following pages. This section will help
you unlock those words to better understand its context.

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

Writes various kinds of position papers.

• Position Paper: A formal, usually detailed written statement, especially regarding a single issue, that
articulates a position, view point, or policy, as of government, organization, or political candidate.
• Argument: A process of reasoning; series of reasons; a statement, reason, or facts for or against a point.

• Opinion: A view or judgment formed about something, not necessarily based on fact or knowledge.

• Logical Appeal: Refers to a reasonable approach in developing an argument.

• Ethical Appeal: Refers to your credibility or believability and competence as a writer.

• Emotional Appeal: Uses arguments in a way that evokes or uncovers feelings.

• Fallacies: Errors in reasoning; a false or mistaken idea.

Definition and Purpose of Position Paper

A position paper presents the writer’s stand or viewpoint on a particular issue. Writing a position paper entails
outlining arguments and proposing the course of action; by doing so, you are already taking part in a large
debate. It is a more complex version of a persuasive essay, however, a position paper is not an essay, but
it has a various parts just like the concept paper. It can be likened with a debate but the presentation of the
arguments is in a written form. Presenting an argument implies that you are favoring one side of the issue.

The primary goal of a position paper is to declare a “position” on a certain matter or an issue. Its secondary
goal is to convince or persuade others to take that side of an issue or matter.

Aside from this, you also have the power to change the opinions and attitude of others when you write a
position paper. Because of this, a position paper can be essential tool in bringing about societal change.
For example, if you do not agree with a certain issue or rule, you can write a position paper to reflect your
point of view.

Like a debate, a position paper presents one side of an arguable opinion about an issue. The goal of a
position paper is to convince the audience that your opinion is valid and defensible. Ideas that you are
considering need to be carefully examined in choosing a topic, developing your argument, and organizing
your paper. It is very important to ensure that you are addressing all sides of the issue and presenting it in a
manner that is easy for your audience to understand. Your job is to take one side of the argument and
persuade your audience that you have well-founded knowledge of the topic being presented. It is important
to support your argument with evidence to ensure the validity of your claims, as well as to refute the
counterclaims to show that you are well informed about both sides.

Issue Criteria
To take a side on a subject, you should first establish the arguability of a topic that interests you. Ask
yourself the following questions to ensure that you will be able to present a strong argument:
• Is it a real issue, with genuine controversy and uncertainty?

• Can you identify at least two distinctive positions?

• Are you personally interested in advocating one of these positions?

• Is the scope of the issue narrow enough to be manageable?

INTRODUCTION
a) Analyze the source/quote: pull it apart sentence by sentence and explain the meaning of the source both
in general terms and more specifically
b) Identify the perspective the source/quote reflects:
c) Explain your understanding of that ideology (discuss key underlying beliefs or political principles or
economic principles)
d) State your position. Do you agree with the ideological perspective or not?

NOTE:
If taking a qualified position, state it clearly and precisely.

II. BODY
a) Explain your first reason to support your position
b) Factual, relevant and accurate evidence to prove your first argument
c) Explain your second argument/reason
d) Factual, relevant and accurate evidence to prove your second argument
e) Explain your third argument/reason
f) Factual, relevant and accurate evidence to prove your last argument

NOTE:
In General, the strongest/best argument should be the last. Others would advise
the first argument by the strongest/best; never the middle argument.

III.CONCLUSION
(Summarize, restate in a forceful manner your position)

NOTE:
Please remember that the conclusion should not merely be a brief repetition of your results – in that case
your discussion would seem fairly pointless. Focus instead on what your results may imply after careful
consideration (consideration that you have outlined in your discussion).

Sample Outline
I. Introduction
___A. Introduce the topic
___B. Provide background on the topic to explain why it is important
___C. Assert the thesis (your view of the issue). More on thesis statements can be found below.

Your introduction has a dual purpose: to indicate both the topic and your approach to it (your thesis
statement), and to arouse your reader’s interest in what you have to say. One effective way of introducing a topic is
to place it in context – to supply a kind of backdrop that will put it in perspective. You should discuss the
area into which your topic fits, and then gradually lead into your specific field of discussion (re: your thesis
statement).

II. Counter Argument

___A. Summarize the counterclaims
___B. Provide supporting information for counterclaims
___C. Refute the counterclaims
___D. Give evidence for argument
You can generate counterarguments by asking yourself what someone who disagrees with you might say
about each of the points you've made or about your position as a whole. Once you have thought up some
counterarguments, consider how you will respond to them--will you concede that your opponent has a point
but explain why your audience should nonetheless accept your argument? Will you reject the
counterargument and explain why it is mistaken?

Either way, you will want to leave your reader with a sense that your argument is stronger than opposing
arguments. When you are summarizing opposing arguments, be charitable. Present each argument fairly
and objectively, rather than trying to make it look foolish. You want to show that you have seriously
considered the many sides of the issue, and that you are not simply attacking or mocking your opponents.

It is usually better to consider one or two serious counterarguments in some depth, rather than to give a
long but superficial list of many different counterarguments and replies.

Be sure that your reply is consistent with your original argument. If considering a counterargument changes
your position, you will need to go back and revise your original argument accordingly.

III. Your Argument

___A. Assert point #1 of your claims
_____1. Give your educated and informed opinion
_____2. Provide support/proof using more than one source (preferably three)
___B. Assert point #2 of your claims
_____1. Give your educated and informed opinion
_____2. Provide support/proof using more than one source (preferably three)
___C. Assert point #3 of your claims
_____1. Give your educated and informed opinion
_____2. Provide support/proof using more than one source (preferably three)

You may have more than 3 overall points to your argument, but you should not have
fewer.

IV. Conclusion
___A. Restate your argument
___B. Provide a plan of action but do not introduce new information

The simplest and most basic conclusion is one that restates the thesis in different words and
then discusses its implications.

Writing with style and clarity

Many students make the mistake of thinking that the content of their paper is all that matters. Although the
content is important, it will not mean much if the reader can’t understand what you are trying to say. You may
have some great ideas in your paper but if you cannot effectively communicate them, you will not receive a
very good mark. Keep the following in mind when writing your paper:

Diction
Diction refers to the choice of words for the expression of ideas; the construction, disposition, and
application of words in your essay, with regard to clearness, accuracy, variety, etc.; mode of expression;
and language. There is often a tendency for students to use fancy words and extravagant images in hopes
that it will make them sound more intelligent when in fact the result is a confusing mess. Although this
approach can sometimes be effective, it is advisable that you choose clear words and be as precise in the
expression of your ideas as possible.

Paragraphs
Creating clear paragraphs is essential. Paragraphs come in so many sizes and patterns that no single
formula could possibly cover them all. The two basic principles to remember are these:

1) A paragraph is a means of developing and framing an idea or impression. As a general rule, you should
address only one major idea per paragraph.
2) The divisions between paragraphs aren’t random, but indicate a shift in focus. In other words you must carefully
and clearly organize the order of your paragraphs so that they are logically positioned throughout your
paper. Transitions will help you with this.

Transitions
In academic writing your goal is to convey information clearly and concisely, if not to convert the reader to
your way of thinking. Transitions help you to achieve these goals by establishing logical connections
between sentences, paragraphs, and sections of your papers. In other words, transitions tell readers what
to do with the information you present them. Whether single words, quick phrases or full sentences, they
function as signs for readers that tell them how to think about, organize, and react to old and new ideas as
they read through what you have written.

Transitions signal relationships between ideas. Basically, transitions provide the reader with directions for
how to piece together your ideas into a logically coherent argument. They are words with particular
meanings that tell the reader to think and react in a particular way to your ideas. In providing the reader
with these important cues, transitions help readers understand the logic of how your ideas fit together.

Grammar and Spelling

You must make certain that your paper is free from grammar and spelling mistakes. Mechanical errors are
usually the main reason for lack of clarity in essays, so be sure to thoroughly proofread your paper before
handing it in. For help with common errors in grammar and usage consult the following websites:

Plagiarism and academic honesty

Plagiarism is a form of stealing; as with other offences against the law, ignorance is no excuse. The way
to avoid plagiarism is to give credit where credit is due. If you are using someone else’s idea, acknowledge it,
even if you have changed the wording or just summarized the main points.

To avoid plagiarism, you must give credit whenever you use

• another person's idea, opinion, or theory;

• any facts, statistics, graphs, drawings--any pieces of information--that are not common knowledge;

• quotations of another person's actual spoken or written words; or

• paraphrase of another person's spoken or written words.

DETERMINES THE OBJECTIVES AND STRUCTURES OF VARIOUS

KINDS OF REPORTS

VOCABULARY LIST
▪ Scholar - a specialist in a particular branch of study, especially the humanities; a distinguished
academic.
▪ Essay - a short piece of writing on a particular subject.
▪ Hard sciences - any of the natural or physical sciences, as chemistry, biology, physics, or
astronomy, in which aspects of the universe are investigated by means of hypotheses and
experiments.

LEARNING CONCEPTS
In this section, you will be understanding the basic principles of writing report in detail,
including what information it contains, how that information is formatted and organized. You may
begin by understanding the meaning of the word, report. Many scholars have defined report as
any informational work made with an intention to relay information or recounting certain events in a
presentable manner. These are often conveyed in writing, speech, television, or film. Moreover,
considering report as an administrative necessity, hence, most official form of information or work
are completed via report.

Note that report is always written in a sequential manner in order of occurrence. A key
feature of report is that it is formally structured in sections. Hence, the use of sections makes it
easy for the reader to jump straight to the information they need.

Unlike an essay which is written in a single narrative style from start to finish, each section
of a report has its own purpose and will need to be written in an appropriate style to suit – for
example, the methods and results sections are mainly descriptive, whereas the discussion section
needs to be analytical.

Reports communicate information which has been compiled as a result of research and
analysis of data and of issues. Please note however that reports can cover a wide range of topics,
but usually focus on transmitting information with a clear purpose, to a specific audience. It this
sense, you can come up with your own definition of report as, “a systematic, articulate, and orderly
presentation of research work in a written form”.

Good reports are documents that are accurate, objective and complete. They should also
be well-written, clearly structured and expressed in a way that holds the reader's attention and
meets their expectations. Remember, that you may be required to write several different types of
reports so it would be better for you to understand them well. So, here are the most common types
of reports that you need to understand, it is well that you get to familiarize the different types of
reports so you know particularly when and how to use them in the near future that your teacher or
your college professor would require you to write one.
[1] TECHNICAL AND BUSINESS disciplines with an applied focus such as Engineering,
Information Technology, Commerce, Accounting and Finance, will set report writing assignments
that simulate the process of report writing in industry. Assignments are set in the form of a problem
or a case study. The students research the problem, and present the results of the research in a
report format.

Technical writing is form of writing technical communication or documentation in science

and technology or applied science that helps people understand a product or service. The main
purpose of technical writing is to inform and to trigger the person into action such as purchasing a
product or
service. Its purpose may also be instruct persuade, but never to entertain. The content is factual
and straightforward. It is expressed in formal, standard or academic language.
The write-up uses a specialized vocabulary and follows a set of rules and conventions. It is
also organized in a sequential or systematic pattern. Often, it is detail-oriented and require
advance knowledge in the specific field. The tone of technical writing output is objective and its
audience is specific uses language to evoke either an emotional or intellectual response from the
audience or reader. Examples of technical writing are end user documentation like user manuals
that accompany cellular phones, personal computers.

[2] FIELD REPORTS are common in disciplines such as Law, Industrial Relations, Psychology,
Nursing, History and Education. These types of reports require the student to analyse his or her
observations of phenomena or events in the real world in light of theories studied in the course.

The purpose of a field report in the social sciences is to describe the observation of people,
places, and/or events and to analyze that observation data in order to identify and categorize
common themes in relation to the research problem underpinning the study. The content
represents the researcher's interpretation of meaning found in data that has been gathered during
one or more observational events.

Field reports are assigned with the intention of improving your understanding of key
theoretical concepts by applying methods of careful and structured observation of, and reflection
about, people, places, or phenomena existing in their natural settings. Field reports facilitate the
development of data collection techniques and observation skills and they help you to understand
how theory applies to real world situations. Field reports are also an opportunity to obtain evidence
through methods of observing professional practice that contribute to or challenge existing
theories.

We are all observers of people, their interactions, places, and events; however, your
responsibility when writing a field report is to conduct research based on data generated by the act
of designing a specific study, deliberate observation, synthesis of key findings, and interpretation
of their meaning.

When writing a field report you need to:

● Systematically observe and accurately record the varying aspects of a situation. Always
approach your field study with a detailed protocol about what you will observe, where you should
conduct your observations, and the method by which you will collect and record your data.
● Continuously analyze your observations. Always look for the meaning underlying the actions you
observe. Ask yourself: What's going on here? What does this observed activity mean? What else
does this relate to? Note that this is an on-going process of reflection and analysis taking place for
the duration of your field research.
● Keep the report’s aims in mind while you are observing. Recording what you observe should not be
done randomly or haphazardly; you must be focused and pay attention to details. Enter the
observation site [i.e., "field"] with a clear plan about what you are intending to observe and record
in relation to the research problem while, at the same time, being prepared to adapt to changing
circumstances as they may arise.
● Consciously observe, record, and analyze what you hear and see in the context of a theoretical
framework. This is what separates data gatherings from reporting. The theoretical framework
guiding your field research should determine what, when, and how you observe and act as the
foundation from which you interpret your findings in relation to the underlying assumptions
embedded in the theoretical framework.

Techniques to record your observations:

Although there is no limit to the type of data gathering techniques you can use, these are the most
frequently used methods:

Note taking
This is the most common and easiest method of recording your observations.

Tips for taking notes include: organizing some shorthand symbols beforehand so that recording
basic or repeated actions does not impede your ability to observe, using many small paragraphs,
which reflect changes in activities, who is talking, etc., and, leaving space on the page so you can
write down additional thoughts and ideas about what’s being observed, any theoretical insights, and
notes to yourself that are set aside for further investigation.

Photography
With the advent of smart phones, an almost unlimited number of high quality photographs can be
taken of the objects, events, and people observed during a field study. Photographs can help
capture an important moment in time as well as document details about the space where your
observation takes place. Taking a photograph can save you time in documenting the details of a
space that would otherwise require extensive note taking.

Video & Audio Recordings

Video or audio recording your observations has the positive effect of giving you an unfiltered
record of the observation event. It also facilitates repeated analysis of your observations. This can
be particularly helpful as you gather additional information or insights during your research.

Illustrations
This does not refer to an artistic endeavor but, rather, refers to the possible need, for example, to
draw a map of the observation setting or illustrating objects in relation to people's behavior.
Please note that techniques of deliberate observation and data gathering are not innate
skills; they are skills that must be learned and practiced in order to achieve proficiency.

[3] SCIENTIFIC REPORTS are another kind of report. They are common in all the Sciences
and Social Sciences. These reports use a standard scientific report format describing methods,
results and conclusions to report upon an empirical investigation.

The purpose of a science report is to clearly communicate your key message about why your
scientific findings are meaningful. In order to do this, you need to explain why you are testing a
hypothesis, what methodology you used, what you found, and why your findings are meaningful.

This requires a clear link between your introduction and your analysis/discussion. The scope and
style of reports varies widely. It depends on three key factors: the report's intended audience, the
report's purpose and the type of information/subject to be communicated.
There are a number of different assignments that may require you to write a report. Selecting a
format for the report may be somewhat difficult; however, using the correct format will make the
report structurally sound and help present information in a more relevant way. The type of report
format being used will depend on the content and context of the report. Reports are a common
academic genre in schools and universities.

Although the exact nature will vary according to the discipline you are studying, the general
structure is broadly similar for all disciplines.

Now, one good example of report that you should know which is commonly used in the field of
hard sciences is referred as Research Report. Here’s why. Writing report is highly scary to
neophytes in the field of research. This feeling of intimidation in preparing a research report is
widespread. Overcoming this fear entails practice and application of certain techniques. There are
different parts of research reports and it takes time to familiarize oneself with the requirement of
each part. Hence it necessitates frequent exposure to and practice on the techniques of research
report writing. The different parts of the research report include the following:
1. Introductory Phase
2. Review of Literature
3. Research Methodology
4. Body of the Report
5. Conclusion
6. Recommendation

Introductory Phase
Introduction is as important as the main parts of a research report. It contextualizes and sets the
tone and direction of research writing. It is like a road map that guides you in your research
journey. According to Reidman (2001), it answers the following questions:
● What was I was studying?
● What did we know about this topic before we study?
● And, how this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding?

Hence, this section indicates not just the context but the significance of research. Moreover, the
introduction encapsulates background information about the topic as it provides discussion on the
purpose of the study, research problem with hypothesis and research questions and briefly
touches on the methods to be applied in investigating the research problem, and outcomes of the
study. It also covers discussion on how paper is organized.

As suggested by Silverman (2006), research report starts with four elements including: title;
abstract; list of contents, and introduction. Below is a brief description of each element.

Research Title
A research title has to get the attention of the readers. In other words, it must be “catchy.” Being
catchy does not mean sacrificing the main message or idea of your report. Hence, according to
Silverman (2006, 339) choose “a title that catches the reader’s attention while properly informing them
about the main focus on your research.” Siverman (2006, 206) is suggesting a “two-part title” containing a
stimulating title applying a present participle signifying action and a subtitle which is more descriptive.

Example:
Stimulating title: Have you ever experience being bullied?
Descriptive title: A study on the perception of the victims of bullying in the primary schools

Research Abstract
A research abstract is a vital component of a report as it provides the readers with a snap view of
what you will expect from it. The abstract gives a synopsis of the objectives and results of the
report to be described in detailed from in the body of the report. Silverman (2006) identified what
an abstract should contain:
1. research problem
2. significance and value of the problem
3. data and methods utilized
4. main findings
5. implication in the light of other research

A research abstract has a word limit. The most common word limit is 100. This is a challenging
part of writing a report because it is difficult to write the many things that you want to impart in just
a few words.

List of Contents
A list of contents is a useful component of a report as it guides the readers to find their way
through the different parts of the report. Hence, the consistency of the page numbers with the
parts of the report is vital. Inconsistent page numbering would result to the reader’s confusion.

Introduction
The introduction acquaints the readers with the what, why and how of the report. According to
Murcott (1997, p. 1) as cited in Silverman (2006), answering the questions below would lead you
to the development of the introduction:

1. What is the research all about?

2. Why have you chosen this topic rather than the other topics?
3. Why are you interested in this topic?
4. How will you undertake the research?
5. What kind of research approach will you utilize?
6. What are your research questions or problems?

Review of Literature
The Review of Related Literature (RRL) provides study background and environment. The
intention of the RRL is to locate the study in its area of discipline and reveal its relevance and
significance in the environment. The RRL would indicate if your topic is building on previous
researchers or if it is a new area of inquiry. The RRL should make one realize that a study is worth
pursuing or not.

According to Silverman (2006), RRL is not a “litany” of all studies done related to the topic. It is also not
an inventory of the accomplishments of other authors on the same topic nor it is a map of projects
similar to the area of study. Rather, it is an environmental or disciplinal context that leads one to
locate one’s study. Hence, Silverman (2008) recommends the following points:
● Focus only on studies that are vital and relevant in defining your research
problem.
● Organize what you say in the form of an argument rather than a simple
description of other studies.

Research Methodology
In research, the research process is as important as the research content. Thus, a research report
must also contain a description of the research strategy. The readers will be interested in finding
how you arrived at a particular study result. Siverman (2008) pointed out that the readers would be
interested to know the following:

1. Research topic
2. Case (s) you have studied
3. Research methods you have chosen to use 4. How you have analyzed the data

This part of the research report is sensitive hence must be dealt with caution. In order for you to
answer questions such as: Is your methodology appropriate for the research problem? How did
you reach that conclusion? Silverman suggested that to be able to answer methodological
questions, you have to be familiar with and knowledgeable about the following:
● Data you have studied
● How you obtained those data
● What claims you are making about the data
● Methods you have used to gather the data
● Why you have chosen this methods
● How you have analyzed your data

Writing Your Data

The most essential part of the report is writing about the data collected through your research.
There are two important areas of consideration in the writing up of the data, namely, data analysis,
and data presentation.

In the data analysis, there is no right or wrong way. Creswell (1994, 153) only requires the
researcher to:
1. “be comfortable with developing categories and making comparisons and contrast”
2. “be open to possibilities and see contrary or alternative explanations for the findings”
To assist the researcher in the data analysis, attention must be given to (a) sorting information into
categories, (b) formatting the information into a story or picture, (c) actual data analysis and write
up.

Writing the Conclusion

How do you characterize conclusions? Conclusion are inferences, deductions, abstraction,

implications, interpretations, general statements, and/or generalizations based on findings. An
example of which is: “All the teachers were qualified to teach in the high school but the majority of them
were not qualified to teach science. ” (Khemer, 2009).

A good conclusion answers the specific questions identified at the introductory phase of the research.
For example, if the question identified is, “How adequate are the needs and the facilities for teaching
science? And then the findings reveal that the facilities are less than the needs of the students, the
answer and the conclusion should be: The facilities for the teaching of science are inadequate.
(Khreme, 2009).

Writing The Recommendation

The research recommendation is a part of the paper where you make suggestions about some
resolutions as a response to the research problem. It must be consistent part of the conclusion. It
proposes specific solutions connected with the findings and must be supported by relevant data
and specific data from the findings.

Below are some tips from Teljlingen (2011) on how to write recommendations:
● “You should not recommend anything that you have not previously discussed in the discussion. The rule
‘no new material’ in your conclusion is also applicable to your ‘Recommendations.’”
● “Recommendations are not the same as conclusions. Consider recommendations go one step further
than conclusions as (s) ‘something’; (b) ‘someone; and (c) ‘needs to do.’’”
● There may be different levels within your set recommendations: for (a) academic (i.e., research is
needed into…), (b) for policy-makers (e,g., data protection act needs to change to accommodate…); for (c)
practitioners (i.e., managers in local government need to consider the mental well-being of their
staff); or recommendation for (d) training/education.

Often reports are structured in a way that reflects the information finding process and the writing
up of the findings: that is, summary of the contents, introduction or background, methods, results,
discussion, conclusion and/or recommendations. The inclusion of recommendations is one reason
why reports are a common form of writing in industry, as the informed recommendations are useful
for decision making.

Remember that in writing Laboratory Reports, no student should copy data from anyone who is
not his or her lab partner. You may discuss the experiment with your lab partner and other
classmates, but the lab report that you turn in must be your own work. Lab reports are subject to
all the rules governing academic honesty. Photocopies of any parts of the lab report are not
permissible.

Writing Various Reports

a. Survey Report b. Science Lab Report c. Field Report

VOCABULARY LIST
● Survey report is a paper which presents the results of the author’s research.
● Field Report is usually used in the field of social sciences to link theory and application. It contains the
author’s observation when out on the field and analysis using theoretical concepts from the discipline. Filed report
can be personal and simple.
● Laboratory or Scientific Technical Report is written by those in the sciences mainly to persuade others
to accept or reject hypothesis, record the details for future researchers, and document a current
phenomenon for the future references.

LEARNING CONCEPT
General Guidelines for Writing the Survey/ Field/ Laboratory/ Scientific/ Technical
Report
1. Value Communicated
Objective, accurate, and honest presentation of facts and results
2. Basic Content
a. May consist of eyewitness accounts or first- hand information
b. May contain facts, data, figures, or statistics on or from people, events, phenomena, structure,
experiments, questionnaires, interviews, and library research
c. May include materials and procedures or methods
3. Modes of Ordering
a. Chronological or time order
b. Geographical or space/spatial
c. Logical – inductive and deductive
d. Problem – Solution
e. Cause and Effect
f. Formal
4. Basic Qualities of a Good Report
a. Objective not subjective point of view
b. Accurate, not sloppy presentation of facts, numbers, statistics, and data.
c. Honest, not false or incomplete details and results
d. Brief and direct sentences According to; Laurel, Lucero, and Cruz (2016)

How to Write a Survey Report

After conducting a survey, all you need to do is to write the survey report. It describes the survey, its
results, and any patterns or trends found in the survey. Most survey reports follow a standard organization,
broken up under certain headings. Each section has a specific purpose.
● Step 1 Divide the report into separate sections with headings. There might be slight difference between
reports, but the headings are typically the same.

Abstract – Introduction - Background – Statement of the Problem – Materials – Method or Procedure –

Results – Discussion - Summary – Conclusion, and Recommendations.

● Step 2 One-to-Two-page summary paraphrasing the report. A summary condenses the main points of
the report into few pages. It should include:

. Methodology
. Key results of the survey
. Conclusions drawn from the results of the survey.
. Recommendations based on the results of the survey.

Step 3 State the objectives of the survey in the background section. Start the section by saying why the
survey was conducted. Explain the hypothesis and goals of the survey.
It contains the target population
: Who is being studied, Variables of the study
: What is the survey trying to study? Is the study looking for associations or relationships between two
things? And the purpose of the study
: How will this information be used? What new information can this survey help us realize?

● Step 4 Provide background information by explaining similar research and studies. This research can
help you determine if your survey results support current beliefs on the topic or disagree with them. Write 2
or more pages explaining the issue and how other researches have approached it.

● Step 5 Explain the Method and Results

Explain how the study was conducted in the methodology section. This section helps readers understand
how the survey was conducted. This section may be several pages long.

Who did you ask? How can you define the gender, age, and other characteristics?
Did you do the survey over email, telephone, website or 1-on-1 interview? Were the participants randomly
chosen or selected for a certain reason?
How large was the sample size? How many people answered the results of the survey?

● Step 6 Describe what type of questions were asked in the methodology section. Common types of
questions include multiple choice, interviews, and rating scales. Describe the general theme of the questions.
Example “Participants were asked to answer questions about their daily routine and dietary practices.

● Step 7 Report the results of the survey in a separate section. Once you have detailed the methodology of
the survey in full, start a new section that shows the results of the survey. This section is usually several
pages long.

● Step 8 Point out any interesting trends in the results section. To help your readers understand the
significance of your survey, highlight the interesting patterns, trends, or observations.

● Step 9 Analyze your results State the implications of your survey at the beginning of the conclusion. At
the
beginning of this section, write a paragraph that summarizes the key takeaway points of your survey. Ask
yourself what readers should learn from the survey.

● Step 10 Make recommendations about what needs to be done about the issue. Once you have reported
the results of the survey, state what the reader should take away from the survey. What does the data
imply? What action should people take based on the results?
This part might be few pages long.
Example: More research needs to be done on this topic or Current guidelines or policy need to be changed.
The company or institution needs to take action.

● Step 11 Include graphs, charts, surveys, and testimonies in the appendices

● Step 12 Polish your report Add a title page and table of contents to the first 2 pages, cite your research
according to the style required for the survey report, Adopt a clear, objective voice throughout the paper.

Remember that your job is to report the results of the survey. Try not to cast judgement on the participants
or the survey results. Write in a concise, simple, sentences. State the information in the simplest way
possible. Revise your paper thoroughly before submitting. According to; Laurel, Lucero, and Cruz (2016)

Laboratory or scientific technical report

Laboratory or scientific technical report is written by those in the sciences mainly to persuade others to
accept or reject a hypothesis, record the details for future researches, and document a current
phenomenon for future reference or comparison. (Laurel et.al., 2016)

Guidelines for Lab reports

A laboratory report has three main functions:
1. To provide a record of the experiments and raw data included in the report.
2. To provide sufficient information to reproduce or extend the data, and
3. To analyze the data, present conclusions and make recommendations based on the experimental work.
General Comments
The most important requirement for a laboratory report is clarity. In short, a report should be readable
therefore spelling and grammar must be correct.

Lab Report Structure

I. Cover Sheet
This page has the course number and assigned lab section, the title of the experiment, your name, your lab
partner’s names, the date that the lab was performed and your TA’s name.

II. Abstract
The purpose of this page is to help a reader decide if your paper is of interest to him/her. (This section is
the executive summary in a corporation or government report; it is often the only section that a manager
reads.) The abstract should be able to stand by itself, and it should be brief. Generally, it consists of three
parts which answer these questions:
✔ What did you do? - A statement of the purpose of the experiment, a concise description of the experiment
and physics principles investigated.
✔ What were your results? – Highlight the most significant results of the experiment.

✔ What do these results tell you? – depending on the type of experiment, this is conclusions and
implications of the results or it may be lessons learned from the experiment.

Note: Write the abstract after all the other sections are completed. You need to know all in your
report before you can write a summary of it.

III. Data Sheets

For each experiment, the lab manual has one or more data sheets for recording raw data, as well as
intermediate and final data values. These are not for doodling, but for recording your data. Record the data
neatly in pen. If your data values are so sloppily recorded that you must recopy them, then the accuracy of
the data is questionable. This fact will be reflected in your laboratory performance score. If there is a
mistake, then draw a single line through that value. “White – Out” and similar covering agents are expressly
forbidden.
The values that you record on your data sheet must have:

• Units (such as kg for kilograms)

• Reasonable uncertainty estimates for given instruments and procedures
• Precision consistent with uncertainty (proper significant digits)
• Propagation of error for calculated quantities
• Your lab instructor’s initials
If you happen to forget your lab manual, then you will take your data on notebook paper. Your lab instructor
will initial that as your data sheet, and you will turn that in with your lab report as well as your own data
sheet from the lab manual.

IV. Graphs
You must follow the guidelines in the lab manual for all graphs. The first graphs of the semester must be
made by hand, not computer software. After your lab instructor gives permission, you may use computer
software to make graphs. Those graphs must also conform to the guidelines in the lab manual. Remember
that when plotting data with units, both the slope and intercept of a graph also have units.

V. Sample Calculations
Show calculations in a neat and orderly outline form. Include a brief description of the calculation, the
equation, numbers from your data substituted into the equation and the result. Do not include the
intermediate steps. Numbers in the sample calculations must agree with what you recorded in your data
sheet.

For calculations repeated many times, you only include one sample calculation. Answers should have the
proper number of significant figures and units. Typing the equation into the lab report is not required; it is
easier and faster to print these calculations neatly by hand. If you wish to type this section, then use the
equation editor in Microsoft Word. Your Lab instructor can give you information on using the equation
editor. Laurel et al., (2016)

VI. Discussion of Results

This is the most important part of the lab report; it is where you analyze the data. (In the future, you may not
actually collect data; a lab technician or other people may collect the raw data. Regardless of your
discipline, the most challenging and rewarding part of your work will be analyzing the data.) Begin the
discussion with the experimental purpose and briefly summarize the basic idea of the experiment with
emphasis on the measurements you made and transition to discussing the results. State only the key
results (with uncertainty and units) quantitatively with numerical values; do not provide intermediate
quantities. Your discussion should
address questions such as:

• What is the relationship between your measurements and your results?

• What trends were observable?
• What can you conclude from the graphs that you made?
• How did the independent variables affect the dependent variables? (For example, did an increase in a given
measured (independent) variable result an increase or decrease in the associated calculated (dependent)
variable? Then describe how your experimental results substantiate /agree with the theory.

(This is not a single statement that your results agree or disagree with the theory.) When comparison
values are available, discuss the agreement using either uncertainty and/or percent differences. This leads
into the discussion of the sources of error. In your discussion of sources of error, you should discuss all
those things that affect your measurement, but which you can’t do anything about given the time and equipment
constraints of this laboratory. Included in this would be a description of sources of error in your
measurement that bias your result (e.g. friction in pulleys that are assumed frictionless in the formula). Your
analysis should describe the qualitative effect of each source of error (e.g. friction slowed motion, causing a
smaller value of acceleration to be measured) and, where possible, provide an estimate of the magnitude of
the errors they
could induce. Describe only the prominent sources of error in the experiment. For example, the precision of
the triple balance beam, a fraction of a gram, compared to the 250.0 g lab cart is not significant. Note that a
tabulation of all possible errors without any discussion of qualitative effect of the error will receive no credit.
Your discussion should address questions such as:
• Are the deviations due to error / uncertainty in the experimental method, or are they due to idealizations inherent
in the theory (or both)?
• If the deviations are due to experimental uncertainties, can you think of ways to decrease the amount of
uncertainty.
• If the deviations are due to idealizations in the theory, what factors has the theory, neglected to consider? Laurel
et al., (2016)

The following template maybe helpful to you in writing your Lab Report.
Name ________________
Date of Lab ___________
Partner’s last names _____________
Title___________________

Abstract
An abstract is a short summary giving the most important information about your experiment. It should be
brief and include the following:

Title: should be descriptive of the content.

Objective: 1 or 2 sentences telling why this study is important. This should include your question. That is,
what you are testing and why is this important.
Hypothesis: 1 sentence stating the hypothesis that you are testing.
Methods: 2-3 sentences. A brief summary of your procedure explaining: How exactly did you set up the
experiment?
Results: 1-2 sentences. Briefly tell what your data reveals. Quantify your results.
Example 90% of the plants grew in 2 weeks.
Conclusion: 1-2 sentences. Summarize your results, be specific. Was the hypothesis supported or not?

Data and Observation

Displays data in organized manner such as charts, graphs, illustrations, etc. and brief statements
describing data displays.
Analysis of Data: Gives the reader quantitative interpretation of the data. That is comparison using
percentage, ratio, and statistical results.
Calculations
Show work, include units, and clearly label your results

Discussion of Results:
. States if hypothesis (es) have been supported or rejected by the results of the study.
. Discuss why the hypothesis (es) are supported or rejected, using the data analysis as evidence.
. Discuss any problems that may have altered results such as a constant variable that could not be
controlled, human error, or error due to instrumentation etc. suggests future questions for research
concerning this study, or suggestions for further investigations.

Source: Pinterest

Note: Lab reports should be written on a bond paper, typed, double spaced, Times New Roman print, 12
font, 1 inch margins, pages numbered. Each heading is bold, capitalized and underlined.

Field Report
A field report is usually used in the field of social sciences to link theory and application. It usually contains
the author’s observations when out on the field and an analysis using theoretical concepts from the discipline.
Although research papers are formal in tone and style, field reports can be personal and simple (Barrot,
2016)

The purpose of a field report in the social sciences is to describe the observation of people, places, and/or
events and to analyze that observation data in order to identify and categorize common themes in relation
to the research problem underpinning the study. The content represents the researcher’s interpretation of
meaning found in data that has been gathered during one or more observational events. Source: USC Libraries.

Every day, we try to observe people, events, places, etc., but when we write a field report, our responsibility
is to conduct a research from data gathered, observation, findings and interpretation of their meaning.

Here are some important things to remember when writing a field report:

Systematically observe and accurately record the varying aspects of a situation. Keep in mind what you will observe,
where you should conduct your observations, and the method by which you will collect and record your data.
Continuously analyze your observations. Always look for the meaning underlying the actions you observe. Ask yourself:
What’s going on here? What does this observed activity mean? What else does this relate to? Keep the report’s aims in mind
while you are observing. Focus and pay attention to details, observation site or field, with a clear plan about what you want
to observe and record in relation to the research problem. Consciously observe, record, and analyze what you hear
and see in the context of a theoretical framework. This is what separates data gathering from reporting. The
theoretical framework guiding your field research should determine what, when, and how you observe and act as the
foundation from which you interpret your findings in relation to the underlying assumptions embedded in the
theoretical framework. Source: USC

How to record your observations

1. Note Taking
2. Photography
3. Video and Audio Recordings
4. Illustrations/Drawings

What are the things to be documented while observing?

● Physical setting. The characteristics of an occupied space and the human use of the space where the
observations are being conducted
● Objects and material culture. The presence, placement and arrangement of Objects that impact the
behavior or actions of those being observed.
● Use of language. Listen to what is being said, how is it being said, and the tone of conversations among
participants.

Behavior cycles. This refers to documenting when and who performs what behavior or task and how often
they occur. Record at which stage this behavior is occurring within the setting.

The order in which events unfold. Note sequential patterns of behavior or the moment when actions or
events take place and their significance and moments that diverge from these sequential patterns of
behavior or actions.

Physical characteristics of subjects. If relevant, note personal characteristics of individuals being observed.
Expressive body movements. This would include body posture or facial expressions.

The Structure and writing Style

Most field reports in social sciences include the following elements

I. Introduction
It should describe the research problem, the specific objectives of your research and the important theories
or concepts behind your field of study. It tells about the nature of the organization or setting where you are
conducting the observation, what type of observations you have conducted, what your focus was, when you
observed, and the methods you used for collecting the data. Also, your reasons why you chose the
observation site and the people or events within it. You should also include a review of related literature to
the research problem then conclude your introduction with a statement about how the rest of the paper is
organized.

II. Description of Activities

Provide enough details to place the analysis that will follow into proper context. A useful method to
thoroughly describe varying aspects of an observed situation is to answer the “Five W’s of Investigative
Reporting.

What – describe what you observed. Ex. As a student, what is your impression of using ICT such as
Computer and Projector as a tool in learning research subject?

Where - Provide information about the setting of your observation. Example arrangement or groupings of
students in a class in relation to student teacher learning interaction.

When - Record factual data on the day and the beginning and ending time of each observation.

Who - Note background and demographic information about individuals being observed ex. Age, gender,
ethnicity etc. Record also who is doing what and saying what, as well as who is not doing or saying what.

Why - Describe the reasons for selecting situations to observe. Note why something happened.
III. Interpretation and Analysis
Place the analysis and interpretations of your field observations within the larger context of the theoretical
assumptions and issues you described in the introduction.

Here are some questions to ask when analyzing your observations:

✔ What is the meaning of what you have observed?

✔ Why do you think what you have observed happened? What evidence do you have for your reasoning?

✔ What events or behaviors were typical or widespread? If appropriate, what was unusual or out of the
ordinary?
✔ Do you see any connections or patterns in what you observed?

✔ Why did the people you observed proceed with an action in the way that they did? What are the
implications of this?
✔ Did the stated or implicit objectives of what you are observing match to what was achieved?

✔ What were the strengths and weaknesses of the observations you recorded?

✔ Did you see connections between what you observed, and the findings of similar studies identified from
your review of related literature?
✔ Have you learned something from what you observed?

IV. Conclusion and Recommendations

It is the summary of the entire study which emphasize the importance of your observations. You should
also include your recommendations based on the results of the study. The conclusion should not be more
than two or three paragraphs.

V. Appendix
This is where you would place information that is not essential to explaining your findings but supports your
analysis, validates the conclusions and the reader understand the overall report. Ex. Figures, tables,
graphs, charts, statistics, pictures, maps etc.

VI. References
List all sources that you consulted and gathered information from while writing your field report.