African Centre for National Advanced School of

Advanced Studies Engineering of Yaounde, UYI

ELECTRIC AND ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

PHY 225

Dr. DIDIER BELOBO BELOBO

Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 Overview
Objectives: Communicate to the student the basic concepts of design and analysis of analog
electrical and electronic circuits

Expected results: Design and analysis of electrical and electronic circuits (Electrical
Engineering)

Methodology: Lecture and tutorials

Mandatory documentation: Lecture’s notes

Optional documentation: internet links; textbooks:

tests: intermediate 40 percent; final exam 60 percent:

Homeworks: there will be homeworks: groups and or individuals ones

Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 Syllabus
DIODES and APPLICATIONS: Introduction to semiconductors; PN junction; PN junction diodes;
Half-wave rectifier; Full-wave rectifier; Zener diode; voltage stabilization by a Zener diode

Transistors: Introduction; Bipolar junction transistor; Transistor effect; Characteristics of

transistors; Field effect transistors; Junction field effect transistors;

Amplifier Transistors: Biopolar Transistor Amplifiers; Field Effect Biopolar Transistors

Operational Amplifiers: Description; Characteristics and parameters of OA; Linear

Approximation of OA circuits; Nonlinear approximation of OA circuits

Diodes and transistors in commutation: Diodes in Switching; Biopolar Transistors in

Switching; Field Effect Transistors in Switching;
Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 Introduction to semiconductors
Introduction
(a) Copper Cu Electronic conduction: passage of free electrons through a material.
(c) Silicon Si
Fig. 1

Electrical conductors: Some Electrical insulator: a material Electrical semiconductors: Some

materials which electricity whose internal electric charges materials made of atoms with 4
pass through them easily. do not flow freely. electrons on their outer shell.

Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 Introduction to semiconductors
Fig. 2
Best conductors (silver,
copper, and gold) : 1 valence
electron

Best insulators : 8 valence

electrons

Best semiconductors : 4 valence

electrons
Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 Introduction to semiconductors
Crystal or crystalline solid: solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules,
or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice
that extends in all directions.
Covalent Bond: chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.

Fig. 4
(a) (b)

1 Si atom in crystal has 4 neighbors, 1 neighbor shares 1 electron

Fig. 3 with the central atom, 5 atoms have 8 atoms on each outer shell
Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 Introduction to semiconductors
Fig. 5 Ambient Temperature > 0, heat energy induces vibrations of Si atoms in the
crystal, some electrons of outer shells may be dislodged, move to higher
orbit, thus are free to move along the crystal, few electrons are produced.
HOLE: The departure of the electron creates a vacancy in the valence
orbit called a hole that behaves like a positive ion (departure of
electron = positive ion) that attracts and captures any electron in the
immediate vicinity.
Fig. 6

Free electrons move randomly throughout the crystal. Occasionally, a

free electron will approach a hole, feels its attraction, and fall into it.
Recombination: merging of a free electron and a hole.
lifetime: amount of time between the creation and disappearance of
a free electron, from nanoseconds to microseconds.
Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 Introduction to semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductors: Pure semiconductors, have less than one impurity per 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 atoms;
characteristics close to insulators.
A free electron in a large orbit at right end of crystal, due to negatively charged plate, is repelled
to the left, can move from one large orbit to the next until it reaches the positive one.

Fig. 7
The free electron at A is attracted and
captured by the hole on the left, a hole is
created where the just moved electron was, at
the end, electrons move following the arrows,
the hole can move the opposite way, along
path A-B-C-D-E-F, acting the same as
a positive charge.

Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 Introduction to semiconductors
Two opposite flows in an intrinsic semiconductor
Thermal agitation creates some The applied voltage forces free electrons to flow left
number of free electrons and holes. but holes to flow right; free electrons arriving at left
end of the crystal enter the external wire and flow to
the positive battery terminal.

Free electrons at the negative battery terminal

flow to right end of the crystal, enter the crystal and
recombine with holes that arrive at the right end of
crystal.
No hole flows outside the semiconductor.
Fig. 8
Free electrons and holes are often called charge
carriers because they carry a charge from one place to
another.
Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 Introduction to semiconductors
DOPING A SEMICONDUCTOR
Extrinsic semiconductors: adding impurities to a pure semiconductor to the order of 1 impurity
per 𝟏𝟎𝟓 - 𝟏𝟎𝟖 atoms results to a drastic dropping of its resistivity hence increasing it electrical
conductivity; the semiconductor is a called a doped semiconductor or an extrinsic
semiconductor.
Increase the number of free electrons
To increase the number of free electrons, pentavalent atoms are added to
the molten pure semiconductor, thus the pure semiconductor is first melted.
Fig. 9
Fig. 8: case of Si pure semiconductor, each pentavalent atom
brings 1 free electron as the four other enter four covalent
bonds with 4 neighboring Si atoms, each pentavalent atom is
called a donor atom.

Heavily doped semiconductors have lower resistance, thus

higher electrical conductivity.
Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 Introduction to semiconductors
Increase the number of holes

Adding a trivalent impurity in a pure semiconductor, one whose atoms

have only three valence electrons, a semiconductor with an excess
holes is created.

Fig. 10: case of a pure Si semiconductor doped with a trivalent atom,

Fig. 10 the trivalent atom at the center shares its 3 valence electrons with its 4
Si atoms neighbors, a hole appears since there are only 7 electrons on
the valence orbit of the trivalent atom.

The inserted trivalent atom is called an acceptor atom since each hole
can accept or capture one free electron.

Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 Introduction to semiconductors
Types of extrinsic semiconductors

N-type semiconductor: a semiconductor that has been doped

with a pentavalent impurity; it has an excess of free electrons,
free electrons outnumber the holes see Fig. 11.

Fig. 11 Free electrons: majority carriers.

Holes: minority carriers.

P-type semiconductor: a semiconductor that has been doped

with a trivalent impurity; it has an excess of holes, holes
outnumber free electrons see Fig. 12.

Holes: majority carriers.

Fig. 12 Electrons: minority carriers.
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 Introduction to semiconductors
PN- junction: border between P-type and N-type semiconductors

Fig 12 left side: red circled - are trivalent atoms, blue + are holes
right side: blue circled + are pentavalent atoms, red – free
electrons, this PN crystal is also called a junction diode
Fig. 13
Diffusion: free electrons in the N- side of Fig. 13 diffuse due to repulsions among them; some
cross the junction, a free electron that enters the P region becomes a minority carriers, has a
short lifetime as it soon recombines with a hole, hence becomes a valence electron and the
hole ‘disappears’.
Ions pairs creation: each free electron that diffuses across the junction induces a pentavalent
positively charge in N-side, it creates a negative ion in P-side as it is captured by a hole from a
trivalent atom, both ions created in each side of the junction are fixe object since they cannot
move like free electrons due to covalent bondings.
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 Introduction to semiconductors
Fig. 14 circled + are positive ions, circled – negative ions,
Creation of ions near the junction.

Dipole: a pair of positive and negation ions separated by a small

distance. Near the junction, the creation of a dipole means a
reduction charge carriers (e-).
Fig. 14

Depletion layer: the number of dipoles increases, the region near

the junction is emptied of charge carriers. The empty region is
called depletion layer, see Fig. 15.

Fig. 15
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 Introduction to semiconductors
Potential barrier: each dipole near the junction has an
𝐄𝐢𝐧𝐭 electric field, the electric field near the junction 𝐄𝐢𝐧𝐭 ; as
the number of electrons crossing the junction increases,
the electric field increases too up to an equilibrium is
riched; at this equilibrium, any electrons entering the
Fig. 14 depletion layer is repelled by the electric field, its electric
potential, 𝐕𝟎 , is the potential barrier.

𝟎
𝐄𝐢𝐧𝐭 = −𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐕𝟎 ; 𝐕𝟎 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟕 V, for a Si at 𝟐𝟓 C.
𝐕𝟎 stops the motion of free carriers; minority carriers can cross the depletion
layer; existence of a tiny electric current passing through the depletion layer due
to minority carriers.
Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 Introduction to semiconductors
Forward bias diode

Positive source terminal is connected to the P-type material.

Negative source terminal is connected to the N-type material.

𝐕 < 𝐕𝟎 free electrons do not have enough energy to cross the

depletion layer, they are reppelled, no current circulation.
Fig. 16 forward bias diode
𝐕 > 𝐕𝟎 free electrons have enough energy to cross the depletion
layer, continuous current through the diode.

The width of the depletion layer reduces.

𝐕 > 𝐕𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟕 𝐕, continuous current through Si diode from P to

N: this is called forward current.
Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 Introduction to semiconductors
Reverse bias diode

Positive source terminal is connected to the N-type material.

Negative source terminal is connected to the P-type material.

The depletion layer widens with encreasing applied voltage

V, the depletion layer stops growing for 𝐕 = 𝐕𝟎 , electrons and
holes stop moving away from the junction.
Fig. 17 reverse bias diode
There exists a current passing through the depletion layer stemming from minority carriers,
this is called saturation current 𝐈𝐒 , 𝐈𝐒 ≈ 𝟎.
Origin of 𝐈𝐒 : thermal energy produces free electrons and holes in the depletion layer, these
minority carriers cross the depletion layer.
Surface-leakage current: small current flowing on the surface of the crystal due to surface
impurities and imperfections of the crystal.
Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 Introduction to semiconductors
Breakdown voltage

Diodes have maximum voltage ratings, breakdown voltage is the limit voltage after which the
reverse bias diode will be destroyed if the external voltage is increased.

At the breakdown voltage, the diode conducts heavily as a large number of minority carriers
appear in the depletion layer.

As the reverse voltage increases, the velocity of minority carriers increases too, after a
collision between one minority carrier and a valence electron of an atom of the crystal, an
electron might be expelled from the valence orbit to a large one and becomes a free moving
carrier, now 2 moving carriers expel 2 electrons and there are 4 free carriers and so on: this is
the avalanche effect.

Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 Introduction to semiconductors
Current flowing through the PN junction

Current in forward bias diode: Eq. (1)

Current in reverse bias diode: 𝐼 ≈0𝐴 Eq. (2)

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 DIODES
A diode is forward bias if the external circuit pushes
the current in the direction of the diode’s arrow;
one might also use the Thevenin theorem to
determine wether the diode is forward bias or
reverse bias.
Fig. 18 Diode symbol Fig. 19 diode forward bias in a circuit
Diode intensity – voltage characteristics, Fig. 24
Forward bias diode: zero current until diode’s
voltage becomes greater than 𝐕𝟎 .
Reverse bias diode: zero current until diode’s voltage
reaches breakdown voltage, creation of large current.
Knee voltage: 𝐕𝐊 voltage at which current increases
Fig. 20 fastly for forward bias diode, 𝐕𝐊 = 𝐕𝟎 .
Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 DIODES

Diode bulk resistance: sum of resistances of the P-type and N-type, 𝐑 𝐁 = 𝐑 𝐏 + 𝐑 𝐍 .

Maximum forward current: maximum current a diode can safely handle without shortening
its life or degrading its characteristics.

Power dissipation Eq. (3)

Power rating: maximum power the diode can safely dissipate

without shortening its life or degrading its properties. Eq. (4)

Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 DIODES
Fig. 21
Diodes approximations:

Current is zero until diode’s voltage reaches the barrier potential, near
0.6 – 0.7 V current increases, after 0.8 V current increases fastly and is
almost a straight line.

Though different, the graph of all diodes are similar to that of Fig. 25.

Son one can and should use approximations for a diode.

Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 DIODES: approximations

Fig. 22 ideal case, 1st approximation Fig. 23 2nd approximation

Fig. 24 3rd approximation

Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 DIODES: approximations
Load line analysis
Current through the diode Eq. (5)

Saturation point: maximum current corresponding to

source voltage 𝑽𝑺 and load 𝑹𝑺 , 𝑽𝑫 = 𝟎 𝑰𝑫 = 𝑽𝑺 /𝑹𝑺 Eq. (6)
Fig. 25
Cutoff point: minimum diode current 𝑰𝑫 = 𝟎 𝑽 𝑫 = 𝑽𝑺 Eq. (7)

Load line: geometric representation of Eq.(5).

Operating point or Q point: intersection between the load line and diode curve; it works both
for the circuit and the diode.

Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B
 DIODES: approximations
Load line analysis

Fig. 26

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 Diode applications: half-wave rectifier
Ideal diode approximation

Fig. 28 sinusoidal source voltage 𝑽𝐢𝐧 Fig. 29 output load voltage 𝑽𝐨𝐮𝐭,
Fig. 27 half-wave
𝑽𝐏(𝐢𝐧) maximum amplitude of 𝑽𝐢𝐧 𝑽𝐏(𝐨𝐮𝐭) maximum amplitude of 𝑽𝐨𝐮𝐭
rectifier circuit

negative input cycles,

positive input cycles, diode is reverse bias, 1st
diode is forward bias, 1st approximation
approximation
Fig. 30 Fig. 31
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 Diode applications: full-wave rectifier
V(t) Fig. 32 full-wave rectifier circuit Fig. 33 source voltage positive cycles

V>0
V>0

V<0

Fig. 34 source voltage negative cycles

V<0
Fig. 35 output load voltage
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 Diode applications: zener diode

𝑰𝒁𝑻 test current at a special 𝑽𝒁

Fig. 36 Zener
provided by the manufacturer.
diode symbols

𝑰𝒁𝑴 maximum reverse current

Fig. 37 Zener diode current to voltage curve

Zener resistance: inverse of slope in the breakdown region, resistance in the breakdown
region.
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 Diode applications: zener diode
𝑹𝑺 : series resistance to limit reverse
current though diode, hence avoids
diode damaging current, zener diode
usually used reverse bias like in Fig. 43.
Fig. 39 ideal Zener diode
Fig. 38 Zener diode reverse bias

Zener effect: creation of a large number of free electrons by removing them from their
valence orbit due to an intense electric field.
Zener effect appears in the breakdown region of a Zener diode, the reverse current becomes
very high.

Electric and electronic circuits – STI 2054– National Advanced School of Engineering of Yde – UYI – 2023 D. B B