Fiber Science

By Chamal Jayasinghe (B.Sc. Engineering (Textiles))

Associate Diploma in Clothing Manufacturing – Brandix Corporate Campus

Fiber Science – Associate Diploma in Clothing Manufacturing - BCC

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 Fiber Science – Associate Diploma in Clothing Manufacturing - BCC

Fibers

Fibers are thin long strands which consist of natural or synthetic materials. Some of these fibers
can be used as a textile fiber when it fulfills the needful parameters. Commonly used fibers in the
textile industry can be mentioned as follows.

Cotton , Flax , Silk , Polyester , Nylon , Viscose , etc.

Definition of Fiber

Fiber is a unit of matter characterized by flexibility, fineness and a high ratio of length to thickness.

Basic demands required by matters to be considered as textile fires are,

a. Flexibility
b. Fineness
c. High Ratio of Length to Thickness

The most needful thing for a matter to become a fiber is its length to diameter ratio which should
be greater than 100. To manufacture textiles successfully this ratio should be at least 1000 : 1 (
ex. Cotton – Length : Diameter = 1400 : 1 )

Length to Diameter Ratio of Popular Textile Fibers

Ratio
Fiber Type Length Diameter
Length: Diameter

Cotton 1” 0.0007” 1,400:1

Wool 3” 0.001” 3,000:1

Flax 1” 0.0008” 1,200:1

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For ease of understanding and memorizing properties of textile fibers, they can be categorized
in to certain groups. Most of the fibers in these groups have quite equal characteristics in general
, below chart shows a general classification of textile fibers.

Fiber Classification

Natural Man Made

Cellulose Cellulose
Cotton Regenerated
Jute Viscose
Hemp Protein Rayons Protein
Flax Wool Tencel Regenerated
Silk Soybean
Angora
Rubber Camel Synthetic
Polyester
Nylon
Mineral Polypropylene Mineral
Asbestos Glass

Metal
Steel
Gold
Silver

The individual length of textile fibers is a very important characteristic; this can seriously alter
and affect further processing and end use of them.

Based on fiber length, basically textile fibers are divided in to two categories called staple and
filament fibers.

Staple and Filament Fibers

Fibers with infinite (long) lengths are called filament fibers while fibers with short lengths
(finite lengths) are called staple fibers. Cotton, Wool, Kapok are good examples for staple
fibers while polyester and nylon are examples for filament fibers.

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Image 1.1 Filament and Staple Fibers

Most natural fibers are available as staple fibers while manmade fibers can be made as both
staple and filament fibers; silk is the only natural filament fiber in commercial usage.

Internal Structure of natural Fibers

Natural Fibers are created by natural polymerization, the basic unit which begins
polymerization calls monomer. Monomers joined together and create a Polymer. Polymers
join together and create Micro Fibrils. Micro fibrils lay parallel to each other and create fibrils
and then Fibers.

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Image 1.2 How fibers are made in plant cells

As described above, the basic unit of making polymers is called as monomers, polymers are long
chains and inside fibers they can arrange both tightly and randomly. These alternating
arrangements affects the properties of textile fibers and are called as amorphous and crystalline
areas.

Amorphous and Crystalline areas

In crystalline areas, polymer chains lye parallel and close to each other. In amorphous areas,
polymer chains lye randomly and unevenly.

Image 1.3 Crystalline and Amorphous areas of fibers

These crystalline areas are high in strength , yet has very less dye and moisture absorbency,
crystalline areas gives more strength to fibers.

In amorphous areas, polymers do not lye close to each other; these areas are less in strength yet
increase fiber qualities of flexibility, moisture & dye absorption.

Basically the crystalline area accounts for the strength of a fiber while the amorphous area
accounts for the flexibility of it.

Another valuable variation of textile polymers is Degree of Polymerization; this is called as DP in

short form and affects many physical properties of them.

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Degree of Polymerization ( DP )

The degree of polymerization, or DP, is usually defined as the number of monomer units in a
macromolecule or polymer molecule.

Image.1.4 Monomers being polymerized

In further study in to textile fibers, it is important to look in to their properties, this is very much
important in making more scientifically logical decisions on their performance and end uses.

Physical and Chemical properties of Fibers

Chel constituent of polymer is mainly responsible for the chemical properties of textile fibers
while Physical arrangement of polymer chains in fiber structure and polymer chain length is
mainly responsible for physical properties of fibers.

Some of the important Physical Properties of textile fibers can be mentioned as follows

1. Tenacity 8. Resiliency
2. Fineness 9. Luster
3. Moisture Absorption 10. Flexibility
4. Abrasion Resistance 11. Uniformity
5. Crease Recovery 12. Specific Gravity
6. Elongation 13. Softening and Melting Points
7. Elastic Recover

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1. Tenacity (Measuring Unit = g / den)

Image 2.1 Yarn Being Ruptured by a force

❑ The strength of textile fibers is referred to as their tenacity. It is determined by measuring

the force required to rupture or break the fiber.

❑ Sufficient tenacity is required to withstand the mechanical and chemical processing as

well as make textile products which are durable.

2. Fineness

Image 2.2 Fiber diameter of wool depends on the type of animal

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The thinness of a fiber is called as fiber fineness.

Fiber fineness governs the end use application of fiber. For example: You may need a
more fine fiber to create a shirt fabric than for creating a trouser material , Fibers used in
clothing fabrics are below 5 decitex and rarely exceeds 15 decitex. As the average number
of fibers in the cross section is high, fine, staple fibers are more suitable for producing
regular yarns.

Cloths made from fine fibers or filaments have a softer and smother handle .Fabrics made
with Fine fibers may have lower resistance to abrasion and can get easily damaged.

3. Moisture Absorption

The ability of a fiber to absorb moisture is called as moisture absorption. There are two
terms to calculate this numerically, one is moisture content and the other is moisture
regain.

The quantity of moisture picked up varies with the relative humidity and the temperature
of the atmosphere. The standard values are relative humidity of 65% and temperature of
20 0C.

Depends on chemical nature and physical arrangement of fiber the moisture absorption
changes.

The moisture absorption of fibers is expressed in two methods

1. Moisture Regain
2. Moisture Content

Below formulas are used in calculating them

Moisture Content = Weight of Moisture x 100 %

Air-dry mass

Moisture Regain = Weight of Moisture x 100 %

Oven-dry mass

* Weight of Moisture = Air-dry mass – Oven-dry mass

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Moisture absorption basically influence below properties of textile fibers

❑ The comfort of the wearer.

❑ The amount of shrinkage that will occur during laundering.
❑ The speed with which the textile will dry after laundering.
❑ How fast it can neutralize the static electricity charges.

4. Abrasion Resistance (Measuring Unit = loss of weight per constant cycles of abrasion)

Image 4.1 A man’s trouser abraded at a highway accident

The ability of a fiber to resist abrasion is called as the abrasion resistance of fibers; usually this
is measured in fabric form.

Fabrics are abraded when used against various materials. The life of a fabric is dependent
on its resistance to abrasion.

❑ Nylon has an outstanding resistance to abrasion.

❑ Abrasion resistance is decided by its fiber composition yarn and fabric construction.

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5. Crease Recovery (Measuring Unit = number of degrees recovered with in a limited time
after a giving an artificial crease)

Image 5.1 Fabrics with different crease recovery qualities

The ability of a fiber or a fabric to come back to it’s original position after giving a crease
is called as it’s crease recovery.

To retain a good appearance of a fabric, the fabric must have a good crease recovery to
recover from unwanted creases occur in fabric usage and laundering.

In underwear’s crease recovery may be not important yet in outerwear and suites this
may be a prominent factor.

Most natural cellulosic fibers has less crease recovery while natural protein and man-
made synthetics has high crease recovery.

6. Elongation (Measuring Unit = (ratio, or as a percentage))

The ability of a fiber to extend when a force is given is called as elongation.

The fibers should be able to extend when a force is applied on it, if it breaks in a force without
extending we can hardly use it as a textile fiber.

Lf = Extended Length, L0 = Normal Length

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7. Elastic Recovery (Measuring Unit = (ratio, or as a percentage))

Elastic recover is called as the fiber’s ability to come back to it’s original position after extending.
If the elastic recovery is good, the fiber will come back to it’s original position after a certain
amount of tension is given.

8. Resiliency

Image 8.1 A sports women dressed up with more resilient dresses

Resiliency refers to the ability of a fiber to come back to its original position after being exposed
to any type of physical stress. Good elastic recovery usually indicates good resiliency

Excellent resiliency is exhibited by polyester, wool and nylon fibers. Flax, rayon and cotton, on
the other hand, have a low resiliency.

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9. Luster

Luster is the amount of light reflected from the surface of the fiber

❑ Fine fibers provide a greater number of reflecting surfaces. Hence they have good
luster
❑ Fibers with a uniform diameter have a good luster.
❑ The shape of the cross section affects the degree of luster.
❑ Yarns made from continuous filaments are more lustrous than those made from short
fibers.
❑ Manufactured fibers can have their luster subdued by adding de-lustering agents.

10. Flexibility

Fibers should be flexible or pliable in order to be made into yarns and thereafter into fabrics
that permit freedom of movement. Certain end uses require greater flexibility, e.g.,
automobile seat belts.

11. Uniformity

Uniformity of fibers towards its length, ensure production of even yarns which can then form
fabrics of uniform appearance and consistent performance.

12. Specific Gravity

Specific gravity means the density of the fiber relative to water density. In here the
specific gravity of water is considered as 1 (Which is actually 1000 kg / m3 in density ). So if
an actual density of a fiber is 1300 kg / m3 , it’s specific gravity is 1.3.

By looking at the specific gravity figures, we can easily distinguish whether the
fiber floats or sinks in water. It is a more important parameter in Technical Textiles.

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13. Softening & Melting Points

The temperature when a certain polymer starts to soft is called as the softening point
while the temperature that a polymer starts to melt is called as the melting point.

3. Chemical Properties of fibers

1. Resistance to Acids
2. Resistance to Alkali
3. Resistance to Organic Solvents
4. Resistance to Sunlight
5. Resistance to Mildew
6. Resistance to Micro Biological Attacks
7. Resistance to Bleaching , Washing & Dry Cleaning

1. Resistance to Acids

The ability of a fiber to withstand certain concentrations of acids is called as resistance to acids.
Most protein (Wool; Silk; Kashmir) has good resistance to acids. While cellulosic fibers have less
resistance to them.

2. Resistance to Alkali

The ability of a fiber to withstand certain concentrations of bases is called resistance to alkali.
Most cellulosic fibers have good resistance to Alkalis. While protein fibers have less resistance to
alkalis.

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3. Properties of Specific Natural Fibers

For Further understand in to fibers; let’s consider some of the popular fibers in today
industry

3.1 Cotton – the miracle fiber

Image 3.1.1 Cotton fields, ready to harvest

Cotton has been using as a textile fiber since more than 3000 years ago. It is the most popular
natural fiber in today textile industry. Cotton has many grate qualities which keeps it in its place
for centuries.

Cotton Harvesting

Cotton is grown as a small plant and harvested using large machineries specially designed for it.

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Image 3.1.2 Cotton plant ready to harvesting and being harvested

The above images show a cotton plant ready to harvest and a cotton harvesting machine. Cotton
is widely cultivated in China, USA, India, Australia Pakistan and many other countries.

Ginning

The next process after harvesting is removing the lint from the seed of the cotton. This is called
ginning. The cotton seed is used for making cooking oils and the crushed seed particles are used
as foods to animals.

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Image 3.1.4 Cotton Ginning

After ginning cotton fibers are pressed and packed into bales and set off for spinning.

Image 3.1.5 Cotton Bales

Properties of Cotton

Cotton fibres have twist, or convolutions, along the length of the fiber. The appearance of cotton
is unique among other natural fibers. The chemical composition of cotton is the polymer
cellulose.

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 Fiber Science – Associate Diploma in Clothing Manufacturing - BCC

The microscopic view and chemical structure of cotton

Untreated cotton fibers have kidney-shape appearance. The hollow strip in the center of the
fibers is called as the lumen. The portion of the fiber between the lumen and the outer wall are
called as the primary and secondary walls.

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Image 3.1.6 Morphological Structure of Cotton Fiber

Mercerizing of cotton

Image 3.1.7 Cotton fiber cross section

before and after mercerizing

Mercerization is the immersion of cotton in sodium hydroxide (sometimes called caustic soda),
causing the fibers to swell and the polymer chains to rearrange. The process improves luster,
strength, absorbency, and dye uptake.

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Properties of Cotton
• Composition Cellulose – (87-90) %, Water-(5-8) % and Other natural impurities
• Obtain from cotton seeds.
• Length varies from (16-52) mm.
• Vary in color from white to light tan
• Moderately strong Fiber-Low degree of orientation
• Inelastic
• Poor resilience (easily make creases and wrinkles)
• Good absorbent fiber- (Due to countless H bonds.) Hydrophilic fiber
• Good static resistance (due to good absorbency)
• Soft hand feeling- (much regular fiber).
• Attacked by mildew.
• Fiber turns to yellow when exposure to sunlight (The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight
breaks the chemical bonds in the polymer chain)
• Good abrasion resistance; durable
• Good heat conductor - cool to wear
• Cotton can be damage by acids.
• Cotton has good resistance to alkalis
• Does not melt. Decomposes slowly upon exposure to dry heat above 300 °
• Makes comfortable and durable garments.

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3.2 Flax

Flax is the name of the plant which is used to manufacture linen fiber.

Image 3.2.1 Flax plant and fiber

Properties of Flax
• Composition- cellulose, water and natural impurities
• Cellulosic bast fiber.
• Obtain from bast of flax plant.
• Use to produce linen fabrics.
• Stronger than cotton.
• Inelastic.
• Stiff handle.
• Make wrinkles and creases. (poor resiliency)
• Absorb water rapidly.
• Expensive fiber.
• Good heat conductor- cool to wear.
• Strong acids cause deterioration.
• Good resistance to alkalis
• Loses strength under sunlight
• The typical staple length of a flax strand is ten to fifteen inches,
• Linen fabrics are used in table coverings, Draperies, upholstery, and apparel.

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3.3 Wool

Image 3.3.1 Sheep’s left and wool fiber microscopic side view at right.

Properties of Wool
• Natural protein (Keratin) fiber.
• Obtained from sheep and other animals.
• Color varies from off white to light brown.
• length of wool can range from 1.5 to 15 inches
• Weak fiber and strength decreases on wetting.
• Crimp configuration.
• Good elastic recovery and resilience.
• Poor heat conductivity and warmth configuration.
• Very hygroscopic and can take up a high amount of moisture without felling damp
• Poor luster and expensive fiber.

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3.4 Silk

Silk is the only natural filament fiber; it is very popular for its luxurious properties.

Image 3.4.1 Silk worms, cocoons and fibers

Silk fabric is popular for its comfort, drapeability, luster and absorbency. Silk was very popular
around the world before discovering modern man-made fibers. One of the major drawbacks of
silk fiber usage is, it’s price.

• Natural protein fiber.

• Obtain from silk worm.
• Silk cocoons are heated or steamed to separate fibers.
• Length varies from 500 to 1000 meters.
• Strong filament form. Strength decreases when wet
• Good luster.
• Stiff and soft handle.
• Good absorbency.
• Excellent drape.
• Keep the body warm.
• Poor heat conductivity

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4. Man Made fibers and their production methods

The word “spinning” can be used to mean the conversion of staple fibers to yarn as well as to
mean the production of man-made filaments by extrusion.

Thermosets Vs. Thermoplastics

Even though thermoset plastics and thermoplastics sound similar, they have very different
properties and applications.

The primary physical difference is that thermoplastics can be re-melted back into a liquid,
whereas thermoset plastics always remain in a permanent solid state. Think of thermoplastics as
butter, butter can be melted and cooled multiple times to form various shapes. Thermoset is
similar to bread in that once the final state is achieved, any additional heat would lead to charring.
Based on these properties of polymers , we have to used different methods to manufacture
fibers.

Manmade fiber manufacturing

All manmade polymers are solids at normal temperatures. The polymers in solid form must be
converted to liquid form polymer for creating fine fibers. For this purpose the liquid polymer
needs to be forced through fine holes of the spinneret to form filaments.

The method used for each fiber depends upon the ease of conversion of the polymer from solid
to liquid state.

There are three basic methods of spinning manmade fibers, those are ;

Melt Spinning Polymer is converted in to liquid state by heating

Dry Spinning Polymer is dissolved in a suitable solvent which is later evaporated

Wet Spinning Solvent cannot be evaporated and must be removed by chemical means.

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4.1 Melt spinning

Polymer is converted to liquid just by heating chips or pellets of it. The molten polymer is pumped
through the spinneret and the extruded filaments are hardened into solid filaments after
emerging.

• Nylon, polyester and olefin fibers are melt-spun fibers.

Image 4.1.1 Melt Spinning Process

4.2 Dry Spinning

If Polymer is getting chemically damaged by heating, dry spinning is used. In this method
Polymers are dissolved in a suitable solvent which is evaporated in a later stage. As the
jets of solution emerge from the spinneret, a stream of hot air causes the solvent to
evaporate from the spinning solution, leaving solid filaments.

• Acetate, Triacetate and fibers are produced by using this method.

Image 4.2.1 Dry Spinning Process

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4.3 Wet Spinning

This method is used when the solvent cannot be evaporated and must be removed by chemical
means. In wet spinning the solution of fiber-forming material is extruded into a coagulating bath
that causes the jets to harden as a result of chemical or physical change.

• Viscose, Rayon, Aramid, Mod acrylic and spandex are produced by this method.

Image 4.3.1 Wet Spinning Process

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5. Properties of Specific Man Made Fibers

To get familiar with manmade fibers, let’s have a look in to properties of few of them.

5.1 Viscose

Viscose is manufactured by wet spinning method.

Image 5.1.1 Viscose fiber side view and cross section

Properties of Viscose

• Regenerated cellulose filament fiber.

• Raw materials are wood pulp or cotton linters.
• Very cheap.
• Fair strength. Less strength when wet.
• Wrinkle and crease.
• Moist absorbent.
• Good heat resistance
• Easily damaged by strong acids
• Good resistance to most alkalis; loses strength in strong alkalis
• Lengthy exposure to sunlight weakens the fabric
• Greater affinity for dyes than cotton

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5.2 Polyester

Polyester is a manmade fiber manufactured by melt spinning method.

Image 5.2.1 Polyester fabric and atomic structure

Properties of Polyester

• Manmade synthetic fiber.

• Fine and translucent.
• Stronger fiber.
• Extremely crystalline.
• Completely hydrophobic.
• Good resiliency.
• Develop static charges readily.
• Attracts grease soils and airborne dust.
• Resistance to most acids
• Good resistance to most alkalis
• Good resistance to sunlight

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5.3 Nylon

Nylon is a manmade fiber which is made by melt spinning method.

Image 5.3.1 Nylon Fibers and atomic structure

Properties of Nylon

• Manmade synthetic fiber.

• Good strength.
• Good elasticity.
• High Abrasion resistance
• Good resilience.
• Less absorbent.
• Develop static charges.
• Poor heat conductivity.
• Dissolves in mineral and formic acids
• Good resistance to alkalis
• Loses strength when expose to sunlight

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Natural Cellulose Fibers Regenerated Cellulose Fibers Natural Protein Fibers Synthetic Fibers
Ex: Flax , Cotton , Jute Viscose , Rayons, Tencel Wool , Silk , Angora, Alpaca Polyester , Nylon

Good tenacity Tenacity is low than natural fibers Good Tenacity Better tenacity
Moisture content is higher than natural Moisture content little higher than
Average moisture content Very low moisture content
fibers natural cellulose
Acids and alkalis shows
Effected by acids Easily effected by acids Effected by acids with mild resistance
different
Better resistant to alkalis Better resistant to alkalis Effected by alkalis effects on different fibers
Better resistant to dry Generally resist to dry
Better resistant to dry cleaning agents Resist to dry cleaning agents
cleaning agents cleaning
Burns like paper Burns like paper Shrink and burns - smell like hair burning Melt and burns
Withstand up to 140 C- 200
Withstand up to 200 C Withstand up to 260 C Withstand up to 120 C
C
Effected by sunlight - weaker than Sunlight effect is vary fiber
Effected by sunlight Tendency effect on sunlight
natural cellulose to fiber

Comparison of General Properties of Fibers based on their origin

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Chart 3. Properties of Conventional Textile fibers

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References

1. North Carolina State University

http://www.tx.ncsu.edu/
2. Association of Textile , Apparel and Material Professionals
https://www.aatcc.org

Please contact me for any comments @ [email protected]

Chamal Jayasinghe,
Senior Lecturer,
Brandix Corporate Campus,
Ratmalana.

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