564 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

13
Nozzles

13.1 INTRODUCTION
A nozzle is a flow passage of varying cross sectional area in which the velocity of fluid increases and
pressure drops in the direction of flow. Thus in nozzle the fluid enters the variable cross section area
duct with small velocity and high pressure and leaves it with high velocity and small pressure. During
flow through nozzle the enthalpy drops and heat drop in expansion is spent in increasing the velocity of
fluid. Similar to nozzle a duct with variable cross-section area will be called diffuser if the fluid gets
decelerated, causing a rise in pressure along the direction of flow. Nozzles are generally used in turbines,
jet engines, rockets, injectors, ejectors etc.

Fig. 13.1 General arrangement in nozzle and diffuser

Here in this chapter the one-dimensional analysis of nozzle has been considered.
Different types of nozzles, thermodynamic analysis and different phenomenon in nozzles are
discussed ahead.
Momentum transfer across the control volume may be accounted for as,
[Time rate of momentum transfer across the control volume] = m¢C
Newton’s law states that resultant force F acting on the control volume equals the difference
between the rates of momentum leaving and entering the control volume accompanying mass flow.
Momentum equation says;
F = m¢2 C2 – m¢1 C1
Since at steady state, m¢2 = m¢1 i.e. continuity equation being satisfied
F = m¢ (C2 – C1)
The resultant force F includes forces due to pressure acting at inlet and exit, forces acting on the
portion of the boundary through which there is no mass flow, and force due to gravity.
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 565
13.2 ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY FLOW IN NOZZLES
Here one dimensional steady flow analysis in nozzle is carried out assuming the change in cross-
sectional area and axis to be gradual and thermodynamic properties being uniform across planes normal
to axis of duct. In general real flow through nozzle is not truly one-dimensional but this assumption
offers fairly correct analysis. Flow through nozzle occurs at comparatively high velocities in many
engineering applications and so exhibits changes in fluid density. Therefore, it is necessary to first look
at the compressible flow preliminaries.
Compressible flow preliminaries: Let as consider compressible flow and obtain momentum equa-
tion for one dimensional steady flow.

Fig. 13.2
The one dimensional steady flow through a duct is shown above. For control volume shown the
principle of conservation of mass, energy and Newton’s law of motion may be applied.
By Newton’s law of motion, F = m × a where F is the resultant force acting on system of mass
‘m’ and acceleration ‘a’.
Pressure waves and Sound waves: Let us consider a cylindrical duct having piston on one end for
generating the pressure wave. Figure 13.3 shows the arrangement for producing a pressure wave
moving to right with velocity ‘a’. Sound wave is also a small pressure disturbance that propagates
through a gas, liquid or solid with velocity ‘a’ that depends on the properties of medium.

Fig. 13.3 Propagation of pressure wave (sound wave)

Figure 13.3 shows how the generation of pressure wave causes displacement of fluid thereby
causing rise in pressure, density and temperature by Dp, Dr and DT in respect to the region on the right
of wave (undisturbed region). In the undisturbed region say pressure, density, temperature and fluid
velocity be p, r, T and C = 0 respectively. Due to piston movement fluid velocity increases by DC and
other properties also change by elemental values as shown. For analysing there are two approaches
available as shown in Figs. 13.3 (a) and (b). One approach considers observer to be stationary and gas
moving and second approach considers observer to be moving along with wave i.e. relative velocity of
observer with respect to wave is zero.
566 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Respective values of fluid velocity, wave propagation velocity, pressure, density and temperature
are labelled on figure. For an observer at rest relative to wave (observer moving with wave) it seems as
if the fluid is moving towards the stationary wave from right with velocity a, pressure p, density r and
temperature T and moves away on left with velocity ‘a – DC’, pressure ‘p + Dp’, density ‘r + Dr’ and
temperature ‘T + DT’.
From conservation of mass, applying continuity equation upon control volume we get
m¢1 = m¢2 = m¢
r ×A×a = (r + Dr)×A(a – DC)
where A is constant cross section area of duct.
r×A×a = (r×A×a) – (r×A×DC) + (Dr×A×a) – (Dr×A×DC)
Upon neglecting higher order terms and rearranging we get,
(a×Dr) – (r×DC) = 0
a×Dr
or, DC =
r
Applying momentum equation to the control volume;
(p×A) – ((p + Dp)×A) = (m¢ (a – DC)) – (m¢×a)
– Dp × A = m¢×(– DC)
for mass flow rate m¢ we can write, m¢ = r×A×a
so, Dp×A = r×A×a×DC
Dp
or, DC =
r×a
Equating two values obtained for ‘DC’ we get
a×Dr Dp
=
r r×a
Dp
a=
Dr
Thus, velocity of wave propagation comes out as the square root of the ratio of change in
pressure and change in density.
In case of sound waves the magnitude of changes in pressure, density and temperature are
infinitesimal and so these may also be called as infinitesimal pressure wave. It is also seen that thermo-
dynamic process occurring across an infinitesimal pressure wave may be considered nearly isentropic.
Therefore the velocity of sound can be given as square root of derivative of pressure with respect to
density across the wave under isentropic conditions.

∂ p
a=  
 ∂ ρ  s =constt.

− dv
in terms of specific volume values; dr =
v2

∂ p
so, a= − v2  
 ∂ v  s =constt
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 567
Let us consider fluid to be a perfect gas following isentropic process given by pvk = constt. Taking
log of both sides and then partially differentiating we get,
FG ¶ p IJ -k× p
H ¶v K s
=
v
Substituting in expression for sound velocity

a= k pv
For ideal gas,
a= k R T . In case of air, a = g RT
Using the velocity of sound and fluid velocity a non dimensional parameter called Mach number
can be defined. Mach number is given by the ratio of velocity of fluid (object) to the velocity of sound.
It is generally denoted by M.
C
M=
a
Based upon Mach no. value flow can be classified as given below.
For
M < 1 flow is called subsonic flow.
M = 1 flow is called sonic flow.
M > 1 flow is called supersonic flow.
Nozzle flow analysis: Let us consider one dimensional steady flow in nozzles. Let us take a varying
cross-section area duct such that velocity increases and pressure decreases from inlet to exit.

Fig. 13.4
From conservation of mass, upon applying continuity equation, it can be given that,
r×A×C = constant
Taking log of both the sides,
ln r + ln A + ln C = ln constant
Differentiating partially we get,

dr d A dC
+ + =0
r A C
Let us now apply steady flow energy equation assuming no change in potential energy, no heat
interaction and no work interaction during the flow across control volume.
S.F.E.E. yields, dq = dh + dw + d(KE) + d(PE)
Applying assumptions,
568 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
dh + d(KE) = 0
C2 RS UV
It can be rewritten for section 1 and 2 as, KE = 2
T W
C12 C2
or h1 + = h2 + 2
2 2
ho1 = ho2
Stagnation enthalpy at section 1 = Stagnation enthalpy at section 2.
C2F I
From differential form, dh + d
2H K =0

C dC
dh + 2 =0
2
or, dh = – CdC
From first and second law combined we know,
dh = Tds + vdp
Using the adiabatic flow considerations, ds = 0, so
dp
dh = vdp =
r
Above shows that with increase or decrease in pressure along the direction of flow the specific
enthalpy also change in same way.
From thermodynamic property relations pressure can be given as function of density and entropy
i.e. p = p(r, s).

FG ¶ p IJ × dr + FG ¶ p IJ
or, dp =
H ¶r K s
H ¶s K r
× ds

For isentropic flow considerations

FG ¶ p IJ × dr
H ¶r K
dp =
s

We know from sound velocity a = G

F ¶ p IJ so,
H ¶r K s

dp = a2×dr
Combining two expressions for dh we get
dp
– C × dC = . This shows that as pressure increases in direction of flow then velocity must
r
decrease. Substituting from dp as obtained above, it yields,
a2 × d r
– C × dC =
r
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 569
or,

FH dC IK = a FH d r IK
2
F dr I = - C e dC j
2
-
C C 2
r
Þ
H rK a C 2

Substituting above in the equation available from continuity equation,

d r d A dC
+ + = 0
r A C
or,
dA dC d ρ
= − −
A C ρ
dC F I dC
C2
= -
C
+
H KC
a2
or
dA dC C2 RSF I - 1UV
A
=
C a2 TH K W
C
As Mach no. M= so,
a
dA dC
= {M 2 – 1}
A C
Using above relation the effect of area variation upon the flow can be seen in subsonic, sonic and
super sonic flow regimes.
Case 1
For subsonic flow i.e. M < 1
Nozzle: For positive velocity gradient i.e. velocity increases along the direction of flow as in case
 dC  dA
of nozzle  is + ve  , it yields as – ve. Negative area gradient means cross section area decreases
 C  A
along the direction of flow.

Fig. 13.5

 dC 
Diffuser: For negative velocity gradient  i.e., is − ve  the velocity decreases along the direc-
 C 
dA
tion of flow as in case of diffuser, it yields as + ve. Positive area gradient means duct has diverging
A
cross section area along the direction of flow.
570 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Case 2 For supersonic flow i.e. M > 1
dC dA
Nozzle: For positive velocity gradient i.e. being + ve, it yields as + ve. It means that in
C A
supersonic flow the nozzle duct shall have diverging cross-sectional area along the direction of flow.

Fig. 13.6
dC dA
Diffuser: For negative velocity gradient i.e. being – ve it yields as – ve. It means in
C A
supersonic flow the diffuser duct shall have converging cross-sectional area along the direction of flow.
From above discussion it can be concluded that
(i) Nozzle must be of convergent duct type in subsonic flow region and such nozzles are called
subsonic nozzles or convergent nozzles.
(ii) Nozzle must be of divergent duct type in supersonic flow region and such nozzles are called
supersonic nozzles or divergent nozzles.
(iii) For acceleration of fluid flow from subsonic to supersonic velocity the nozzle must be first
of converging type till flow becomes sonic and subsequently nozzle should be of diverging
type in supersonic flow. The portion of duct at which flow becomes sonic (M = 1) and dA
is zero i.e. duct is constant cross-section area duct, is called throat. Thus in this type of
flow from subsonic to supersonic the duct is of converging type followed by throat and a
diverging duct. Such nozzles are also called convergent-divergent nozzles. Throat gives the
minimum cross-section area in convergent-divergent nozzles.
Let us consider the expansion through a nozzle between sections 1 and 2. In nozzle the velocity
of fluid is so high that there is no time available for heat exchange with the surroundings and the
expansion may be considered adiabatic. Also the change in potential energy may be negligible if the
elevation does not change from inlet to exit. Work done during flow is absent.
Application of steady flow energy equation yields,
C12 C2
h1 + = h2 + 2
2 2
Velocity at exit from nozzle:

C2 = a f
2 h1 - h2 + C12 , m/s
For negligible velocity of fluid at inlet to nozzle, C1 » 0

C2 = a f
2 h1 - h2 , m/s, where h1 and h2 are enthalpy in J/kg at sections 1 and 2 respectively.
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 571
Expansion of fluid on p-v diagram is shown below.

Fig. 13.7 P-V diagram for flow through nozzle

Expansion of gases on T-s diagram is as shown in Fig. 13.8.

Fig. 13.8 T-s diagram for flow through nozzle

Expansion of steam on T-s and h-s diagram for superheated steam and wet steam is shown by
1–2 and 3–4 respectively under ideal conditions.

Fig. 13.9 T-s and h-s representation for steam flow through nozzle
In above representations the isentropic heat drop shown by 1–2 and 3–4 is also called ‘Rankine
heat drop’.
Mass flow through a nozzle can be obtained from continuity equation between sections 1 and 2.
A1C1 AC
m¢ = = 2 2
v1 v2
m¢ C2
Mass flow per unit area; =
A2 v2
From different from of S.F.E.E.
dq = dh + dw + d(K.E.) + d(P.E.)
or, dh + d(K.E.) = 0
572 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
du + pdv + vdp + d(K.E.) = 0
also as dq = du + pdv = 0, so d(K.E.) = – vdp

z
p2
C22 - C12
or = - vdp
2
p1

For the expansion through a nozzle being governed by process pvn = constt.,
FG n IJ p v FG1 - p v IJ
H n -1K H p v K
2 2
C22 – C12 = 2 1 1
1 1
or,

Velocity at exit from nozzle C2 = 2 e n n- 1 j p v FH1 - pp vv IK + C

1 1
2 2
1 1
2
1

For negligible inlet velocity, say C1 » 0

Velocity at exit from nozzle

FH n IK p v FG1 - p v IJ
H pv K
2 2
C2 = 2 1 1
n -1 1 1

If the working fluid is perfect gas then n = g and for air g = 1.4. However, if working fluid is steam
a good approximation for n can be obtained from some polytropic considerations. For steam being dry
saturated initially and process of expansion occurring in wet region the index n can be approximated as
1.135. For steam being initially superheated and expanded in superheated region the index n can be
approximated as 1.3.
Looking at mathematical expression for exit velocity it could be concluded that maximum exit
velocity is possible only when fluid is expanded upto zero pressure. The maximum velocity is,

FG n IJ p v
Cmax = 2
H n -1K 1 1

Mass flow rate,

A2 C2
m¢ =
v2
Mass flow rate per unit area,

 n   p2 v 2 
2  p1v1 1 − 
m¢  n −1  p1v1 
=
A2 v2

From expansion’s governing equation, p1 v1n = p2 v2n

F p IJ
=G
1/ n

Hp K × v1
1
or, v2
2
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 573
or,
FG n IJ p v FG 1 - p v IJ
H n -1K H p v K
2 2
2 1 1
m¢
FG p IJ × v
1 1
= 1/ n
A2
Hp K
1
1
2
or,
LM F Ip R|F p I F p I FH
( n + 1) I U O1/ 2
K |P
S|H p K V|P
2/n
m¢
MN H Kv HpK
n n
= 2 1 2
- 2
A2 n -1 1
T 1 1
WQ
This expression for mass flow rate through nozzle depends upon inlet and exit pressures, initial
specific volume and index of expansion. It has been seen earlier that the mass flow per unit area is
maximum at throat and nozzle should be designed for maximum discharge per unit area. Thus there will
be some value of throat pressure (p2) which offers maximum discharge per unit area. Mathematically
this pressure value can be obtained by differentiating expression for mass flow per unit area and equat-
ing it to zero. This pressure at throat for maximum discharge per unit area is also called ‘critical
pressure’ and pressure ratio with inlet pressure is called ‘critical pressure ratio’.
p
Let pressure ratio 2 = r, then mass flow per unit area can be re-written as;
p1
RS F I p FG r ( n + 1)
I UV 1/ 2
m¢
A2
= 2
n
TH
n -1 Kv H
1

1
2/n
-r n
JK W
F m¢ I
d
HA K RS F I p FG r ( n + 1)
I UV 1/ 2

dr
2
=
d
dr
2
n
n -1 TH Kv H
1

1
2/n
-r n
JK W
Here p1, v1 are inlet conditions and remain constant. Also n being index of expansion remains
constant so differentiating and putting equal to zero.

2
×r
(2 - n)
n - FH n + 1 IK r 1/ n
=0
n n
or,
2
×r
(2 - n)
n =FH n + 1 IK r 1/ n
n n

=F
H IK
1- n
n n +1
r
2
or, Critical pressure ratio,
n
 2  (n − 1)
r=  
 n + 1
Let critical pressure at throat be given by pc or pt then,
n n
pc  2  (n − 1) pt  2  (n − 1)
=   Þ =  
p1  n + 1 p1  n + 1
574 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Here subscript ‘c’ and ‘t’ refer to critical and throat respectively.
While designing a nozzle the critical pressure ratio at throat is equal to the one obtained above.
Critical pressure ratio value depends only upon expansion index and so shall have constant value. Value
of adiabatic expansion index and critical pressure ratio are tabulated ahead;
Table 13.1: Adiabatic expansion index and critical pressure ratio for selected fluids

Fluid Adiabatic expansion index, n Critical pressure ratio

F 2 I
n
pc
H n + 1K
( n - 1)
=
p1
Wet steam 1.135 (n = 1.035 + 0.1x, where
x is dryness fraction of wet steam) 0.577
Superheated 1.3 0.545
steam
Air 1.4 0.528
The maximum discharge per unit area can be obtained by substituting critical pressure ratio in
expression for mass flow per unit area at throat section.

LM F n I p R|F 2 I U|OP
-F
2 I
2 ( n + 1)

MN2 H n - 1 K × v S|TH n + 1 K V|P

m¢ ( n - 1) ( n - 1)
H n + 1K
1
=
At 1
WQ
L 2n I p F 2 I R| 2 I U|O
= MF × SF
( n + 1) (1 - n ) 1/ 2

- 1V P
m¢ ( n - 1) ( n - 1)

MNH n - 1 K × v H n + 1 K T|H n + 1 K W|PQ

1
At 1

L 2n I p F 2 I OP
= MF
( n + 1) 1/ 2

MNH n - 1 K × v H n + 1 K
1 ( n - 1)
× {
n+1
-1 }P
1 2
Q
L p F 2 I OP ( n + 1) 1/ 2

= Mn ×
m¢ ( n - 1)

MN v H n + 1 K PQ
1
At 1

F 2 I
( n + 1)
p
H n +1K
( n - 1)
Maximum discharge per unit area = n× 1
v1
For this maximum discharge per unit area at throat the velocity at throat can be obtained for
critical pressure ratio. This velocity may also be termed as ‘critical velocity’.

 n 
C2 = 2  ( p1 v1 − p2 v2 )
 n − 1
At throat
 n   p1v1 
Ct = 2  pt vt  − 1
 n − 1  pt vt 
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 575

F n I
R|F p I U| (1 - n )

H n - 1 K ST|H p K V| n
C = 2 × p v -t
1
W
t t t
1

FpI
Substituting critical pressure ratio G J
HpK
t

C = 2G
F n IJ × p v {F n + 1 I - 1}
t
H n -1K H 2 K t t

Ct = n pt vt Hence, critical velocity = n × pt × vt

For perfect gas; Ct = n × RTt
For n = g, Ct = g R Tt = a = Velocity of sound.
Thus it can be concluded that for maximum discharge per unit area at throat the fluid velocity
(critical velocity) equals to the sonic velocity. At the throat section mach no. M = 1 for critical pressure
ratio.
For perfect gas:
All the above equations obtained for the flow through nozzle can also be obtained for perfect gas
by substituting n = g and pv = RT
Velocity at exit from nozzles

FG g IJ × a p v f
C2 = 2
H g -1K 1 1 - p2 v 2

or,

FG g IJ R aT - T f
C2 = 2
H g -1K 1 2

or,

C2 = a
2 c p T1 - T2 f as cp =
gR
g -1
or,
C2 = a
2 h1 - h2 f
Critical velocity at throat, Ct = g R Tt
Mass flow rate per unit area,
LM F g I p R|F p I 2/g
Fp I
( g + 1)
U|OP 1/ 2
m¢
=
MN2 H g - 1 K × v
1
S|H p K 2
-
HpK
2 g
V|P
A2 1
T 1 1
WQ
Maximum discharge per unit area at throat for critical conditions,

F 2 I
( g + 1)
m¢ p ( g - 1)

At
= g× 1
v1 H g + 1K
576 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Critical pressure ratio,

F 2 I
g
pc ( g - 1)

p1
=
H g +1K
13.3 CHOKED FLOW
Let us consider a converging nozzle as shown in Fig. 13.10 with arrangement for varying back pres-
sure. A valve is provided at exit of nozzle for regulating the back pressure at section 2-2. Let us denote
back pressure by pb. Expansion occurs in nozzle from pressure p1 to pb.
Initially when back pressure pb is equal to p1 there shall be no flow through the nozzle but as back
pressure pb is reduced the mass flow through nozzle increases. With the reduction in back pressure a
situation comes when pressure ratio equals to critical pressure ratio (back pressure attains critical
pressure value) then mass flow through nozzle is found maximum. Further reduction in back pressure
beyond critical pressure value does not affect the mass flow i.e. mass flow rate does not increase
beyond its’ limiting value at critical pressure ratio. Thus under these situations flow is said to be choked
flow or critical flow.

Fig. 13.10 Flow through a convergent nozzle

A nozzle operating with maximum mass flow rate condition is called choked flow nozzle. At the
critical pressure ratio the velocity at exit is equal to the velocity of sound. If the back pressure is reduced
below critical pressure then too the mass flow remains at maximum value and exit pressure remains as
critical pressure and the fluid leaving nozzle at critical pressure expands violently down to the reduced
back pressure value. Graphical representation of mass flow rate with pressure ratio and variation of
pressure along length of nozzle explain the above phenomenon. State a refers to the state having back
pressure more than critical pressure, state c refers to the state having back pressure equal to critical
pressure and state d refers to state having back pressure less than critical pressure.
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 577
In case of convergent-divergent nozzle also the maximum mass flow through such nozzle shall be
obtained when pressure ratio at throat section equals critical pressure ratio and velocity at throat equals
sonic velocity. The cross-sectional area of throat decides the mass flow through nozzle for given inlet
conditions.

13.4 OFF DESIGN OPERATION OF NOZZLE

Design operation of nozzle refers to the nozzle operating with pressure ratio equal to critical pressure
ratio and maximum discharge rate per unit area then nozzle is said to be operating under design condi-
tions. If the nozzle does not operate under design conditions then it is called off design operation of
nozzle. Depending upon the back pressure value in reference to design value of pressure at exit of
nozzle, the nozzle can be classified as under-expanding, over-expanding nozzles.

Fig. 13.11 Off design operation of converging nozzle

Nozzle is called under-expanding if the back pressure of nozzle is below the designed value of
pressure at exit of nozzle. Nozzle is called over expanding if the back pressure of a nozzle is above
designed value of pressure at exit of nozzle. Detail discussion about the off design operation of nozzle is
given ahead for convergent and convergent-divergent nozzle.
Convergent nozzle: Let us look at convergent nozzle having arrangement for varying back pressure.
Fluid enters the nozzle at state 1, say pressure p1. Variation of back pressure using valve at exit of nozzle
shows the pressure and velocity variation as shown in Fig. 13.11. Following significant operating states
are shown here.
578 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
(i) When back pressure pb = p1, there is no flow.
(ii) When back pressure is such that back pressure is more than critical pressure i.e. pc < pb < p1,
there is flow through nozzle. Here pc is critical pressure at exit. This operating state of nozzle
having back pressure higher than critical pressure is called over expanding nozzle. In this over
expanding nozzle the mass flow rate through nozzle is less than designed value.
(iii) When back pressure is such that back pressure is equal to critical pressure i.e. pb = pc. In
this situation the mass flow through nozzle is maximum and nozzle is said to be choked.
(iv) When back pressure is further lowered such that back pressure is less than critical pressure
i.e. pb < pc, the nozzle is said to be under expanding nozzle. In underexpanding nozzle there
is no change in specific volume, velocity and mass flow rate through exit as that at choked
flow state of nozzle. Since back pressure at exit is less than critical pressure while fluid
leaves nozzle at critical pressure so fluid expands violently and irreversibly upto back
pressure outside the nozzle.

Fig. 13.12 Off design operation of convergent-divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent nozzle: Converging-diverging nozzles are generally used for accelerating
flow up to supersonic velocity. Arrangement for varying back pressure is as shown in Fig. 13.12.
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 579
Different operating regime of nozzle are obtained by varying back pressure using valve at exit. Let us
start with back pressure equal to inlet pressure. Following operating states are shown here;
(i) When back pressure pb is equal to inlet pressure p1 then there is no flow as shown by state e on
pressure-nozzle length plot.
(ii) When back pressure is reduced and is slightly below p1, then there is some flow through nozzle
shown by state f. The maximum velocity and minimum pressure occurs at throat section. With further
reduction in back pressure from e to h, the flow rate increases. Flow remains subsonic for back
pressure between e to h. In subsonic region the diverging portion of nozzle acts as diffuser, thereby
increasing pressure and decreasing velocity in the direction of flow. In this regime the convergent-
divergent nozzle is also used as venturimeter for flow rate measurement. Nozzle is said to be over
expanding nozzle.
(iii) With further reduction in back pressure the throat pressure decreases and the throat
velocity increases. Back pressure at which throat velocity becomes sonic and throat pressure equals
to critical pressure pc is shown by state h. Here maximum velocity occurs at throat so the diverging
portion of nozzle still acts as diffuser. Mass flow rate through nozzle has become maximum as the
sonic flow conditions are obtained at throat. Thus it can be seen that flow through converging duct
with subsonic velocity at inlet can never result in the velocity higher than sonic velocity and pressure
less than critical pressure. This is choked flow state of nozzle.
(iv) Further lowering of back pressure less than critical pressure causes no effect on the flow
in converging portion of nozzle and the pressure at throat remains equal to critical pressure and
velocity at throat remains sonic. Also the flow rate through nozzle does not change. However, the
nature of flow in diverging section of the duct changes as the breakage of flow occurs.
As pressure is reduced to i and j the fluid passing through the throat continues to expand and
accelerate in diverging portion of nozzle. Flow velocity beyond throat is supersonic in diverging
portion of nozzle. At the section downsteam of throat there occurs discontinuity in the flow due
to abrupt irreversible increase in pressure accompanied by deceleration from supersonic to subsonic
velocity. This discontinuity in flow is called shock and generally plane of discontinuity is normal to
direction of flow so it may also be called normal shock. Flow through shock is of irreversible and
steady adiabatic type. Beyond shock the fluid undergoes further isentropic deceleration as diverging
section acts as a subsonic diffuser.
With further reduction in back pressure pb the shock moves downstream till it approaches nozzle
exit plane and pb approaches the pressure given by state k. For the back pressure equal to pressure given
by point k i.e. pk the normal shock reaches at exit end of nozzle. Here flow within nozzle is isentropic,
subsonic in converging portion, sonic at throat and supersonic in diverging portion. Due to shock the
flow leaving nozzle becomes subsonic. These are all over expanding states of nozzle.
When back pressure is further lowered and back pressure becomes equal to exit plane pressure as
at state l i.e. pb = pl, the isentropic expansion occurs throughout nozzle and no shock is found during
flow. Fluid leaving nozzle is supersonic.
(v) Further lowering of back pressure below pl flow remains same as for pressure upto point j,
but the back pressure being less than design pressure causes breaking of flow at downstream of nozzle
exit. An abrupt expansion of irreversible type occurs at nozzle exit.
Irrespective of reduced back pressure the pressure at nozzle exit does not go below design pressure
pl and mass flow rate and exit velocity also do not change. This operating state of nozzle is also called
under expanding nozzle.
580 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
13.5 EFFECT OF FRICTION ON NOZZLE
Inspite of the inside surface of nozzle being smooth the frictional losses always prevail due to friction
between fluid and nozzle surface and friction within fluid itself. Due to friction prevailing during fluid
flow through nozzle the expansion process through nozzle becomes irreversible. Expansion process
since occurs at quite fast rate and time available is very less for heat transfer to take place so it can be
approximated as adiabatic.
Friction prevailing during flow through nozzle causes heat drop by about
10–15% and reduces the exit velocity. For the flowing fluid to be gas the T-S diagram representation is
as follows:

Fig. 13.13 T-s representation for expansion through nozzle

Non ideal operation of nozzle causes reduction in enthalpy drop. This inefficiency in nozzle can
be accounted for by nozzle efficiency. Nozzle efficiency is defined as ratio of actual heat drop to ideal
Actual heat drop
heat drop. Nozzle efficiency, hNozzle =
Ideal heat drop
h1 - h2 ¢
hNozzle =
h1 - h2

aT - T f
aT - T f
2¢
hNozzle = 1

1 2

In case of working fluid being steam the friction causes heating of steam flowing through nozzle
thereby increasing dryness fraction. The volume of steam at exit also increases due to increase in
dryness fraction. T–s and h-s representation of steam expanding through nozzle is given in Fig. 13.14.

Fig. 13.14 T-s and h-s representation for steam expanding through nozzle
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 581
Due to friction the velocity at exit from nozzle gets modified by nozzle efficiency as given below.
Velocity at exit, C2 = a f
2 h1 - h2 + C12 , for no friction
In case of nozzle with friction the enthalpy drop, (h1 – h2¢) gives velocity at exit as,
C2¢ = a f
2 h1 - h2 ¢ + C12
-
C22 C12
or, (h1 – h2) =
2
C - C12
2
and (h1 – h2¢) = 2 ¢
2
bC 2
2¢ - C12 g
Substituting in nozzle efficiency, hNozzle =
bC 2
2 - C12 g
For negligible inlet velocity i.e. C1 » 0
C22¢
Nozzle efficiency, hNozzle =
C22
Thus it could be seen that friction loss will be high with higher velocity of fluid. Generally frictional
losses are found to be more in the downstream after throat in convergent-divergent nozzle because of
simple fact that velocity in converging section upto throat is smaller as compared to after throat. Expansion
upto throat may be considered isentropic due to small frictional losses. Apart from velocity considerations
the significantly high frictional loss in diverging portion of nozzle compared to converging portion can
be attributed to the contact surface area. Length of converging section upto throat is quite small compared
to length of diverging portion after throat as it has subsonic acceleration which can be completed in
short length. Diverging section of nozzle is designed comparatively longer than converging section so as
to avoid flow separation due to adverse duct geometry (diverging type). Turbulence losses are also
significant in diverging portion compared to converging portion. Due to the different factors discussed
above the frictional losses are found to be more in diverging portion compared to converging portion.
Normally angle of divergence in divergent portion is kept between 10° and 25° so as to avoid flow
separation. But small divergence angle causes increase in length of diverging portion therefore increas-
ing frictional losses. Thus a compromise should be striked in selecting angle of divergence as very small
angle is desirable from flow separation point of view but undesirable due to long length and larger
frictional losses point of view. Length of diverging portion of nozzle can be empirically obtained as
below
L= 15 ⋅ At
where At is cross-sectional area at throat.
While designing the nozzle parameters due care should be taken for smoothness of nozzle profile,
surface finish for minimum friction and ease of manufacturing etc. Thus finally, it can be concluded that
nozzle efficiency depends upon nozzle material, size and shape of nozzle, angle of divergence, nature of
fluid flowing and its properties etc.
Coefficient of velocity: The ‘coefficient of velocity’ or the ‘velocity coefficient’ can be given by
the ratio of actual velocity at exit and the isentropic velocity at exit. Thus it measures the amount of
deviation from ideal flow conditions. Mathematically,
Cactual at exit
Coefficient of velocity =
Cisentropic at exit
582 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Coefficient of discharge: The ‘coefficient of discharge’ or ‘discharge coefficient’ is given by the
ratio of actual discharge and the discharge during isentropic flow through nozzle. Mathematically,
mactual
Cofficient of discharge =
misentropic
Here m refers to discharge rate.

13.6 SUPERSATURATION PHENOMENON IN STEAM NOZZLES

The phenomenon of supersaturation in steam nozzles is also called as supersaturated flow or metastable
flow in steam nozzle. When superheated steam flows through a nozzle and expands upto the back
pressure such that exit state of steam lies in wet region, then during expansion steam vapours expand
isentropically and slowly get condensed up to exit state. During such expansion steam also passes
across saturated steam line or saturation line having unity dryness fraction. Thus it is obvious that
expansion of steam is accompanied by simultaneous state change from superheated state to wet state.
At every point along expansion line there exists a mixture of vapour and liquid in equilibrium. An expansion
process starting at 1 goes up to state 2 in thermal equilibrium as shown on T-S and h-s diagram.

Fig. 13.15 Expansion of steam on T-s and h-s diagram under equilibrium
Superheated steam undergoes continuous change in state and becomes dry saturated steam at
state 3 and subsequently wet steam leaving steam turbine at state 2. Some times expansion of steam
occurs in metastable equilibrium or in equilibrium in which change of steam state could not maintain its
pace with expanding steam. This phenomenon in which change of steam state could not occur simulta-
neously with expanding steam in nozzle is called phenomenon of supersaturation and flow is called
supersaturated flow or metastable flow.

Fig. 13.16 Metastable flow through steam nozzle

In supersaturated flow the condensation of steam lags behind the expansion and so steam does
not condense at the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure. It may be understood as the
shift in state 2 from 2 to 2¢ i.e. condensation gets extended up to 2¢. The dry saturated steam state which
should be attained at state 3 cannot be realized at 3, but below 3 on vertical expansion line 1–2¢. This
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 583
delayed phase transformation of steam causing supersaturation phenomenon may be attributed to the
following.
(i) Steam flow through nozzle may be so fast that sufficient time is not available for heat
transfer to take place and so the phase change lags behind the expansion. Generally time
available may be of the order of 10–2 second for steam to flow through nozzle along with
its condensation.
(ii) Also the condensation of steam may have inherent requirement of nuclei of condensation
which act as initiators for condensation. These nuclei of condensation may be provided by
foreign particles, solid boundary etc. In the absence of nuclei of condensation the phase
change of steam may get delayed and lags behind.
These could be the factors responsible for supersaturation. Phenomenon of supersaturation or
metastable equilibrium continues up to generally 94–95% dryness fraction. Beyond this the condensa-
tion of steam occurs suddenly at very fast rate irreversibly and the expansion process attains stable
equilibrium. The locci of points up to which metastable equilibrium is observed is called Wilson line.
Law of expansion for supersaturated flow is considered as pv1.3 = constant.
Phenomenon of supersaturation causes increase in discharge by 2–5% because of increase in
density at throat and also the heat drop gets slightly reduced thereby causing reduced velocity at exit.
Supersaturation causes slight increase in dryness fraction and entropy.
Figure 13.17 shows the supersaturated flow and Wilson line.

Fig. 13.17 Supersaturated flow on T-s and h-s diagram.

Region between saturation line and Wilson line is called supersaturated field. Here 1–2¢ line
shows isentropic process. In the absence of supersaturated flow expansion occurs as 1–2 while with
metastable flow it gets extended up to 1–2¢ as shown on T–s diagram. Meta stable equilibrium gets
settled and stable equilibrium is attained as shown by 2¢–2² and then normal expansion in stable equilibrium
continues from 2² to 3.
Thus it is obvious that in supersaturated flow the expansion occurs as if there is no saturated
steam line and state 2¢ lies on the extended constant pressure line.
The temperature at 2¢ is less than saturation pressure corresponding to p2 due to excess kinetic
energy of steam at the cost of sensible heat.
Metastable flow is characterized by a parameter called “degree of supersaturation” and “degree
of undercooling”. ‘Degree of supersaturation’ refers to the ratio of saturation pressures corresponding
to temperatures of states in stable equilibrium and metastable equilibrium (i.e. saturation pressures
corresponding to 2 and 2¢ states). Degree of super saturation has value more than unity. ‘Degree of
584 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
undercooling’ refers to the difference of two temperatures i.e. saturation temperature at state in stable
equilibrium and temperature of the state in unstable equilibrium.

13.7 STEAM INJECTOR

Steam injector refers to the device for injecting water into boiler using steam which may be available
from boiler or exhaust steam from engine.

Fig. 13.18 Steam injector

Schematic for steam injector is shown in Fig. 13.18. Here high pressure steam enters a converg-
ing steam nozzle and leaves with high velocity and low pressure. Water gets entrained from feed tank
and is carried by steam through combining nozzle. In due course steam gets condensed and the resulting
mixture enters the divergent feed water nozzle where kinetic energy of water gets transformed into
pressure head. Pressure head available in feed water nozzle is sufficiently above boiler pressure so that
water can be fed to the boiler. Surplus water, if any gets discharged from over flow. The steam injector
works on its own. It may be noted that the potential energy removed from live steam is many times
more than the potential energy returned.
Potential energy removed from live steam = Boiler steam pressure ´ Volume of steam.
Potential energy returned = Boiler pressure ´ Volume of condensate and boiler feed
Difference in the two potential energy exists due to large decrease in volume as steam condenses
and this difference is only used for pumping water.

EXAMPLES
1. Dry steam at 10 bar and 100 m/s enters a nozzle and leaves it with velocity of 300 m/s at 5 bar.
For 16 kg/s of steam mass flow rate determine heat drop in nozzle and final state of steam leaving nozzle
assuming heat loss to surroundings as 10 kJ/kg.
Solution:
Given,C1 = 100 m/s, C2 = 300 m/s
p1 = 10 bar = 1 MPa, p2 = 0.5 MPa
By steady flow energy equation between sections 1 and 2.
C12 C2
h1 + + q = h2 + 2 + w
2 2
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 585

Fig. 13.19 Nozzle

Here there is no work so w = 0 and heat loss, q = – 10 kJ/kg
FG C 2
- C12 IJ
H K
2
q = (h2 – h1) +
2
From steam table, h1 = hg at 1 MPa = 2778.1 kJ/kg
FG C2
- C22 IJ
H K
1
(h2 – h1) = q +
2
FG C - C IJ
2 2

H 2 K
1 2
(h2 – h1) = – 104 +

+ S
R (100) - (300) UV
2 2
= – 104
T 2 W
h2 – h1 = – 30,000
Heat drop in nozzle = 30 kJ/kg Total heat drop = 480 kJ/s Ans.
or, h2 = 2748.1 kJ/kg
At 5 bar, pressure,
hf = 640.23 kJ/kg, hfg = 2108.5 kJ/kg
Let dryness fraction at exit be x2,
2748.1 = 640.23 + x2 × 2108.5
x2 = 0.99

Dryness fraction at exit = 0.99 Ans.

2. Determine the mass flow rate of steam through a nozzle having isentropic flow through it. Steam
enters nozzle at 10 bar, 500°C and leaves at 6 bar. Cross-section area at exit of nozzle is 20 cm2. Velocity
of steam entering nozzle may be considered negligible. Show the process on h-s diagram also.
Solution:
At inlet section (1),
h1 = 3478.5 kJ/kg,
s1 = 7.7622 kJ/kg . K
Due to isentropic expansion, s1 = s2
At exit section (2), s2 = 7.7622 kJ/kg . K
Enthalpy at rate (2) can be directly looked from mollier diagram by drawing vertical line from state
(1) till it intersects 6 bar line. Else from steam table it can be obtained as under, looking at steam table for
6 bar it indicates that the state (2) shall be superheated state because s2 > sg at 6 bar.
586 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

Fig. 13.20 Flow through nozzle on h-s diagram

Degree of superheat can be determined by interpolation.
Entropy 7.7622 kJ/kg × K, s2 lies between temperature of 400°C (s400°C, 6 bar = 7.7079 kJ/kg × K)
and 500°C (s500°C, 6 bar = 8.0021 kJ/kg × K).
(8.0021 - 7.7079)
7.7622 = 7.7079 + ´ (T2 – 400)
(500 - 400 )
T2 = 418.45°C
Hence enthalpy at (2), h2 = h418.45°C, 6 bar

h2 = h400°C, 6 bar +
ch 500 °C,6 bar - h400 °C , 6 bar h (418.45 – 400)
(500 - 400)
(3482.8 - 3270.3)
= 3270.3 + ´ 18.45
100
h2 = 3309.51 kJ/kg×K
Neglecting inlet velocity, C1 » 0, assuming no heat loss,
a
C2 = 2 h1 - h2 f
C2 = 581.36 m/s
A2 ´ C2
Mass flow rate, =
v2
Specific volume at exit (2)

v2 = v400°C, 6 bar +
cv
500 °C , 6 bar - v 400 °C , 6 bar h ´ (418.45 – 400)
( 500 - 400 )

= 0.5137 + FH 0.5920 - 0.5137 IK ´ 18.45

100
v2 = 0.5281 kJ/kg×K
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 587

20 ´ 10 -4 ´ 581.36
Mass flow rate = = 2.2017
0.5281
Mass flow rate = 2.202 kg/s Ans.
3. In a nozzle steam expands from 12 bar and 300°C to 6 bar with flow rate of 5 kg/s. Determine
throat and exit area if exit velocity is 500 m/s and velocity at inlet to nozzle is negligible. Also find
coefficient of velocity at exit. Coefficient of velocity is the ratio of actual velocity of fluid at nozzle exit
to the velocity at exit considering isentropic flow through nozzle.
Solution:

Fig. 13.21 Nozzle and T-s representation of process

Here velocity at exit is 500 m/s which is more than sonic velocity thus nozzle shall be converg-
ing-diverging nozzle as shown.
At inlet to nozzle, h1 = 3045.8 kJ/kg, s2 = 7.0317 kJ/kg × K
Due to isentropic flow through nozzle, s1 = s2 = s3 = 7.0317 kJ/kg × K Pressure at throat section
i.e. (2) can be estimated using critical pressure ratio, which is given as

FG p IJ = F 2 I n
( n - 1)

H p K H n + 1K
2

1
For superheated steam, n = 1.3

FH p IK = FG 2 IJ 1. 3 / 0 .3

H 1 + 1.3 K
2
= 0.545
12
Throat pressure, p2 = 6.54 bar
From steam table;
At 6.54 bar, h2 = 2900.05 kJ/kg
T 2 = 224.48°C, v2 = 0.3466 m3/kg
Velocity at throat C2 = a
2 h1 - h2 f
= 2 ´ 10 3 (3045.8 - 2900.05)
C2 = 539.9 m/s
From continuity equation, m1 = m2 = 5 kg/s
A2 C2
m2 =
v2
588 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
A2 ´ 539.9
5=
0.3466
A2 = 3.209 ´ 10–3 m2

Cross-sectional area at throat = 3.209 ´ 10–3 m2 Ans.

a
Velocity at exit of nozzle, C3 = 2 h1 - h3 f
From steam tables, Temperature at exit of nozzle, T3 = 215.15°C
Enthalpy at exit of nozzle, h3 = 2882.55 kJ/kg
Specific volume at exit of nozzle, v3 = 0.3647 m3/kg
Ideal velocity at exit, C3 = 2 ´ 10 3 (3045.8 - 2882.55)
C3 = 571.40 m/s
Actual velocity at exit, C3, actual = 500 m/s
A3 ´ C3, actual
Area at exit, m1 = m2 = m3 = 5 kg/s =
v3
5 ´ 0.3647
A3 = = 3.647 ´ 10–3 m2
500
Cross-sectional area at exit = 3.647 ´ 10–3 m2 Ans.
C3, actual 500
Coefficient of velocity = = = 0.875
C3 571.40

. Coefficient of velocity = 0.875 Ans.

4. In a steam nozzle steam expands from 16 bar to 5 bar with initial temperature of 300°C and
mass flow of 1 kg/s. Determine the throat and exit areas considering (i) expansion to be frictionless and,
(ii) friction loss of 10% throughout the nozzle.
Solution:
Let us assume velocity at inlet to nozzle to be negligible. From steam table, At inlet to the nozzle,
enthalpy,
h1 = 3034.8 kJ/kg at 16 bar, 300°C
s1 = 6.8844 kJ/kg×K
v1 = 0.15862 m3/kg
(i) Considering expansion to be frictionless
F 2 I n/ n - 1
Pressure at throat of nozzle, p2 = p1
H n + 1K , for n = 1.3, p2 = 8.73 bar

Enthalpy at throat and exit of nozzle can be looked from steam table as,
h2 = 2891.39 kJ/kg
h3 = 2777.0 kJ/kg
v2 = 0.2559 m3/kg
v3 = 0.3882 m3/kg
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 589

Fig. 13.22
Heat drop up to throat section = h1 – h2
Dq12 = 143.41 kJ/kg
Velocity at throat, a f
C2 = 2 h1 - h2 = 535.56 m/s
Heat drop from throat to exit = h2 – h3
Dq23 = 114.39 kJ/kg

Velocity at exit, C3 = a
2 h2 - h3 + C22f
C3 = 718.06 m/s
m2 ´ v 2 1 ´ 0.2559
Throat area, A2 = = = 4.78 ´ 10–4 m2
C2 535.56
m3 ´ v3 1 ´ 0.3882
Exit area, A3 = = = 5.41 ´ 10–4 m2
C3 718.06
For frictionless expansion, Ans.
Throat area = 4.78 cm2
Exit area = 5.41 cm2
(ii) Considering expansion to have 10% friction loss:
Due to frictional heat loss actual heat drop shall get reduced.
Actual heat drop upto throat, Dq¢12 = 0.9 ´ q12
Dq¢12 = 129.07 kJ/kg
Thus, enthalpy at throat, h2, actual = 2905.73 kJ/kg
from steam table, v2, actual = 0.2598 m3/kg corresponding to the modified state as indicated by
enthalpy, h2, actual. This new state at throat shall have temperature of 231.35°C, which can be calculated
from known enthalpy h2, actual at respective pressure.
Actual velocity at throat, C2, actual = 2 ´ 129.07 ´ 10 3
C2, actual = 508.1 m/s
1 ´ 0.2598
Actual throat area, A2, actual =
508.1

Actual throat area = 5.11 ´ 10–4 m2 or, 5.11 cm2 Ans.

590 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Actual heat drop from throat to exit of nozzle, Dq¢23 = 0.9 ´ 114.39
Dq¢23 = 102.95 kJ/kg
Thus, enthalpy at exit, h3, actual = 2905.73 – 102.95
= 2802.78 kJ/kg
From steam table, corresponding to modified state as given by h3, actual the specific volume can be
given as, v3, actual = 0.40023 m3/kg
Actual velocity at exit, C3, actual = b g
2 ´ 102.95 ´ 10 3 + ( 508.1) 2
C3, actual = 681.22 m/s
1 ´ 0 .40023
Actual area at exit Þ A3, actual =
681.22
A3, actual = 5.875 ´ 10–4 m2

Actual area at exit, = 5.875 ´ 10–4 m2 or 5.875 cm2 Ans.

5. An impulse turbine of 1 MW has steam entering at 20 bar and 300°C and steam consumption of
8 kg per kW hour. Steam leaves at 0.2 bar and 10% of total heat drop is lost in overcoming friction in
diverging portion of nozzle. If throat diameter of each nozzle is 1 cm then determine (i) the number of
nozzles required (ii) exit diameter of each nozzle. Solve using mollier diagram.
Solution:
In impulse turbine the impulse action of steam is used for getting shaft work. A stage of simple
impulse turbine has steam nozzle and a ring of symmetrical blade. Total pressure drop in the stage thus
occurs in nozzle itself.
Throat pressure = 0.545 ´ 20 = 10.9 bar
From mollier diagram,
Heat drop up to throat, Dq12 = h1 – h2
Dq12 = 142 kJ/kg
v2 = 0.20 m3/kg

Fig. 13.23
Considering negligible inlet velocity, the velocity at throat,
C2 = 2 ´ 10 3 ´ 142
C2 = 532.9 m/s
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 591
A2 × C2
Mass flow rate through nozzle =
v2

=
b g
p ´ 10 -2
2
´ 532.9
4 ´ 0.20
= 0.209 kg/s
The number of nozzles can be determined by using the capacity of turbine, steam consumption
and mass flow rate through a nozzle.
1 ´ 10 3 ´ 8
Number of nozzles = = 10.63 » 11 nozzles
3600 ´ 0.209

Number of nozzles required = 11 Ans.

(ii) Total heat drop in nozzle, from mollier chart, (h1 – h3) = 807 kJ/kg
Useful heat drop, ∆q13, useful = 0.90 × 807
= 726.3 kJ/kg
Specific volume at exit, v 3 = 7.2 m3/kg
Velocity at exit = 2 ´ 10 3 ´ 726.3
C3 = 1205.2 m/s
Therefore, from continuity equation,
m3 × v3
A3 =
C3
0.209 ´ 7.2
=
1205.2
A3 = 1.25 × 10–3 m2
or

Area at exit = 12.5 cm2 Ans.

6. A nozzle is supplied with steam at 0.7 mPa and 275°C. Determine temperature and velocity at
throat considering no losses.
If diverging portion of nozzle is 6 cm long and throat diameter of 0.5 cm, determine the angle of
cone in nozzle so that steam leaves nozzle at 0.1 MPa. Assume heat utilization in diverging portion to be
85%. Solve using mollier diagram.
Solution:
Pressure at throat section of nozzle
p2 = 0.545 ´ 0.7
= 0.38 MPa
From mollier diagram,
Heat drop in nozzle up to throat,
h1 – h2 = Dq12 = 138 kJ/kg
Specific volume, v 2 = 0.58 m3/kg
592 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Temperature = 203°C

Fig. 13.24
Considering velocity at inlet to be negligible, velocity at throat,
C2 = 2 ´ 138 ´ 10 3
C2 = 525.35 m/s
p
4
b g
´ 0.5 ´ 10 - 2 ´ 525.35
2

Mass flow rate =

0.58
m1 = 0.0178 kg/s = m2 = m3
From mollier diagram, heat drop in diverging portion i.e. from throat to exit of nozzle shall be;
Dq23 = h2 – h3 = 247 kJ/kg
Dq23, actual = 209.95 kJ/kg
Specific volume, v3, actual = 1.7 m3/kg
Total heat drop = 138 + 209.95 = 347.95 kJ/kg

Velocity at exit of nozzle = 2 ´ 347.95 ´ 10 3

C3 = 834.2 m/s
m3 ´ v3
Area at exit, A3 =
C3
0 .0178 ´ 1.7
=
834.2
= 3.63 ´ 10–5 m2
3.63 ´ 10 -5 ´ 4
Diameter at exit =
p
= 6.8 ´ 10–3 m or 6.8 mm
For Cone angle to be 2a,
6.8 - 5
tan a = , a = 0.86°
2 ´ 60
Cone angle, 2a = 1.72°
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 593
With no losses, Temperature at throat = 203° Ans.
Velocity at throat = 525.35 m/s
With losses, Cone angle = 1.72°
7. An impulse steam turbine generating 5000 hp requires 6 kg of steam per hp-hr at 16 bar, dry
saturated. In the first stage the steam is expanded through nozzle with an efficiency of 0.90 to a pressure
1
of 8 bar. These nozzles are placed so as to extend over approximately rd of the circumference with the
3
pitch circle diameter of 600 mm and pitch of 50 mm. Considering nozzle angle as 12° to the plane of
wheel and plates dividing being 3 mm thick, determine total length of nozzle arc and radial height of
nozzles.
Solution:

Fig. 13.25
At inlet to nozzle, from steam table, h1 = hg at 16 bar = 2794 kJ/kg
s1 = sg at 16 bar = 6.4218 kJ/kg×K
At exit of nozzle,
s1 = s2 = 6.4218 kJ/kg×K
Since s2 < sg at 8 bar so the state at the end of expansion lies in wet region. Let dryness fraction at
state 2 be x2, then,
s2 = sf at 8 bar + x2 × sfg at 8 bar
6.4218 = 2.0462 + x2 × 4.6166
or, x2 = 0.9478
h2 = hf at 8 bar + x2 × hfg at 8 bar
= 721.11 + (0.9478 ´ 2048)
h2 = 2662.2 kJ/kg
Theoretically, change in enthalpy, Dh12 = 2794 – 2662.2
Dh12 = 131.8 kJ/kg
D h12 actual
= 0.90 or Dh12 actual = 0.9 ´ 131.8 = 118.62 kJ/kg
D h 12
h2 actual = 2794 – 118.62 = 2675.38 kJ/kg
h2, actual = 2675.38 = hf at 8 bar + x2 actual × hfg at 8 bar
594 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
2675.38 = 721.11 + (x2 actual ´ 2048)
x2 actual = 0.9542
Specific volume, v2 actual = vf at 8 bar + x2 actual ´ vfg at 8 bar
v2 actual = 0.001115 + (0.9542 ´ (0.2404 – 0.001115))
v2 actual = 0.2294 m3/kg
Neglecting the velocity at inlet to nozzle,
C2 = 2 ´ D h12 actual
C2 = 487.1 m/s
By continuity equation,
A2 C2
m=
v2 actual
5000 ´ 6 A ´ 487.1
= 2
3600 0.2294
A2 = 3.925 ´ 10–3 m2
Area at exit of nozzle » 39.25 cm2
60 ´ p
Approximate length of nozzle arc, = = 62.83 cm
3
Length of nozzle arc
Number of nozzles =
Pitch
62.83
= » 13 nozzles.
5
Correct length of nozzle arc = 13 ´ 5 = 65 cm
Flow area at exit of each nozzle = (5 sin 12 – 0.3) ´ h
39.25 = (5 sin 12 – 0.3) ´ h ´ 13
or, h= 4.08 cm

Length of nozzle = 65 cm
Ans.
Radial height of nozzle = 4.08 cm
8. Air is expanded reversibly and adiabatically in a nozzle from 13 bar and 150°C to a pressure of
6 bar. The inlet velocity of the nozzle is very small and the process occurs under steady flow conditions.
Calculate the exit velocity of the nozzle. [U.P.S.C., 1992]
Solution:
Let inlet and exit states in nozzle be given as 1 and 2 respectively. Assuming no heat interaction and
work interaction, no change in potential energy during flow across the nozzle. Steady flow energy
equation gets modified as under;
C12 C2
h1 + = h2 + 2
2 2
Neglecting velocity at inlet to nozzle C1.
C2 = a
2 h1 - h2 f
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 595

C2 = a
2 c p × T1 - T2 f
Assuming adiabatic expansion in nozzle, between states 1 and 2.

FPI
( g - 1)
T2 g

HPK
2
=
T1 1

FPI
( g - 1)
g
=T ×
HPK
2
or, T2 1
1
(1. 4 - 1)

= (273 + 150)
6
13 e j 1. 4

T2 = 339.16 K
Substituting in expression for exit velocity, C2,
C2 = 2 ´ 1.005 ´ ( 423 - 339.16 )
C2 = 12.98 m/s
Exit Velocity = 12.98 m/s Ans.
9. During a test on steam nozzle steam impinges a stationary flat plate which is perpendicular to
the direction of flow and the force on the plate is measured. The force is found to be 350 N when dry
saturated steam at 8 bar is expanded to 1 bar. Throat cross-section area is 5 cm2 and exit area is such that
the complete expansion is achieved under these conditions.
Determine
(i) the discharge at throat.
(ii) the efficiency of nozzle assuming that all the losses occur after throat and that n = 1.13
for isentropic expansion.
Solution:
For isentropic expansion up to throat.

F 2 I
n
P2 ( n - 1)

P1
=
H n + 1K
8F
2 I
1.13

H 113
. +1K
0 .13
P2 =

P 2 = 4.62 bar
From steam table,
Enthalpy at 1, h1 = hg at 8 bar = 2769.1 kJ/kg
s1 = sg at 8 bar = 6.6628 kJ/kg.K

Fig. 13.26
596 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
At throat section let the dryness fraction be x2, then
s1 = s2 = 6.6628 = sf at 4.62 bar + sfg at 4.62 bar × x2
6.6628 = 1.7872 + x2 × 5.0178
x2 = 0.9717 or 97.17%
h2 = hf at 4.62 bar + x2 × hfg at 4.62 bar
= 627.33 + (0.9717 ´ 2117.77)
h2 = 2685.17 kJ/kg
Specific volume at throat, v2 = vf at 4.62 bar + x2 × vfg at 4.62 bar
= 0.001089 + (0.9717 ´ 0.4035)
v2 = 0.3932 m3/kg
Enthalpy change up to throat Dh12 = h1 – h2
Dh12 = 83.93 kJ/kg
Velocity at throat, C2 = 2 ´ D h12 = 2 ´ 83.93 ´ 10 3 = 409.71 m/s
A2 × C2
Discharge at throat, m2 =
v2

5 ´ 10 -4 ´ 409.71
=
0.3932
m2 = 0.521 kg/s

Discharge at throat = 0.521 kg/s Ans.

Force acting on plate
F = 350 N = m (C3¢ – C1)
C1 » 0
Exit actual velocity C3¢ = 671.78 m/s
For diverging section between states 1 and 3, s1 = s2 = s3
s3 = 6.6628 = sf at 1 bar + x3 × sfg at 1 bar
6.6628 = 1.3026 + (x3 ´ 6.0568)
x3 = 0.8238 or 82.38%
Enthalpy at exit
h3 = hf at 1 bar + x3 × hfg at 1 bar
= 417.46 + (0.8238 ´ 2258)
h3 = 2277.6 kJ/kg
Theoretical enthalpy drop, Dh23 = h2 – h3 = 407.57 kJ/kg
Actual enthalpy drop, Dh23¢ = hN × Dh23
Actual velocity
C3¢ = 2 × D h23¢
671.78 = 2 ´ h N ´ 407.5 ´ 10 3
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 597
hN = 0.5537 or 55.37%
Nozzle efficiency = 55.37% Ans.
10. A convergent-divergent nozzle operates with 5 kg of steam per minute being discharged at
1 bar. For the steam supplied to nozzle being at 10 bar and 200°C and supersaturation occurring up to
throat and normal afterwards, determine,
(i) the diameter of nozzle at exit.
(ii) the maximum degree of supersaturation.
(iii) the amount of undercooling at throat.
P
For supersaturation take Pv1.3 = constant and 1.3 / 0 .3 = constant
T
Solution:
Pressure at throat,
n
 2  ( n − 1)
P2 = P1   .
 n + 1
n = 1.3
P2 = 5.45 bar
From steam tables,
Enthalpy at inlet, h1 = 2827.9 kJ/kg
s1 = 6.6940 kJ/kg×K
v1 = 0.2060 m3/kg

Fig. 13.27
Enthalpy drop up to throat,

F n IJ P v  
( n − 1)

– h¢ = G

1 − 2P  n

h1 2 H n -1K 1 1   P1 



FH 1.3 IK (10 ´ 10 LM F 5.45 I 0 .3 / 1.3
OP
N H 10 K
´ 0.2060) 1 -
Q
= 2
0 .3
h1 – h2¢ = 116.67 kJ/kg
h2¢ = 2711.23 kJ/kg
Let dryness fraction be x2 at throat, so using steam tables it can be obtained as under,
h2¢ = hf at 5.45 bar + (x2 ´ hfg at 5.45 bar)
598 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
2711.23 = 663.36 + (x2 ´ 2098.15)
x2 = 0.9760
s2¢ = sf at 5.45 bar + (x2 × sfg at 5.45 bar)
= (1.8936 + (0.9760 ´ 4.8989) = 6.6749 kJ/kg×K
Let dryness fraction at exit be x3, so
s3 = s2¢ = 6.6749 kJ/kg×K
s3 = sf at 1 bar + x3 × sfg at 1 bar
6.6749 = 1.3026 + x3 ´ 6.0568
x3 = 0.8869
Enthalpy at exit, h3 = hf at 1 bar + x3 × hfg at 1 bar
= 417.46 + (0.8869 ´ 2258)
h3 = 2420.08 kJ/kg
Specific volume at exit, v 3 = vf at 1 bar + x3 × vfg at 1 ba
= (0.001043 + 0.8869 ´ 1.6929)
v3 = 1.5025 m3/kg
Velocity at exit, C3 = 2 × D h13 = 903.13 m/s
A3 × C3
Mass flow rate, m3 =
v3
5 A ´ 903.13
= 3
60 1.5025
A3 = 1.386 ´ 10–4 m2 or 1.386 cm2
Diameter of nozzle at exit d 3 = 0.0133 m or 1.33 cm

Diameter of nozzle at exit = 1.33 cm Ans.

Theoretically up to throat,

FP I
( n - 1)
T2
HPK
n
2
=
T1 1
(1. 3 - 1)
T2 = 473 ( 0.545) 1.3 = 411.18 K = 138.18°C
Saturation pressure corresponding to 411.18 K,
Psat, 138.18°C = 3.44 bar
P2
Degree of supersaturation =
Psat ,138.18°C

5.45
= = 1.58
3.44
Amount of undercooling = (Tsat at 5.45 bar – T2)
= (155.12 – 138.18)
= 16.94°C
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 599

Degree of supersaturation = 1.58

Ans.
Amount of undercooling = 16.94°C
11. Steam undergoes expansion from 4 bar, 180°C to a pressure of 1.5 bar. If the expansion is
supersaturated and occurs with friction loss of 5 percent, determine the actual heat drop and degree of
undercooling. Following equations may be used for supersaturated steam,
P×v ´ 102 = (h – 2614), (Here P is in bar, v is specific volume in m3/kg, h is enthalpy in kJ/kg)
P
= constant and P×v1.3 = constant
e 1. 3 j
T 0 .3
Consider specific heat as 2.174 kJ/kg×K.
Solution:
At inlet for expansion, state 1, specific volume can be seen from steam table, v1 = 0.5088 m3/kg
Enthalpy at state 1 from empirical relation,
4 ´ 0.5088 ´ 102 = (h1 – 2614)
h1 = 2817.52 kJ/kg

Fig. 13.28
Using governing equation given,
P1 v11.3 = P2 v21.3
4 ´ 102 ´ (0.5088)1.3 = 1.5 ´ 102 ´ v21.3
v2 = 1.082 m3/kg
Enthalpy at 2,
P2 v2 ´ 102 = (h2 – 2614)
(1.5 ´ 1.082 ´ 102) = (h2 – 2614)
or, h2 = 2776.3 kJ/kg
Actual heat drop = hN ´ (h1 – h2)
= 0.95 ´ (2817.52 – 2776.3)
= 39.16 kJ/kg

Actual heat drop = 39.16 kJ/kg Ans.

600 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Temperature at state 2,
P
= constant
T
e 10..33 j
4 ´ 10 2 1.5 ´ 10 2
( 453)1.3 / 0 . 3
=
a f
T2 1. 3 / 0 . 3
T2 = 361.24 K
Supersaturation causes rise in temperature due to reheat
0.05 ´ (2817.52 - 2776.3)
=
2.174
= 0.95 K or 0.95°C
T2¢ = 361.24 + 0.95 = 362.19 K
Amount of undercooling = T3 – T2¢
= Tsat at 1.5 bar – T2¢
= ((273 + 111.37) – 362.19) = 22.18°C

Degree of undercooling = 22.18°C Ans.

12. Steam is supplied at 14 bar, 400°C to set of 16 nozzles of impulse turbine. Pressure of steam at
exit of nozzle is 10 bar and the discharge is 5 kg/s. Nozzle efficiency is 90%. Determine the cross-
sectional area at exit of each nozzle. Also determine the percentage increase in discharge if steam is
supplied to nozzle with velocity of 100 m/s.
Solution:
Let inlet and exit states be 1 and 2. Therefore, enthalpy at state 1,
h1 = hat 14 bar, 400°C
From steam tables,
h1 = 3257.5 kJ/kg
s1 = 7.3026 kJ/kg×K
Since steam is superheated at inlet, so n = 1.3
For maximum discharge, throat pressure

F 2 I
n
P2 ¢ ( n - 1)

P1
=
H n + 1K
F IK
F 2 IH
1. 3

P ¢ = 14 ´ G
H 1.3 + 1 JK
0 .3
2

P2¢ = 7.64 bar

The actual pressure given at exit of nozzle is 10 bar which means that the nozzle is of convergent
type.
Actual pressure at exit of nozzle, P2. For isentropic expansion from 14 bar to 10 bar, s1 = s2 =
7.3026. State of steam at exit is superheated because s2 is more than sg at 10 bar (= 6.5865 kJ/kg×K).
This entropy s2 lies between superheat steam temperature of 350°C and 400°C at 10 bar.
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 601

s2 = sat 10 bar, 350°C +

cs at10bar , 400 °C - sat10 bar , 350 °C h ´ (T2 – 350)
( 400 - 350 )

7.3026 = 7.3011 + FH 7.4651 - 7.3011 IK ´ (T 2 – 350)

50
T2= 350.46°C
At 350.46°C and 10 bar from steam tables by interpolation,
FG
hat10 bar , 400 ° C - hat10 bar,350 °C IJ
h2 = hat 10 bar, 350°C +
H 400 - 350
´ (T2 – 350)
K
= 3157.7 + FH 3263.9 - 3157.7 IK (350.46 – 350)
50
h2 = 3158.7 kJ/kg
Specific volume at exit, v 2 = 0.2827 m3/kg
Actual enthalpy change, Dh12 = (h1 – h2) ´ hN
= (3257.5 – 3158.7) ´ 0.9
= 88.92 kJ/kg
Velocity at exit of nozzle, C2 = 2 × D h12

= 2 ´ 10 3 ´ 88.92
= 421.71 m/s
m × v2
Cross-sectional area at exit of nozzle A 2 =
C2 × N
5 ´ 0.2827
= ´ 104
421.71 ´ 16
= 2.13 cm2

Cross-sectional area at exit of nozzle, = 2.13 cm2 Ans.

Inlet velocity being C1 = 100 m/s

Modified velocity at nozzle exit C2¢ = 2 × D h12 + C12

= b 2 ´ 10
´ 88.92 + (100 ) 2
3
g
C2¢ = 433.41 m/s
A2 ´ C ¢2 ´ 16
Discharge with modified velocity =
v2
16 ´ 2.13 ´ 10 -4 ´ 433.41
=
0.2827
= 5.22 kg/s
602 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

Percentage increase in discharge = FH 5.22 - 5 IK ´ 100

5
= 4.4%
% Increase in discharge = 4.4% Ans.
13. In a nozzle the steam enters at 20 bar, dry saturated and expands up to 5 bar. Considering the
expansion to be frictionless throughout and steam remaining in dry state during expansion upto throat,
determine the degree of supersaturation and degree of undercooling. Also determine the change of
entropy, the loss due to undercooling and percentage loss if steam has to revert instantaneously to
saturated state at constant enthalpy and if the further expansion takes place in thermal equilibrium.
Solution:
At inlet to nozzle, P1 = 20 bar, T1 = Tsat at 20 bar
or, T1 = 212.42°C
Pressure at throat, P2 = P1 ´ 0.58
P2 = 11.6 bar
T2 FG IJ
P2
n - 1/ n
(1.3−1)
Þ T2 = T1 ´ (0.58 ) 1.3
T1
=
H K
P1
T2 = 485.42 ´ 0.882
or, T2 = 428.14K

Fig. 13.29
But saturation temperature corresponding to throat pressure,
Tsat 11.6 bar = 186.43°C
Saturation pressure corresponding to 428.14K (155.14°C)
Psat at 155.14°C = 0.5452 MPa
Psat at 155.14°C = 5.452 bar
11.6
Degree of supersaturation =
5.452
= 2.13
Degree of undercooling = Tsat at 11.6 bar – T2
= 186.43 – 155.14 = 31.29°C
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 603
Degree of supersaturation = 2.13
Ans.
Degree of undercooling = 31.29°C
Enthalpy at state 1, h1 = hf at 20 bar = 2799.5 kJ/kg
v 1 = vg at 20 bar = 0.009963 m3/kg
s1 = sg at 20 bar = 6.3409 kJ/kg×K
Isentropic enthalpy drop,
 (n − 1) 
 n    P2  n 
h 1 – h2 =   ⋅ Pv
1 1 1 −   
 n −1   1 
P

 1.3  LM F IK FH
1.3 - 1 IK O
P
MN H
11.6
 ´ 20 ´ 10 ´ 0.009963 1 -
PQ
2 1. 3
h 1 – h2 = 
 1.3 − 1  20

Dh12 = h1 – h2 = 10.19 kJ/kg

or, h2 = 2789.31 kJ/kg
In the absence of supersaturation the state at throat will be 2².
Thus for getting enthalpy at 2² the dryness fraction may be assumed x2². The entropy at inlet and
throat shall be equal,
s2² = s1
s2² = 6.3409
6.3409 = sf at 11.6 bar + x2² × sfg at 11.6 bar
6.3409 = 2.2016 + (x2² ´ 4.3338)
x2² = 0.955
Enthalpy, h2² = hf at 11.6 bar + x2² × hfg at 11.6 bar
= 791.73 + (0.955 ´ 1991.88)
h2² = 2693.98 kJ/kg
Heat drop with no supersaturation upto throat, Dh12² = h1 – h2²
Dh12² = 105.52
Loss of available heat drop = Dh12² – Dh12 = 95.33 kJ/kg
D h12 ² - D h12 95.33
Increase in entropy, Ds12¢ = =
Tsat at 11. 6 bar 459.43
Ds12¢ = 0.2075 kJ/kg×K
Hence, entropy at 2¢, s2¢ = s1 + Ds12¢
s2¢ = 6.5484 kJ/kg×K
With super saturation
For isentropic expansion after throat, s2¢ = s3¢
604 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Let dryness fraction at exit be x3¢. So,
s3¢ = sf at 5 bar + (x3¢ × sfg at 5 bar)
6.5484 = 1.8607 + (x3¢ ´ 4.9606)
x3¢ = 0.945
Enthalpy at 3¢, h3¢ = hf at 5 bar + (x3¢ ´ hfg at 5 bar)
= 640.23 + (0.945 ´ 2108.5)
h3¢ = 2632.76 kJ/kg
Without supersaturation
Let dryness fraction be x3 at state 3, which will be obtained in the absence of supersaturation.
s1 = s3
s3 = 6.3409 = sf at 5 bar + (x3 ´ sfg at 5 bar)
6.3409 = 1.8607 + (x3 ´ 4.9606)
x3 = 0.903
Enthalpy at 3, h3 = hf at 5 bar + (x3 ´ hfg at 5 bar)
= 640.23 + (0.903 ´ 2108.5)
h3 = 2544.21 kJ/kg
Thus, loss due to undercooling, h3¢ – h3 = 2632.76 – 2544.21
Dh3¢3 = 88.55 kJ/kg
D h3 ¢ 3
Percentage loss =
a h1 - h3 f ´ 100

88.55
= ´ 100
(2799.5 - 2544.21)
= 34.68%

Entropy change = 0.2075 kJ/kg×K Ans.

Loss due to undercooling = 88.55 kJ/kg
Percentage loss = 34.68%
14. A steam injector delivers 150 kg of water per minute from a water tank where the constant
water level of 5 m below the axis of injector is maintained. Injector injects into the boiler having steam
at 20 bar. Water level in boiler is 0.8 m above the injector. Steam for injector is taken from boiler and
has dryness fraction of 0.95. Water is supplied at 25°C and velocity in delivery pipe is 20 m/s.
Determine,
(i) the mass of water pumped per kg of steam
(ii) the diameter of throat of mixing nozzle
(iii) the diameter of the steam nozzle considering pressure at throat to be 0.7 times of supply
pressure.
(iv) the temperature of water coming out of injector.
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 605
Solution:

Fig. 13.30
Pressure at inlet of nozzle, P1 = 20 bar,
Temperature T1 = Tsat at 20 bar = 212.42°C
Pressure at throat, P2 = 0.7 ´ 20 = 14 bar
Enthalpy at state 1, h1 = hf at 20 bar + x1 × hfg at 20 bar
= (908.79) + (0.95 ´ 1890.7)
h1 = 2704.95 kJ/kg
s1 = sf at 20 bar + x1 × sfg at 20 bar
= 2.4474 + (0.95 ´ 3.8935)
s1 = 6.1462 kJ/kg×K
At throat s2= s1 = 6.1462 kJ/kg×K
Let dryness fraction at throat be x2
s2 = sf at 14 bar + x2 × sfg at 14 bar
6.1462 = 2.2842 + (x2 ´ 4.1850)
x2 = 0.923
h2 = hf at 14 bar + x2 × hfg at 14 bar
= 830.30 + (0.923 ´ 1959.7)
h2 = 2639.10 kJ/kg
Specific volume v2 = vf + x2 × vfg at 14 bar = 0.13 m3/kg
a f
at 14 bar
Velocity of steam at throat, C2 = 2 h1 - h2

= 2 ´ (2704.95 - 2639.10 ) ´ 10 3
606 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
C2 = 362.9 m/s
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between states 3 and 4,
P3 C32 P C2
gZ3 + + = gZ4 + 4 + 4
r 2 r 2
C32 1.013 ´ 10 5 20 ´ 10 5 ( 20 ) 2
+ = + (0.8 ´ 9.81) +
2 10 3 10 3 2
C3 = 64.91 m/s
Let mass of water lifted by per kg of steam be m kg, i.e. m kg of water per kg of steam.
C2 – m 2 gh2 w = (m + 1) ´ C3
C2 – m ´ 2 ´ 9.81 ´ 5 = (m + 1) ´ C3
362.9 – 9.90 m = (m + 1) ´ 64.91
m = 3.98 kg of water per kg steam

Mass of water pumped per kg of steam = 3.98 kg Ans.

Mass of mixture passing through state 3 for given water flow,
150 150 1
= + ´
60 60 3.98
= 2.5 + 0.628
m3 = 3.128 kg/s
m3 3.128
Area of throat of mixing nozzle = = = 0.482 cm2
r ´ C3 10 3 ´ 64.91
Diameter of throat of mixing nozzle, d3 = 0.783 cm
Diameter of throat of mixing nozzle = 0.783 cm Ans.

150 1
Mass of steam required for given water flow rate = ´
60 3.98
msteam = 0.628 kg/s
Asteam × Csteam
msteam =
vsteam
A2 × C2
msteam =
v2
A2 ´ 362.9
0.628 =
0.13
A2 = 2.25 cm2
d2 = 1.69 cm

Diameter of throat of steam nozzle = 1.69 cm Ans.

Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 607
In order to determine temperature of water coming out of injector the heat balance may be
written assuming no heat loss. For unit mass of steam entering injector
x1 ´ hfg1 + cps (T1 – T3) = m cpw(T3 – Tw)
(0.95 ´ 1890.7) + 4.18 (212.42 – T3) = 3.98 ´ 4.18 (T3 – 25)
T3 = 148.92°C
Temperature of water coming out of injector = 148.92°C Ans.
15. A steam injector is used for maintaining supply of the feed water to boiler producing steam at
20 bar. The pressure of exhaust steam for operating injector is 1.5 bar and dryness fraction is 0.9. The
mass of water taken from feed water tank is 5000 kg/hr and temperature is 17°C. Determine the mass of
water that can be pumped per kg of steam, area of steam and water discharge orifices. Delivery pressure
may be assumed to be 20% more than boiler pressure so as to overcome frictional losses and positive
delivery. Neglect change in elevation.
Solution:
At inlet to the steam nozzle pressure, P1 = 1.5 bar

F 2 I
n
( n - 1)
Pressure at throat, P2 = P1
H n + 1K , here n = 1.13, P2 = 0.87 bar

Fig. 13.31
Temperature at state 1, T1 = Tsat at 1.5 bar = 111.37°C = 384.37 K
Enthalpy at state 1, h1 = hf at 1.5 bar + x1 × hfg at 1.5 bar
= 467.11 + (0.9 ´ 2226.5)
h1 = 2470.96 kJ/kg
s1 = 1.4336 + (0.9 ´ 5.7897)
s1 = 6.6443 kJ/kg×K
At state 2, s2 = s1 = 6.6443 = sf at 0.87 bar + x2 × sfg at 0.87 bar
6.6443 = 1.2560 + x2 × 6.1538
x2 = 0.88
h2 = hf at 0.87 bar + x2 ´ hfg at 0.87 bar
= 400.26 + (0.88 ´ 2268.71)
h2 = 2396.72 kJ/kg
Specific volume, v 2 = vf at 0.87 bar + x2 × vfg at 0.87 bar
608 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
= 0.001039 + (0.88 ´ 1.9649), v2 = 1.7302 m3/kg
Steam velocity, C2 = a
2 h1 - h2 f
C2 = 385.33 m/s
By Bernoulli’s equation,
C32 P
= 4
2 r
1.2 ´ 20 ´ 2 ´ 10 5
C3 =
1000
C3 = 69.28 m/s
Let mass of water entrained per kg of steam be m kg water per kg of steam.
Neglecting momentum of entering water the momentum balance can be given as under.
1 ´ C2 = (m + 1) ´ C3
385.33 = (m + 1) ´ 69.28
m = 4.56 kg water per kg of steam
5000
Mass of steam supplied per second = = 0.3046 kg/s
3600 ´ 4.56
m v2
Area of steam nozzle, A2 =
C2
0.3046 ´ 1.7302
=
385.33
A2 = 13.68 cm2

Total discharge from injector = FH 5000 + 0.3046IK

3600
= 1.693 kg/s

Area of discharge orifice, = 1.693 = 0.2444 ´ 10–4 m2

69.28 ´ 103
= 0.2444 cm2

Mass of water pumped per kg of steam = 4.56 kg water/kg of steam Ans.

Area of steam nozzle = 13.68 cm2
Area of discharge orifice = 0.244 cm2

-:-4+15-5

13.1 What do you understand by nozzle? Discuss different types of nozzles.

13.2 Derive the expression of velocity of fluid leaving nozzle, considering flow to be frictionless and
adiabatic.
13.3 Obtain expression for discharge through nozzle.
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 609
13.4 For a convergent-divergent nozzle sketch variation of specific volume, velocity, area and pressure
along the nozzle axis.
13.5 Show the following statement, “Converging duct behaves as nozzle for subsonic flows and the
diverging duct shall behave as nozzle when flow is supersonic.”
13.6 Prove that the maximum discharge of fluid per unit area through a nozzle shall occur when the
 n 
 
 2  ( n − 1) 
ratio of fluid pressure at throat to the inlet pressure is   , where n is the index of
 n +1
adiabatic expansion.
Also obtain the expression for maximum mass flow through a convergent-divergent nozzle having
isentropic expansion starting from rest.
13.7 For isentropic flow through a nozzle prove that area on p-v diagram gives the heat drop during
expansion. Also show processes on T-s and h-s diagram.
13.8 Explain the significance of choked flow.
13.9 Describe the ‘over expansion’ and ‘under expansion’ in nozzles.
13.10 Give the pressure and velocity variations along the length of ‘convergent nozzle’ and ‘convergent-
divergent nozzle’ when back pressure is reduced gradually from inlet pressure to the pressure
below designed back pressure value.
13.11 Discuss the effects of friction on the performance of nozzles. Also show these effects on T-s and
h-s diagrams.
13.12 What do you understand by supersaturation of steam flowing through nozzles? Explain the
phenomenon and factors responsible for it.
13.13 Describe the physical significance of supersaturation in steam nozzle.
13.14 Describe the working of steam injector and its applications.
13.15 Write short notes on the following:
(a) Nozzle efficiency (b) Velocity coefficient
(c) Discharge coefficient (d) Critical velocity
13.16 Steam at 10 bar and 250°C is admitted in convergent-divergent nozzle with initial velocity of 75
m/s. Determine the velocity at exit considering isentropic flow through nozzle. [886.35 m/s]
13.17 Air enters into a nozzle at 4 bar and leaves at 1 bar, 350°C and 700 m/s. Determine temperature
of air entering nozzle, nozzle efficiency and nozzle exit area for air flow rate of 4 kg/s. Take
cp = 1.003 kJ/kg×K. [594.27°C, 86.04%, 10.4 cm2]
13.18 In a steam nozzle the expansion pressure ratio of 7.5 is achieved with steam entering at 300°C and
leaving at 2 bar. For the steam mass flow rate of 1.2 kg/s determine the throat area considering
adiabatic expansion in the absence of friction loss. [4.45 cm2]
13.19 Steam at dry saturated state enters the nozzle at 10 bar and 90 m/s velocity. Steam leaves the
nozzle at 6 bar, 435 m/s. Considering heat loss of 1.51 kcal/kg of steam flow determine dryness
fraction at exit of nozzle and ratio of inlet to exit cross-section area. [0.92, 3.22]
13.20A convergent-divergent nozzle has steam entering at 10 bar and 0.97 dry and leaving at 0.6 bar. For
the steam mass flow rate of 0.2 kg/s determine the ratio of throat diameter to exit diameter
considering that 10% of overall isentropic heat drop is the frictional heat generated in divergent
portion of nozzle. [0.516]
13.21 A steam nozzle has steam entering at 6 bar, 300°C and expansion occurs upto steam pressure of
1.5 bar. For the mass flow rate being 5 kg/s and nozzle exit area being 6.75 cm2 determine nozzle
efficiency. [90%]
610 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
13.22 In a convergent-divergent nozzle steam enters at 7 bar, 0.96 dry and back pressure is 1 bar. Throat
area of nozzle is 6.5 cm2. In the diverging portion the friction causes reduction in total enthalpy
drop by 15% compared to ideal enthalpy drop. Determine mass flow rate, velocity and condition
of steam leaving nozzle assuming negligible inlet velocity. [0.684 kg/s, 736 m/s, 0.925]
13.23 Convergent-divergent nozzle operates with steam entering at 30 bar, 300°C and leaving at 5 bar,
800 m/s. Assuming negligible inlet velocity and the friction to occur in only divergent portion of
nozzle with mass flow rate of 10 kg/s, determine,
(a) the efficiency for expansion in divergent portion of nozzle,
(b) the velocity of steam at throat. [90%, 530 m/s]
13.24 Steam enters a convergent-divergent nozzle at 7 bar, 773 K and isentropic expansion occurs up
to pressure of 3 bar. Determine the rate of steam mass flow considering
(i) equilibrium flow
(ii) supersaturated flow with pv1.3 = constant
Also determine degree of supersaturation and degree of undercooling. Assume inlet velocity to
be negligible. [96 kg/s, 1.71, 17.5°C]
13.25 Steam expands from 20 bar, 250°C to pressure of 3 bar. Nozzle efficiency is 90% and exit area is
3.15 cm2. Assuming supersaturated flow to be governed by pv1.3 = constant and mean value of
specific heat for supersaturated steam being 1.93 kJ/kg×K determine the mass flow rate of steam
on per minute basis. [36 kg/min]
13.26 Steam at 8 bar, dry saturated enters a convergent-divergent nozzle to expand upto 1.5 bar.
Determine the ratio of cross-section area at exit and throat considering flow to be isentropic and
expansion index being 1.135. [1.94]
13.27 Convergent nozzle has steam entering at 4 bar, 150°C and leaving at atmospheric pressure. The
supersaturated expansion occurs following the equation,
Pv ´ 103 = 2.308 (h – 1943) where v is in m3/kg, P is in bar, h is in kJ/kg. Determine the mass flow
rate of steam for nozzle efficiency of 90% and throat area of 16.75 cm2. [1 kg/s]
13.28 A convergent-divergent nozzle has steam entering at 10 bar, 270°C and leaving at 1.2 bar. Loss
in nozzle occurs only in diverging portion because of friction and amounts to 15% of total
enthalpy drop. For the cone angle being 5° in diverging portion, throat diameter being 6 mm
determine the length of diverging portion of nozzle. [32 mm]
13.29 Steam at 1.5 bar, dry saturated is used in steam injector for feeding water into a boiler. Water
enters into boiler at pressure being 20% more than boiler pressure of 20 bar. Water is taken from
feed water tank at 20°C and rate of water supply is 1.67 kg/s. Determine
(a) the mass of water injected per kg of steam if coefficient of steam nozzle is 0.95.
(b) ratio of diameters of steam nozzle to water discharge nozzle.
(c) temperature of water entering the boiler.
Also state the assumptions made for analysis, if any.
[5.2 kg/kg of steam, 7.3, 121°C]
13.30 A steam injector lifts water from 4 m below the injector axis and feeds 150 kg per minute water
into the boiler which is 1 m above the injector axis. Boiler produces steam at 15 bar, dry saturated
and for steam injector the steam is taken from boiler itself. Water in the tank is at 30°C and the
velocity of water being delivered into boiler is 20 m/s. Determine (a) the mass of steam required
per hour for operating injector, (b) diameter of throat of mixing nozzle, (c) temperature of water
leaving injector, (d) diameter of throat of steam nozzle for the maximum steam flow and nozzle
efficiency of 92%. [1560 kg/hr, 8.15 mm, 124°C, 16.35 mm]