POWER SYSTEMS-III

(R20- R20A0209)

LECTURE NOTES

B.TECH

(III YEAR – II

SEM)(2022-2023)

Prepared by: RAJA SAI KIRAN,

Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
(Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NBA &
NAAC – ‘A’ Grade - ISO 9001:2015 Certified)
 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY
III YEAR B. Tech EEE– II SEM L/T/P/C
3/-/-/3
(R20A0209) POWER SYSTEMS - III

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
• To understand and develop Y bus matrices
• To give the knowledge on per unit system.
• To understand and develop Z bus matrices
• To give the knowledge on faults analysis.
• Give the knowledge of iterative method in power systems.
• To understand the concepts load flow studies.

UNIT I:
PER UNIT REPRESENTATION OF POWER SYSTEMS: The one-line diagram, impedance
and reactance diagrams, per unit quantities, changing the base of per unit quantities, advantages of
per unit system.
POWER SYSTEM NETWORK MATRICES: Bus Incidence Matrix, Y‐bus formation by Direct
andSingular Transformation Methods, Numerical Problems.

UNIT II:
FORMATION OF Z‐BUS: Partial network, Algorithm for the Modification of Z Bus Matrix for
addition element for the following cases: Addition of element from a new bus to reference,
Addition of element from a new bus to an old bus, Addition of element between an old bus to
reference and addition of element between two old buses

UNIT–III
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND FAULT CALCULATIONS: Significance of positive,
negative and zero sequence components, sequence impedances and sequence networks, fault
calculations, sequence network equations, single line to ground fault, line to line fault, double line
to ground fault, three phase faults, faults with fault impedance.

UNIT–IV
LOAD FLOW STUDIES I: Derivation of Static load flow equations. Load Flow Solutions Using
Gauss Seidel Method: Acceleration Factor, Load flow solution with and without P‐V buses,
Algorithm and Flowchart. Numerical Load flow Solution for Simple Power Systems (Max.
3‐Buses): Determination of Bus Voltages, Injected Active and Reactive Powers (Sample One
Iteration only) and finding Line Flows/Losses for the given Bus Voltages.

UNIT–V
LOAD FLOW STUDIES II: Numerical Load flow Solution for Simple Power Systems (Max. 3-
Buses): Determination of Bus Voltages, Injected Active and Reactive Powers (One Iteration only)
and finding Line Flows/Losses for the given Bus Voltages, Newton Raphson Method (Polar
coordinates only): Load Flow Solution with and without P-V Buses, Derivation of Jacobian
Elements, Fast Decoupled Method.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. C.L.Wadhwa, Electrical Power Systems, 3rd Edn, New Age International
Publishing Co., 2001.
2. D.P.Kothari and I.J.Nagrath, Modern Power System Analysis, 4th Edn, Tata
McGraw Hill Education Private Limited2011.

REFERENCEBOOKS:
1. D. P. Kothari: Modern Power System Analysis-Tata McGraw Hill Pub. Co. 2003
2. Hadi Scadat: Power System Analysis – Tata McGraw Hill Pub. Co.2002
3. W.D. Stevenson: Elements of Power system Analysis – McGraw Hill
International Student Edition.

COURSE OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course the student will be able to:
• Understand the concept of per unit system and faults in power systems.
• Evaluate the admittance matrix of a given power systems.
• Analyze the power system using iterative methods.
• Understand the concept of load flow studies in power system.
• Understand the PF and computer control in power system.
 UNIT-I

PER UNIT REPRESENTATION OF POWER SYSTEMS

One Line Diagram

In practice, electric power systems are very complex and their size is
unwieldy. It is very difficult to represent all the components of the system on
a single frame. The complexities could be in terms of various types of
protective devices, machines (transformers, generators, motors, etc.), their
connections (star, delta, etc.), etc. Hence, for the purpose of power system
analysis, a simple single phase equivalent circuit is developed called, the
one line diagram (OLD) or the single line diagram (SLD). An SLD is thus,
the concise form of representing a given power system. It is to be noted that a
given SLD will contain only such data that are relevant to the system
analysis/study under consideration. For example, the details of protective
devices need not be shown for load flow analysis nor it is necessary to show
the details of shunt values for stability studies.

Symbols used for SLD

Various symbols are used to represent the different parameters and machines
as single phase equivalents on the SLD,. Some of the important symbols
used are as listed in the table of Figure 1.
Example system
Consider for illustration purpose, a sample example power system and data as
under:
Generator 1: 30 MVA, 10.5 KV, X”= 1.6 ohms, Generator 2: 15 MVA, 6.6
KV, X”=
ohms, Generator 3: 25 MVA, 6.6 KV, X”= 0.56 ohms, Transformer 1 (3-phase): 15
MVA, 33/11 KV, X=15.2 ohms/phase on HT side, Transformer 2 (3-phase): 15 MVA,
33/6.2 KV, X=16.0 ohms/phase on HT side, Transmission Line: 20.5 ohms per phase,
Load A: 15 MW, 11 KV, 0.9 PF (lag); and Load B: 40 MW, 6.6 KV, 0.85 PF (lag). The
corresponding SLD incorporating the standard symbols can be shown as in figure 2.
 It is observed here, that the generators are specified in 3-phase MVA, L-L
voltage and per phase Y-equivalent impedance, transformers are specified in 3-
phase MVA, L-L voltage transformation ratio and per phase Y-equivalent
impedance on any one side and the loads are specified in 3-phase MW, L-L
voltage and power factor.

Impedance Diagram

The impedance diagram on single-phase basis for use under balanced conditions
can be easily drawn from the SLD. The following assumptions are made in
obtaining the impedance diagrams.

Assumptions:
1. The single phase transformer equivalents are shown as ideals with impedances on
appropriate side (LV/HV),
2. The magnetizing reactances of transformers are negligible,
3. The generators are represented as constant voltage sources with series resistance or
reactance,
4. The transmission lines are approximated by their equivalent -Models,
5. The loads are assumed to be passive and are represented by a series branch of
resistance or reactance and
6. Since the balanced conditions are assumed, the neutral grounding impedances do not
appear in the impedance diagram.

Example system
As per the list of assumptions as above and with reference to the system of
figure 2, the impedance diagram can be obtained as shown in figure 3.
 Reactance Diagram

With some more additional and simplifying assumptions, the impedance

diagram can be simplified further to obtain the corresponding reactance
diagram. The following are the assumptions made.
Additional assumptions:
➢ The resistance is often omitted during the fault analysis. This causes a very
negligible error since, resistances are negligible
➢ Loads are Omitted
➢ Transmission line capacitances are ineffective &
➢ Magnetizing currents of transformers are neglected.

Example system
as per the assumptions given above and with reference to the system of figure 2
and figure 3, the reactance diagram can be obtained as shown in figure 4.

Note: These impedance & reactance diagrams are also refered as the Positive Sequence
Diagrams/ Networks.

Per Unit Quantities

during the power system analysis, it is a usual practice to represent current,
voltage, impedance, power, etc., of an electric power system in per unit or
percentage of the base or reference value of the respective quantities. The
numerical per unit (pu) value of any quantity is its ratio to a chosen base value
of the same dimension. Thus a pu value is a normalized quantity with respect to
the chosen base value.
Definition: Per Unit value of a given quantity is the ratio of the actual value in any
given unit to the base value in the same unit. The percent value is 100 times the pu
value. Both the pu and percentage methods are simpler than the use of actual values.
Further, the main advantage in using the pu system of computations is that the result
that comes out of the sum, product, quotient, etc. of two or more pu values is
expressed in perunit itself.
 In an electrical power system, the parameters of interest include the current,
voltage, complex power (VA), impedance and the phase angle. Of these, the
phase angle is dimensionless and the other four quantities can be described by
knowing any two of them. Thus clearly, an arbitrary choice of any two base
values will evidently fix the other base values.
Normally the nominal voltage of lines and equipment is known along with the
complex power rating in MVA. Hence, in practice, the base values are chosen
for complex power (MVA) and line voltage (KV). The chosen base MVA is the
same for all the parts of the system. However, the base voltage is chosen with
reference to a particular section of the system and the other base voltages (with
reference to the other sections of the systems, these sections caused by the
presence of the transformers) are then related to the chosen one by the turns-
ratio of the connecting transformer.
If Ib is the base current in kilo amperes and Vb, the base voltage in kilovolts, then
the base MVA is, Sb = (VbIb). Then the base values of current & impedance are
given by
Base current (kA), Ib = MVAb/KVb
= Sb/Vb (1.1)
Base impedance, Zb = (Vb/Ib)
= (KVb2 / MVAb) (1.2)
Hence the per unit impedance is given by
Zpu = Zohms/Zb
= Zohms (MVAb/KVb2) (1.3)
In 3-phase systems, KVb is the line-to-line value & MVAb is the 3-phase MVA.
[1-phase MVA = (1/3) 3-phase MVA].

Changing the base of a given pu value:

It is observed from equation (3) that the pu value of impedance is proportional
directly to the base MVA and inversely to the square of the base KV. If Z punew
is the pu impedance required to be calculated on a new set of base values:
MVAbnew & KVbnew from the already given per unit impedance Z puold,
specified on the old set of base values, MVAbold & KVbold , then we have
Z new = Z old (MVA new/MVA old) (KV old/KV new)2 (1.4)
pu pu b b b b

On the other hand, the change of base can also be done by first converting the
given pu impedance to its ohmic value and then calculating its pu value on the
new set of base values.

Merits and Demerits of pu System

Following are the advantages and disadvantages of adopting the pu system of
POWER SYSTEMS - III R20A0209
computations in electric power systems:

Merits
➢ The pu value is the same for both 1-phase and & 3-phase systems
➢ The pu value once expressed on a proper base, will be the same when refereed
to either side of the transformer. Thus the presence of transformer is totally
eliminated
➢ The variation of values is in a smaller range 9nearby unity). Hence the errors
involved in pu computations are very less.
➢ Usually the nameplate ratings will be marked in pu on the base of the name
plate ratings, etc.

Demerits:
➢ If proper bases are not chosen, then the resulting pu values may be highly
absurd (such as 5.8 pu, -18.9 pu, etc.). This may cause confusion to the user.
However, this problem can be avoided by selecting the base MVA near the
high-rated equipment and a convenient base KV in any section of the system.

pu Impedance / Reactance Diagram

for a given power system with all its data with regard to the generators,
transformers, transmission lines, loads, etc., it is possible to obtain the
corresponding impedance or reactance diagram as explained above. If the
parametric values are shown in pu on the properly selected base values of the
system, then the diagram is refered as the per unit impedance or reactance
diagram. In forming a pu diagram, the following are the procedural steps
involved:
1. Obtain the one line diagram based on the given data
2. Choose a common base MVA for the system
3. Choose a base KV in any one section (Sections formed by transformers)
4. Find the base KV of all the sections present
5. Find pu values of all the parameters: R,X, Z, E, etc.
6. Draw the pu impedance/ reactance diagram.

POWER SYSTEM NETWORK MATRICES

1. FORMATION OF YBUS AND ZBUS

The bus admittance matrix, YBUS plays a very important role in computer aided power
system analysis. It can be formed in practice by either of the methods as under:
1. Rule of Inspection
2. Singular Transformation
3. Non-Singular Transformation
4. ZBUS Building Algorithms, etc.

The performance equations of a given power system can be considered in three different
frames of reference as discussed below:

Frames of Reference:
Bus Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of buses) relating the
bus vectors of currents and voltages through the bus impedance matrix and bus admittance

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POWER SYSTEMS - III R20A0209

matrix:

EBUS = ZBUS IBUS

IBUS = YBUS EBUS
Branch Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of branches of a
selected Tree sub-graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of currents and
voltages through the branch impedance matrix and branch admittance matrix:

EBR = ZBR IBR

IBR = YBR EBR
Loop Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of branches of a
selected Tree sub-graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of currents and
voltages through the branch impedance matrix and branch admittance matrix:

ELOOP = ZLOOP ILOOP

ILOOP = YLOOP ELOOP

Of the various network matrices refered above, the bus admittance matrix (YBUS) and the
bus impedance matrix (ZBUS) are determined for a given power system by the rule of
inspection as explained next.

Rule of Inspection

Consider the 3-node admittance network as shown in figure5. Using the basic branch
relation: I = (YV), for all the elemental currents and applying Kirchhoff‟s Current
Law principle at the nodal points, we get the relations as under:

At node 1: I1 =Y1V1 + Y3 (V1-V3) + Y6 (V1 – V2)

At node 2: I2 =Y2V2 + Y5 (V2-V3) + Y6 (V2 – V1)

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POWER SYSTEMS - III R20A0209

At node 3: 0 = Y3 (V3-V1) + Y4V3 + Y5 (V3 – V2) (12)

Fig. 3 Example System for finding YBUS

These are the performance equations of the given network in admittance form and
they can be represented in matrix form as:

In other words, the relation of equation (9) can be represented in the form
IBUS = YBUS EBUS (14)
Where, YBUS is the bus admittance matrix, IBUS & EBUS are the bus current and bus
voltage vectors respectively. By observing the elements of the bus admittance matrix,
YBUS of equation (13), it is observed that the matrix elements can as well be obtained by
a simple inspection of the given system diagram:
Diagonal elements: A diagonal element (Yii) of the bus admittance matrix, YBUS, is
equal to the sum total of the admittance values of all the elements incident at the bus/node
i,
Off Diagonal elements: An off-diagonal element (Yij) of the bus admittance matrix,
YBUS, is equal to the negative of the admittance value of the connecting element present
between the buses I and j, if any. This is the principle of the rule of inspection. Thus the
algorithmic equations for the rule of inspection are obtained as:

Yii = S yij (j = 1,2,…….n)

Yij = - yij (j = 1,2,…….n) (15)

For i = 1,2,….n, n = no. of buses of the given system, yij is the admittance of element
connected between buses i and j and yii is the admittance of element connected between
bus i and ground (reference bus).

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POWER SYSTEMS - III R20A0209

Bus impedance matrix

In cases where, the bus impedance matrix is also required, it cannot be formed by direct
inspection of the given system diagram. However, the bus admittance matrix determined
by the rule of inspection following the steps explained above, can be inverted to obtain the
bus impedance matrix, since the two matrices are interinvertible.
Note: It is to be noted that the rule of inspection can be applied only to those power
systems that do not have any mutually coupled elements.

Examples on Rule of Inspection:

Example 6: Obtain the bus admittance matrix for the admittance network shown aside by
the rule of inspection

Example 7: Obtain YBUS for the impedance network shown aside by the rule of
inspection. Also, determine YBUS for the reduced network after eliminating the eligible
unwanted node. Draw the resulting reduced system diagram.

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POWER SYSTEMS - III R20A0209

SINGULAR TRANSFORMATIONS

The primitive network matrices are the most basic matrices and depend purely on the
impedance or admittance of the individual elements. However, they do not contain any
information about the behaviour of the interconnected network variables. Hence, it is
necessary to transform the primitive matrices into more meaningful matrices which can
relate variables of the interconnected network.

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POWER SYSTEMS - III R20A0209

Bus admittance matrix, YBUS and Bus impedance matrix, ZBUS

In the bus frame of reference, the performance of the interconnected network is described
by n independent nodal equations, where n is the total number of buses (n+1nodes are
present, out of which one of them is designated as the reference node).
For example a 5-bus system will have 5 external buses and 1 ground/ ref. bus). The
performance equation relating the bus voltages to bus current injections in bus frame of
reference in admittance form is given by

IBUS = YBUS EBUS (17)

Where EBUS = vector of bus voltages measured with respect to reference bus
IBUS = Vector of currents injected into the bus
YBUS = bus admittance matrix
The performance equation of the primitive network in admittance form is given by
i + j = [y] v
Pre-multiplying by At (transpose of A), we obtain

At i +At j = At [y] v (18)

However, as per equation (4),

At i =0,
since it indicates a vector whose elements are the algebraic sum of element currents
incident at a bus, which by Kirchhoff‟s law is zero. Similarly, At j gives the algebraic sum
of all source currents incident at each bus and this is nothing but the total current injected
at the bus. Hence,

At j = IBUS (19)
Thus from (18) we have, IBUS = At [y] v (20)
However, from (5), we have
v =A EBUS
And hence substituting in (20) we get,

IBUS = At [y] A EBUS (21)

Comparing (21) with (17) we obtain,

YBUS = At [y] A (22)

The bus incidence matrix is rectangular and hence singular. Hence, (22) gives a singular
transformation of the primitive admittance matrix [y]. The bus impedance matrix is given
by ,

ZBUS = YBUS-1 (23)

Note: This transformation can be derived using the concept of power invariance, however,
since the transformations are based purely on KCL and KVL, the transformation will
obviously be power invariant.

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POWER SYSTEMS - III R20A0209

Examples on Singular Transformation:

Example 8: For the network of Fig E8, form the primitive matrices [z] & [y] and obtain
the bus admittance matrix by singular transformation. Choose a Tree T(1,2,3). The data is
given in Table E8.

Fig E8 System for Example-8

Table E8: Data for Example-8

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POWER SYSTEMS - III R20A0209

Solution:
The bus incidence matrix is formed taking node 1 as the reference bus.

The primitive incidence matrix is given by

The primitive admittance matrix [y] = [z]-1 and given by,

The bus admittance matrix by singular transformation is obtained as

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POWER SYSTEMS - III R20A0209

SUMMARY

The formulation of the mathematical model is the first step in obtaining the solution of any
electrical network. The independent variables can be either currents or voltages.
Correspondingly, the elements of the coefficient matrix will be impedances or
admittances.

Network equations can be formulated for solution of the network using graph theory,
independent of the nature of elements. In the graph of a network, the tree-branches and
links are distinctly identified. The complete information about the interconnection of the
network, with the directions of the currents is contained in the bus incidence matrix.

The information on the nature of the elements which form the interconnected network is
contained in the primitive impedance matrix. A primitive element can be represented in
impedance form or admittance form. In the bus frame of reference, the performance of the
interconnected system is described by (n-1) nodal equations, where n is the number of
nodes. The bus admittance matrix and the bus impedance matrix relate the bus voltages
and currents. These matrices can be obtained from the primitive impedance and
admittance matrices.

FORMATION OF BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX

NODE ELIMINATION BY MATRIX ALGEBRA

Nodes can be eliminated by the matrix manipulation of the standard node equations.
However, only those nodes at which current does not enter or leave the network can be
considered for such elimination. Such nodes can be eliminated either in one group or by
taking the eligible nodes one after the other for elimination, as discussed next.

CASE-A: Simultaneous Elimination of Nodes:

Consider the performance equation of the given network in bus frame of reference in
admittance form for a n-bus system, given by:

IBUS = YBUS EBUS (1)

Where IBUS and EBUS are n-vectors of injected bus current and bus voltages and YBUS
is the square, symmetric, coefficient bus admittance matrix of order n. Now, of the n buses
present in the system, let p buses be considered for node elimination so that the reduced
system after elimination of p nodes would be retained with m (= n-p) nodes only. Hence
the corresponding performance equation would be similar to (1) except that the coefficient
matrix would be of order m now, i.e.,

IBUS = YBUSnew EBUS (2)

Where YBUSnew is the bus admittance matrix of the reduced network and the vectors

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POWER SYSTEMS - III R20A0209

IBUS and EBUS are of order m. It is assumed in (1) that IBUS and EBUS are obtained
with their elements arranged such that the elements associated with p nodes to be
eliminated are in the lower portion of the vectors. Then the elements of YBUS also get
located accordingly so that (1) after matrix partitioning yields,

Where the self and mutual values of YA and YD are those identified only with the nodes
to be retained and removed respectively and YC=YBt is composed of only the
corresponding mutual admittance values, that are common to the nodes m and p.
Now, for the p nodes to be eliminated, it is necessary that, each element of the vector
IBUS-p should be zero. Thus we have from (3):

IBUS-m = YA EBUS-m + YB EBUS-p

IBUS-p = YC EBUS-m + YD EBUS-p = 0
(4)

Solving,
EBUS-p = - YD-1YC EBUS-m
(5)
Thus, by simplification, we obtain an expression similar to (2) as,
IBUS-m = {YA - YBYD-1YC} EBUS-m
(6)
Thus by comparing (2) and (6), we get an expression for the new bus admittance matrix in
terms of the sub-matrices of the original bus admittance matrix as:
YBUSnew = {YA – YBYD -1YC}
(7)
This expression enables us to construct the given network with only the necessary nodes
retained and all the unwanted nodes/buses eliminated. However, it can be observed from
(7) that the expression involves finding the inverse of the sub-matrix YD (of order p). This
would be computationally very tedious if p, the nodes to be eliminated is very large,
especially for real practical systems. In such cases, it is more advantageous to eliminate
the unwanted nodes from the given network by considering one node only at a time for
elimination, as discussed next.

CASE-B: Separate Elimination of Nodes:

Here again, the system buses are to be renumbered, if necessary, such that the node to be
removed always happens to be the last numbered one. The sub-matrix YD then would be a
single element matrix and hence it inverse would be just equal to its own reciprocal value.
Thus the generalized algorithmic equation for finding the elements of the new bus
admittance matrix can be obtained from (6) as,

Yij new = Yij old – Yin Ynj / Ynn " i,j = 1,2,…… n. (8)

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POWER SYSTEMS - III R20A0209

Each element of the original matrix must therefore be modified as per (7). Further, this
procedure of eliminating the last numbered node from the given system of n nodes is to be
iteratively repeated p times, so as to eliminate all the unnecessary p nodes from the
original system.

Examples on Node elimination:

Example-1: Obtain YBUS for the impedance network shown below by the rule of
inspection. Also, determine YBUS for the reduced network after eliminating the eligible
unwanted node. Draw the resulting reduced system diagram.

The admittance equivalent network is as follows:

The bus admittance matrix is obtained by RoI as:

The reduced matrix after elimination of node 3 from the given system is determined as per the
equation:

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POWER SYSTEMS - III R20A0209

Alternatively,

Thus the reduced network can be obtained again by the rule of inspection as shown below.

Example-2: Obtain YBUS for the admittance network shown below by the rule of
inspection. Also, determine YBUS for the reduced network after eliminating the eligible
unwanted node. Draw the resulting reduced system diagram.

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Power System -III R20A0209

Thus the reduced system of two nodes can be drawn by the rule of inspection as under:
Power System -III R20A0209
Power System -III R20A0209

UNIT II
FORMATION OF Z‐BUS
ZBUS building

FORMATION OF BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX

The bus impedance matrix is the inverse of the bus admittance matrix. An alternative
method is possible, based on an algorithm to form the bus impedance matrix directly from
system parameters and the coded bus numbers. The bus impedance matrix is formed
adding one element at a time to a partial network of the given system. The performance
equation of the network in bus frame of reference in impedance form using the currents as
independent variables is given in matrix form by

When expanded so as to refer to a n bus system, (9) will be of the form

Now assume that the bus impedance matrix Zbus is known for a partial network of m
buses and a known reference bus. Thus, Zbus of the partial network is of dimension mxm.
If now a new element is added between buses p and q we have the following two
possibilities:
(i) p is an existing bus in the partial network and q is a new bus; in this case p-q is a
branch added to the p-network as shown in Fig 1a, and
Power System -III R20A0209

(ii) both p and q are buses existing in the partial network; in this case p-q is a link
added to the p-network as shown in Fig 1b.
Power System -III R20A0209

If the added element ia a branch, p-q, then the new bus impedance matrix would be of
order m+1, and the analysis is confined to finding only the elements of the new row and
column (corresponding to bus-q) introduced into the original matrix. If the added element
ia a link, p-q, then the new bus impedance matrix will remain unaltered with regard to its
order. However, all the elements of the original matrix are updated to take account of the
effect of the link added.

ADDITION OF A BRANCH
Consider now the performance equation of the network in impedance form with the added
branch p-q, given by

It is assumed that the added branch p-q is mutually coupled with some elements of the
partial network and since the network has bilateral passive elements only, we have

Vector ypq-rs is not equal to zero and Zij= Zji " i,j=1,2,…m,q
(12)

To find Zqi:
The elements of last row-q and last column-q are determined by injecting a current of 1.0
pu at the bus-i and measuring the voltage of the bus-q with respect to the reference bus-0,
as shown in Fig.2. Since all other bus currents are zero, we have from (11) that

Ek = Zki Ii = Zki " k = 1, 2,…i ....... p,….m, q

(13)
Hence, Eq = Zqi ; Ep = Zpi ………

Also, Eq=Ep -vpq ; so that Zqi = Zpi - vpq " i =1, 2,…i.…...p,….m, _q
(14)

To find vpq:
In terms of the primitive admittances and voltages across the elements, the current through
the elements is given by
Power System -III R20A0209

Fig.2 Calculation for Zqi

Power System -III R20A0209
Power System -III R20A0209

Special Cases
The following special cases of analysis concerning ZBUS building can be considered with
respect to the addition of branch to a p-network.
Power System -III R20A0209

ADDITION OF A LINK
Consider now the performance equation of the network in impedance form with the added
link p-l, (p-l being a fictitious branch and l being a fictitious node) given by

It is assumed that the added branch p-q is mutually coupled with some elements of the
partial network and since the network has bilateral passive elements only, we have

To find Zli:
The elements of last row-l and last column-l are determined by injecting a current of 1.0
pu at the bus-i and measuring the voltage of the bus-q with respect to the reference bus-0,
as shown in Fig.3. Further, the current in the added element is made zero by connecting a
voltage source, el in series with element p-q, as shown. Since all other bus currents are
zero, we have from (25) that
Power System III R20A0209

To find vpq:
In terms of the primitive admittances and voltages across the elements, the current through
the elements is given by
Power System -III R20A0209
Power System -III R20A0209

From (39), it is thus observed that, when a link is added to a ref. bus, then the situation is
similar to adding a branch to a fictitious bus and hence the following steps are followed:
Power System -III R20A0209

1. The element is added similar to addition of a branch (case-b) to obtain the new matrix
of order m+1.
2. The extra fictitious node, l is eliminated using the node elimination algorithm.

Case (d): If there is no mutual coupling, then elements of pq rs y , are zero. Further, if p is
not the reference node, then

MODIFICATION OF ZBUS FOR NETWORK CHANGES

An element which is not coupled to any other element can be removed easily. The Zbus is
modified as explained in sections above, by adding in parallel with the element (to be
removed), a link whose impedance is equal to the negative of the impedance of the
element to be removed. Similarly, the impedance value of an element which is not coupled
to any other element can be changed easily. The Zbus is modified again as explained in
sections above, by adding in parallel with the element (whose impedance is to be
changed), a link element of impedance value chosen such that the parallel equivalent
impedance is equal to the desired value of impedance. When mutually coupled elements
are removed, the Zbus is modified by introducing appropriate changes in the bus currents
of the original network to reflect the changes introduced due to the removal of the
elements.

Examples on ZBUS building

Example 1: For the positive sequence network data shown in table below, obtain ZBUS
by building procedure.

Solution:
The given network is as shown below with the data marked on it. Assume the elements to
be added as per the given sequence: 0-1, 0-3, 1-2, and 2-3.
Power System -III R20A0209

Fig. E1: Example System

Consider building ZBUS as per the various stages of building through the consideration of
the corresponding partial networks as under:
Step-1: Add element–1 of impedance 0.25 pu from the external node-1 (q=1) to internal
ref. node-0 (p=0). (Case-a), as shown in the partial network;

Step-2: Add element–2 of impedance 0.2 pu from the external node-3 (q=3) to internal ref.
node-0 (p=0). (Case-a), as shown in the partial network;
Power System -III R20A0209

Step-3: Add element–3 of impedance 0.08 pu from the external node-2 (q=2) to internal node-
1 (p=1). (Case-b), as shown in the partial network;

Step-4: Add element–4 of impedance 0.06 pu between the two internal nodes, node-2
(p=2) to node-3 (q=3). (Case-d), as shown in the partial network;
Power System -III R20A0209

The fictitious node l is eliminated further to arrive at the final impedance matrix as under:
Power System -III R20A0209
Power System -III R20A0209
Power System -III R20A0209

Solution: The specified system is considered with the reference node denoted by node-0.
By its inspection, we can obtain the bus impedance matrix by building procedure by
following the steps through the p-networks as under:
Step1: Add branch 1 between node 1 and reference node. (q =1, p = 0)

Step2: Add branch 2, between node 2 and reference node. (q = 2, p = 0).

Power System -III R20A0209

Step3: Add branch 3, between node 1 and node 3 (p = 1, q = 3)

Step 4: Add element 4, which is a link between node 1 and node 2. (p = 1, q = 2)

Power System -III R20A0209

Now the extra node-l has to be eliminated to obtain the new matrix of step-4, using the
algorithmic relation:

Step 5: Add link between node 2 and node 3 (p = 2, q=3)

Power System -III R20A0209

32
 UNIT III
FAULT ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION
A fault is any abnormal condition in a power system. The steady state operating mode of a
power system is balanced 3-phase a.c. .However, due to sudden external or internal
changes in the system, this condition is disrupted.

When the insulation of the system fails at one or more points or a conducting object
comes into contact with a live point, a short circuit or a fault occurs.

CAUSES OF POWER SYSTEM FAULTS

The causes of faults are numerous, e.g.

• Lightning
• Heavy winds
• Trees falling across lines
• Vehicles colliding with towers or poles
• Birds shorting lines
• Aircraft colliding with lines
• Vandalism
• Small animals entering switchgear
• Line breaks due to excessive loading

COMMON POWER SYSTEM FAULTS

Power system faults may be categorised as one of four types; in order of frequency of
occurrence, they are:
• Single line to ground fault
• Line to line fault
• Double line to ground fault
• Balanced three phase fault
The first three types constitutes severe unbalanced operating conditions which involves only
one or two phases hence referred to as unsymmetrical faults. In the fourth type, a fault
involving all the three phases occurs therefore referred to as symmetrical (balanced) fault.

1.04 EFFECTS OF POWER SYSTEM FAULTS

Faults may lead to fire breakout that consequently results into loss of property, loss of life and
destruction of a power system network. Faults also leads to cut of supply in areas beyond the
fault point in a transmission and distribution network leading to power blackouts; this
interferes with industrial and commercial activities that supports economic growth, stalls
learning activities in institutions, work in offices, domestic applications and creates insecurity
at night.

All the above results into retarded development due to low gross domestic product realised.

It is important therefore to determine the values of system voltages and currents during
faulted conditions, so that protective devices may be set to detect and minimize the harmful
effects of such contingencies

THEVENIN’S EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Thevenin’s theorem states that any linear network containing any number of voltage sources
and impedances can be replaced by a single emf and an impedance.

The emf is the open circuit voltage as seen from the terminals under consideration and the
impedance is the network impedance as seen from these terminals.

This circuit consisting of a single emf and impedance is known as Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit.

The calculation of fault current can then be very easily done by applying this theorem after
obtaining the open circuit emf and network impedance as seen from the fault point.
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
The majority of faults in power systems are asymmetrical. To analyse an asymmetrical fault,
an unbalanced 3- phase circuit has to be solved. Since the direct solution of such a circuit is
very difficult, the solution can be more easily obtained by using symmetrical components
since this yields three (fictitious) single phase networks, only one of which contains a driving
emf.

Since the system reactances are balanced the thee fictitious networks have no mutual coupling
between them, a fact that is making this method of analysis quite simple.

1.21 General principles

Any set of unbalanced 3-phase voltages (or current) can be transformed into 3 balanced sets.
These are:

1. A positive sequence set of three symmetrical voltages (i.e. all numerically equal
and all displaced from each other by 1200) having the same phase sequence abc as the
original set and denoted by Va1,Vb1,Vc1 as shown in the fig(1a)

Vc1 Va1

Vb1

Fig. (a)
2. A negative sequence set of three symmetrical voltages having the phase sequence
opposite to that of the original set and denoted by Va2, Vb2, Vc2 as shown in fig(1b)

Va2

Vb2

Vc2

Fig. 1 (b)
3. A zero sequence set of three voltages, all equal in magnitude and in phase with each other
and denoted by Va0, Vb0, Vc0 as shown in fig (1c) below:

Va0

Vb0

Vc0

Fig. 1 (c )

The positive, negative and zero sequence sets above are known as symmetrical components.

Thus we have,

Va = Va1 +Va2 +Va0

Vb = Vb1 +Vb2 +Vb0

Vc = Vc1 + Vc2 +Vc0

The symmetrical components application to power system analysis is of fundamental

importance since it can be used to transform arbitrarily unbalanced condition into symmetrical
components, compute the system response by straightforward circuit analysis on simple
circuit models and transform the results back to the original phase variables.

Generally the subscripts 1, 2 and 0 are used to indicate positive sequence, negative sequence
and zero sequence respectively.

The symmetrical components do not have separate existence; they are just mathematical
components of unbalanced currents (or voltages) which actually flow in the system.
1.2.2 The “a” operator

The operator “a” as used in symmetrical components is one in which when multiplied to a
vector, rotates the vector through 1200 in a positive (anticlockwise) direction without
changing the magnitude.

The operator “a” is defined as 1 1200

THREE-SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES AND SEQUENCE NETWORKS

Positive sequence currents give rise to only positive sequence voltages, the negative sequence
currents give rise to only negative sequence voltages and zero sequence currents give rise to
only zero sequence voltages, hence each network can be regarded as flowing within in its own
network through impedances of its own sequence only.

In any part of the circuit, the voltage drop caused by current of a certain sequence depends on
the impedance of that part of the circuit to current of that sequence.

The impedance of any section of a balanced network to current of one sequence may be
different from impedance to current of another sequence.

The impedance of a circuit when positive sequence currents are flowing is called impedance,

When only negative sequence currents are flowing the impedance is termed as negative
sequence impedance.

With only zero sequence currents flowing the impedance is termed as zero sequence
impedance.

The analysis of unsymmetrical faults in power systems is carried out by finding the
symmetrical components of the unbalanced currents. Since each sequence current causes a
voltage drop of that sequence only, each sequence current can be considered to flow in an
independent network composed of impedances to current of that sequence only.

The single phase equivalent circuit composed of the impedances to current of any one
sequence only is called the sequence network of that particular sequence.
The sequence networks contain the generated emfs and impedances of like sequence.

Therefore for every power system we can form three- sequence network s. These sequence
networks, carrying current Ia1, Ia2 and Ia0 are then inter-connected to represent the different
fault conditions.

PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SEQUENCE COMPONENTS

This is achieved by considering the fields which results when these sequence voltages are
applied to the stator of a 3-phase machine e.g. an induction motor.

If a positive sequence set of voltages is applied to the terminals a, b, c of the machine, a

magnetic field revolving in a certain direction will be set up. If now the voltages to the
terminals band c are changed by interchanging the leads to terminals b and c, it is known from
induction motor theory that the direction of magnetic field would be reversed.

It is noted that for this condition, the relative phase positions of the voltages applied to the
motor are the same as for the negative sequence set.

Hence, a negative sequence set of voltages produces a rotating field rotating in an opposite
direction to that of positive sequence.

For both positive and negative sequence components, the standard convention of counter
clockwise rotation is followed.

The application of zero sequence voltages does not produce any field because these voltages
are in phase and the three -phase windings are displaced by 1200.The positive and the
negative sequence set are the balanced one. Thus, if only positive and negative sequence
currents are flowing, the phasor sum of each will be zero and there will be no residual current.
However, the zero sequence components of currents in the three phases are in phase and the
residual current will be three times the zero sequence current of one phase. In the case of a
fault involving ground, the positive and negative sequence currents are in equilibrium while
the zero sequence currents flow through the ground and overhead ground wires.
 SEQUENCE NETWORKS OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
An unloaded synchronous machine having its neutral earthed through impedance, zn, is shown
in fig. 2(a) below.

A fault at its terminals causes currents Ia, Ib and Ic to flow in the lines. If fault involves earth, a
current In flows into the neutral from the earth. This current flows through the neutral
impedance Zn.

Thus depending on the type of fault, one or more of the line currents may be zero.

Ia1
a

Ea +
-
In Zn
n
- Eb +

- Ib1
Ec
+ b
c

Ic1

Fig.2 (a)
 Positive sequence network
The generated voltages of a synchronous machine are of positive sequence only since the
windings of a synchronous machine are symmetrical.

The positive sequence network consists of an emf equal to no load terminal voltages and is in
series with the positive sequence impedance Z1 of the machine. Fig.2 (b) and fig.2(c) shows
the paths for positive sequence currents and positive sequence network respectively on a
single phase basis in the synchronous machine. The neutral impedance Zn does not appear in
the circuit because the phasor sum of Ia1, Ib1 and Ic1 is zero and no positive sequence current
can flow through Zn. Since its a balanced circuit, the positive sequence N

The reference bus for the positive sequence network is the neutral of the generator.

The positive sequence impedance Z1 consists of winding resistance and direct axis reactance.
The reactance is the sub-transient reactance X”d or transient reactance X’d or synchronous
reactance Xd depending on whether sub-transient, transient or steady state conditions are
being studied.

From fig.2 (b) , the positive sequence voltage of terminal a with respect to the reference bus is
given by:

Va1= Ea - Z1Ia1 Ia1

Z1 +
-

- Eb +
Ib1
Z1
-
Ec
+ b

Ic1
Fig.2 (b)
 Reference bus

-
Ea

Z1
a
Ia1

Fig.2(c)

2.02 Negative sequence network

A synchronous machine does not generate any negative sequence voltage. The flow of
negative sequence currents in the stator windings creates an mmf which rotates at
synchronous speed in a direction opposite to the direction of rotor, i.e., at twice the
synchronous speed with respect to rotor.

Thus the negative sequence mmf alternates past the direct and quadrature axis and sets up a
varying armature reaction effect. Thus, the negative sequence reactance is taken as the
average of direct axis and quadrature axis sub-transient reactance, i.e.,

X2 = 0.5 ( X”d + X”q ).

It not necessary to consider any time variation of X2 during transient conditions because there
is no normal constant armature reaction to be effected. For more accurate calculations, the
negative sequence resistance should be considered to account for power dissipated in the rotor
poles or damper winding by double supply frequency induced currents.

The fig.2 (d) and fig.2 (e) shows the negative sequence currents paths and the negative
sequence network respectively on a single phase basis of a synchronous machine.

The reference bus for the negative sequence network is the neutral of the machine. Thus, the
negative sequence voltage of terminal a with respect to the reference bus is given by:

Va2= -Z2Ia2
 Ia2

Z2

Z2
Z2
Ib2
b

Ic2

Fig.2 (d)

Reference bus

Z2

a
Ia2

Fig.2 (e)
2.0.3 Zero sequence network
No zero sequence voltage is induced in a synchronous machine. The flow of zero sequence
currents in the stator windings produces three mmf which are in time phase. If each phase
winding produced a sinusoidal space mmf, then with the rotor removed, the flux at a point on
the axis of the stator due to zero sequence current would be zero at every instant.

When the flux in the air gap or the leakage flux around slots or end connections is considered,
no point in these regions is equidistant from all the three –phase windings of the stator.

The mmf produced by a phase winding departs from a sine wave, by amounts which depend
upon the arrangement of the winding.

The zero sequence currents flow through the neutral impedance Zn and the current flowing
through this impedance is 3Ia0.

Fig.2(f) and fig.2(g) shows the zero sequence current paths and zero sequence network
respectively, and as can be seen, the zero sequence voltage drop from point a to ground is -
3Ia0Zn –Ia0Zg0 where Zg0 is the zero sequence impedance per phase of the generator.

Since the current in the zero sequence network is Ia0 this network must have an impedance of
3Zn +Zg0. Thus,

Z0 =3Zn +Zg0
The zero sequence voltage of terminal a with respect to the reference bus is thus:

Va0 = -Ia0Z0
 Ia0

a
Zg0

Ea
Ia0+ Ib0+ Ic0
n Zg0

Zn Ib0

Zg0
b
c

Ic0
Fig.2 (f)

Reference bus

3Zn

Z0
Zg0

Ia0

Fig.2 (g)
 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF TRANSMISSION LINE
The positive and negative sequence impedances of linear symmetrical static circuits do not
depend on the phase sequence and are, therefore equal. When only zero sequence currents
flow in the lines, the currents in all the phases are identical. These currents return partly
through the ground and partly through overhead ground wires.

The magnetic field due to the flow of zero sequence currents through line, ground and round
wires is very different from the magnetic field due to positive sequence currents. The zero
sequence reactance of lines is about 2 to 4 times the positive sequence reactance.

SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF TRANSFORMERS

A power system network has a number of transformers for stepping up and stepping down the
voltage levels.

A transformer for a 3-phase circuit may consist of three single phase transformers with
windings suitably connected in star or delta or it may be a 3-phase unit.

Modern transformers are invariably three-phase units because of their lower cost, lesser space
requirements and higher efficiency. The positive sequence impedance of a transformer equals
its leakage impedance. The resistance of the windings is usually small as compared to leakage
reactance.

For transformers above 1 MVA rating, the reactance and impedance are almost equal. Since
the transformer is a static device, the negative sequence impedance is equal to the positive
sequence impedance.

The zero sequence impedance of 3-phase units is slightly different from positive sequence
impedance. However the difference is very slight and the zero sequence impedance is also
assumed to be the same as the positive sequence impedance.

The flow of zero sequence currents through a transformer and hence in the system depends
greatly on the winding connections. The zero sequence currents can flow through the winding
connected in star only if the star point is grounded. If the star point isolated zero sequence
currents cannot flow in the winding.

The zero sequence currents cannot flow in the lines connected to a delta connected winding
because no return path is available for these zero sequence currents. However, the zero
sequence currents caused by the presence of zero sequence voltages can circulate through the
delta connected windings.

FORMATION OF SEQUENCE NETWORKS

A power system network consists of synchronous machines, transmission lines and
transformers.

The positive sequence network is the same as the single line reactance diagram used for the
calculation of symmetrical fault current. The reference bus for positive sequence network is
the system neutral.

The negative sequence network is similar to the positive sequence network except that the
negative sequence network does not contain any voltage source. The negative sequence
impedances for transmission line and transformers are the same as the positive sequence
impedances. But the negative sequence impedance of a synchronous machine may be
different from its positive sequence impedance.

Any impedance connected between a neutral and ground is not included in the positive and
negative sequence networks because the positive and the negative sequence currents cannot
flow through such impedance.

The zero sequence network also does not contain any voltage source. Any impedance
included between neutral and ground becomes three times its value in a zero sequence
network.

The following are the summary of the rules for the formation of sequence networks:-

• The positive sequence network is the same as single line impedance or reactance
diagram used in symmetrical fault analysis. The reference bus for this network is the
system neutral.
 • The generators in power system produce balanced voltages. Therefore only positive
sequence network has voltage source. There are no voltage sources in negative and
zero sequence networks.
• The positive sequence current can cause only positive sequence voltage drop.
Similarly negative sequence current can cause only negative sequence voltage drop
and zero sequence current can cause only zero sequence voltage drop.
• The reference for negative sequence network is the system neutral. However, the
reference for zero sequence network is the ground. Zero sequence current can flow
only if the neutral is grounded.
• The neutral grounding impedance Zn appears as 3Zn in the zero sequence network.
• The three sequence networks are independent and are interconnected suitably
depending on the type of fault.

UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS
The basic approach to the analysis of unsymmetrical faults is to consider the general situation
shown in the fig.3.0 which shows the three lines of the three- phase power system at the point
of fault.

The general terminals brought out are for purposes of external connections which simulate the
fault. Appropriate connections of the three stubs represent the different faults, e.g., connecting
stub `a’ to ground produces a single line to ground fault, through zero impedance, on phase
`a’. The currents in stubs b and c are then zero and Ia is the fault current.

Similarly, the connection of stubs b and c produces a line to line fault, through zero
impedance, between phases b and c, the current in stub a is then zero and Ib is equal to Ic.The
positive assignment of phase quantities is important. It is seen that the currents flow out of
the system.

The three general sequence circuits are shown in fig.3.1 (a). The ports indicated correspond to
the general 3- phase entry port of fig.3.1. A suitable inter- connection of the three- sequence
networks depending on the type fault yields the solution to the problem.
The sequence networks of fig.3.1 (a) can be replaced by equivalent sequence networks of
fig.3.1 (b) . Z0, Z1 and Z2 indicate the sequence impedances of the network looking into the
fault

Ia Ib Ic
+ + +

n Va Vb Vc

Fig.3.0 General 3- phase access port

 Equivalent sequence networks
General sequence networks

Z0 Ia0
Zero Ia0 +
sequence +
network Va0 Va0

- -

Ia1 Z1 Ia1
Positive + +
sequence +
Va1 E
network - Va1
-
-

Ia2 Z2 Ia2
Negative +
+
sequence
network Va2
Va2
-
-

Fig.3.1 (a) Fig.3.1 (b)

SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT

The termination of the three- phase access port as shown in fig. 3.2 brings about a condition
of single line to ground fault through a fault impedance Zf .
Typically Zf is set to zero in all fault studies. I include Zf in the analysis for the sake of
generality. The terminal conditions at the fault point give the following equations:

Ib = 0

Ic = 0

Va = IaZf

Ia + Ib Ic
Zf

Va + Vb + Vc
n

Fig. 3.2

Connections of sequence networks for a single line to ground fault and its simplified
equivalent circuit are shown in the fig. 3.3(a) and fig. 3.3 (b) below:
 Equivalent sequence networks
General sequence networks

Ia0 Ia1
Ia0
Zero Z0
Va0
+
Sequence
Va0
network
-
Ia1

Ia1
Z1
Positive
+ Va1 3Zf
Sequence +
3Zf
Va1 E0
network
-
-

Ia2 Ia2= Ia1

Negative

Sequence
The Z2
+ Va2
network Va2
-

Fig.3.3 (b)
Fig.3.3 (a)
 LINE TO LINE FAULT
The termination of the three- phase access port as in the fig.3.4 below simulates a line to line
fault through a fault impedance Zf .

Ia Ib Ic

+ +
Zf
Va Vb Vc
n

Fig. 3.4

The terminal conditions at the fault point give the following equations,

Ia = 0

Ib = -Ic

Vb = Vc + Zf Ib

Ib = -Ic = Ia0 + a2Ia1 + aIa2

Connection of sequence networks for a line to line fault and its simplified equivalent circuit
are shown in the fig.3.5 (a) and fig.(b) below.
 Equivalent sequence networks
General sequence networks

Ia0
Zero
+
Sequence

network

Ia1
Ia1
Positive
Z1
Sequence + +

network Zf E0 Zf
Va1
+- -

Ia2 Ia2
Negative

Sequence
+
Network Z2
Va2

Fig. 3.5 (a) Fig.3.5 (b)

DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT

The termination of the three- phase access port as shown in fig.3.6 simulates a double line to
ground fault through fault impedance Zf.

The terminal conditions at the fault point give the following equations,
Ia = 0

Vb = Vc = ( Ib + Ic ) Zf

Ia Ib Ic

+ +
Zf
Va Vb Vc
n

Fig. 3.6

The sequence networks and the equivalent circuit are shown by the Fig.3.7 (a) and Fig. 3.7 (b)
below
 Equivalent sequence networks
General sequencenetworks

Ia0 +
Zero 3Zf Ia0 3Zf

Sequence Va0
network Z0 Va0

-
Ia1
Ia1
Positive +
Z1
Sequence +
Va1
network E0 Va1

- -

Ia2
Ia2
Negative +

Sequence

Network Va2 Z2
Va2

-
Fig. 3.7(a) Fig.3.7 (b)
 Power System -III R20A0209

BALANCED THREE PHASE FAULT

This type of fault occurs infrequently, as for example, when a line, which has been made safe for
maintenance by clamping all the three phases to earth, is accidentally made alive or when, due to
slow fault clearance, an earth fault spreads across to the other two phases or when a mechanical
excavator cuts quickly through a whole cable.

It is an important type of fault in that it results in an easy calculation and generally, a pessimistic
answer.

The circuit breaker rated MVA breaking capacity is based on 3- phase fault MVA. Since circuit
breakers are manufactured in preferred standard sizes e.g. 250, 500, 750 MVA high precision is not
necessary when calculating the 3- phase fault level at a point in a power system.

The system impedances are also never known accurately in three phase faults.
Power System -III R20A0209

UNIT-IV

LOAD FLOW STUDIES-1

REVIEW OF NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS

The numerical analysis involving the solution of algebraic simultaneous equations forms
the basis for solution of the performance equations in computer aided electrical power
system analyses, such as during linear graph analysis, load flow analysis (nonlinear
equations), transient stability studies (differential equations), etc. Hence, it is necessary to
review the general forms of the various solution methods with respect to all forms of
equations, as under:

1. Solution Linear equations:

* Direct methods:
- Cramer‟s (Determinant) Method,
- Gauss Elimination Method (only for smaller systems),
- LU Factorization (more preferred method), etc.

* Iterative methods:
- Gauss Method
- Gauss-Siedel Method (for diagonally dominant systems)

3. Solution of Nonlinear equations:

Iterative methods only:
- Gauss-Siedel Method (for smaller systems)
- Newton-Raphson Method (if corrections for variables are small)

4. Solution of differential equations:

Iterative methods only:
- Euler and Modified Euler method,
- RK IV-order method,
- Milne‟s predictor-corrector method, etc.

It is to be observed that the nonlinear and differential equations can be solved only by the
iterative methods. The iterative methods are characterized by the various performance
features as under:
_ Selection of initial solution/ estimates
_ Determination of fresh/ new estimates during each iteration
_ Selection of number of iterations as per tolerance limit
_ Time per iteration and total time of solution as per the solution method selected
_ Convergence and divergence criteria of the iterative solution
_ Choice of the Acceleration factor of convergence, etc.
Power System -III R20A0209

A comparison of the above solution methods is as under:

In general, the direct methods yield exact or accurate solutions. However, they are suited
for only the smaller systems, since otherwise, in large systems, the possible round-off
errors make the solution process inaccurate. The iterative methods are more useful when
the diagonal elements of the coefficient matrix are large in comparison with the off
diagonal elements. The round-off errors in these methods are corrected at the successive
steps of the iterative process.The Newton-Raphson method is very much useful for
solution of non –linear equations, if all the values of the corrections for the unknowns are
very small in magnitude and the initial values of unknowns are selected to be reasonably
closer to the exact solution.

LOAD FLOW STUDIES

Introduction: Load flow studies are important in planning and designing future expansion
of power systems. The study gives steady state solutions of the voltages at all the buses,
for a particular load condition. Different steady state solutions can be obtained, for
different operating conditions, to help in planning, design and operation of the power
system. Generally, load flow studies are limited to the transmission system, which
involves bulk power transmission. The load at the buses is assumed to be known. Load
flow studies throw light on some of the important aspects of the system operation, such as:
violation of voltage magnitudes at the buses, overloading of lines, overloading of
generators, stability margin reduction, indicated by power angle differences between buses
linked by a line, effect of contingencies like line voltages, emergency shutdown of
generators, etc. Load flow studies are required for deciding the economic operation of the
power system. They are also required in transient stability studies. Hence, load flow
studies play a vital role in power system studies. Thus the load flow problem consists of
finding the power flows (real and reactive) and voltages of a network for given bus
conditions. At each bus, there are four quantities of interest to be known for further
analysis: the real and reactive power, the voltage magnitude and its phase angle. Because
of the nonlinearity of the algebraic equations, describing the given power system, their
solutions are obviously, based on the iterative methods only. The constraints placed on the
load flow solutions could be:
_ The Kirchhoff‟s relations holding good,
_ Capability limits of reactive power sources,
_ Tap-setting range of tap-changing transformers,
_ Specified power interchange between interconnected systems,
_ Selection of initial values, acceleration factor, convergence limit, etc.

Classification of buses for LFA: Different types of buses are present based on the
specified and unspecified variables at a given bus as presented in the table below:
Power System -III R20A0209

Table 1. Classification of buses for LFA

Importance of swing bus: The slack or swing bus is usually a PV-bus with the largest
capacity generator of the given system connected to it. The generator at the swing bus
supplies the power difference between the “specified power into the system at the other
buses” and the “total system output plus losses”. Thus swing bus is needed to supply the
additional real and reactive power to meet the losses. Both the magnitude and phase angle
of voltage are specified at the swing bus, or otherwise, they are assumed to be equal to 1.0
p.u. and 00 , as per flat-start procedure of iterative
solutions. The real and reactive powers at the swing bus are found by the computer routine
as part of the load flow solution process. It is to be noted that the source at the swing bus is
a perfect one, called the swing machine, or slack machine. It is voltage regulated, i.e., the
magnitude of voltage fixed. The phase angle is the system reference phase and hence is
fixed. The generator at the swing bus has a torque angle and excitation which vary or
swing as the demand changes. This variation is such as to produce fixed voltage.

Importance of YBUS based LFA:

The majority of load flow programs employ methods using the bus admittance matrix, as
this method is found to be more economical. The bus admittance matrix plays a very
important role in load flow analysis. It is a complex, square and symmetric matrix and
hence only n(n+1)/2 elements of YBUS need to be stored for a n-bus system. Further, in
the YBUS matrix, Yij = 0, if an incident element is not present in the system connecting
the buses „i‟ and „j‟. since in a large power system, each bus is connected only to a fewer
buses through an incident element, (about 6-8), the coefficient matrix, YBUS of such
systems would be highly sparse, i.e., it will have many zero valued elements in it. This is
defined by the sparsity of the matrix, as under:

The percentage sparsity of YBUS, in practice, could be as high as 80-90%, especially

for very large, practical power systems. This sparsity feature of YBUS is extensively used
in reducing the load flow calculations and in minimizing the memory required to store the
Power System -III R20A0209

coefficient matrices. This is due to the fact that only the non-zero elements YBUS can be
stored during the computer based implementation of the schemes, by adopting the suitable
optimal storage schemes. While YBUS is thus highly sparse, it‟s inverse, ZBUS, the bus
impedance matrix is not so. It is a FULL matrix, unless the optimal bus ordering schemes
are followed before proceeding for load flow analysis.

THE LOAD FLOW PROBLEM

Here, the analysis is restricted to a balanced three-phase power system, so that the analysis
can be carried out on a single phase basis. The per unit quantities are used for all
quantities. The first step in the analysis is the formulation of suitable equations for the
power flows in the system. The power system is a large interconnected system, where
various buses are connected by transmission lines. At any bus, complex power is injected
into the bus by the generators and complex power is drawn by the loads. Of course at any
bus, either one of them may not be present. The power is transported from one bus to other
via the transmission lines. At any bus i, the complex power Si (injected), shown in figure
1, is defined as

where Si = net complex power injected into bus i, SGi = complex power injected by the
generator at bus i, and SDi = complex power drawn by the load at bus i. According to
conservation of complex power, at any bus i, the complex power injected into the bus must
be equal to the sum of complex power flows out of the bus via the transmission lines.
Hence,

Si = _Sij " i = 1, 2, .............. n

(3)
where Sij is the sum over all lines connected to the bus and n is the number of buses in the
system (excluding the ground). The bus current injected at the bus-i is defined as

Ii = IGi – IDi " i = 1, 2, ………..n (4)

Power System -III R20A0209

where IGi is the current injected by the generator at the bus and IDi is the current drawn
by the load (demand) at that bus. In the bus frame of reference

IBUS = YBUS VBUS

(5)
Power System -III R20A0209

Equations (9)-(10) and (13)-(14) are the „power flow equations‟ or the „load flow
equations‟ in two alternative forms, corresponding to the n-bus system, where each bus-i is
characterized by four variables, Pi, Qi, |Vi|, and di. Thus a total of 4n variables are
Power System -III R20A0209

involved in these equations. The load flow equations can be solved for any 2n unknowns,
if the other 2n variables are specified. This establishes the need for classification of buses
of the system for load flow analysis into: PV bus, PQ bus, etc.

DATA FOR LOAD FLOW

Irrespective of the method used for the solution, the data required is common for any load
flow. All data is normally in pu. The bus admittance matrix is formulated from these data.
The various data required are as under:

System data: It includes: number of buses-n, number of PV buses, number of loads,

number of transmission lines, number of transformers, number of shunt elements, the slack
bus number, voltage magnitude of slack bus (angle is generally taken as 0o), tolerance
limit, base MVA, and maximum permissible number of iterations.

Generator bus data: For every PV bus i, the data required includes the bus number,
active power generation PGi, the specified voltage magnitude i sp V , , minimum reactive
power limit Qi,min, and maximum reactive power limit Qi,max.

Load data: For all loads the data required includes the the bus number, active power
demand PDi, and the reactive power demand QDi.

Transmission line data: For every transmission line connected between buses i and k the
data includes the starting bus number i, ending bus number k,.resistance of the line,
reactance of the line and the half line charging admittance.

Transformer data:
For every transformer connected between buses i and k the data to be given includes: the
starting bus number i, ending bus number k, resistance of the transformer, reactance of the
transformer, and the off nominal turns-ratio a.

Shunt element data: The data needed for the shunt element includes the bus number
where element is connected, and the shunt admittance (Gsh + j Bsh).

GAUSS – SEIDEL (GS) METHOD

The GS method is an iterative algorithm for solving non linear algebraic equations. An
initial solution vector is assumed, chosen from past experiences, statistical data or from
practical considerations. At every subsequent iteration, the solution is updated till
convergence is reached. The GS method applied to power flow problem is as discussed
below.

Case (a): Systems with PQ buses only:

Initially assume all buses to be PQ type buses, except the slack bus. This means that (n–1)
complex bus voltages have to be determined. For ease of programming, the slack bus is
generally numbered as bus-1. PV buses are numbered in sequence and PQ buses are
ordered next in sequence. This makes programming easier, compared to random ordering
of buses. Consider the expression for the complex power at bus-i, given from (7), as:
Power System -III R20A0209

Equation (17) is an implicit equation since the unknown variable, appears on both sides of
the equation. Hence, it needs to be solved by an iterative technique. Starting from an initial
estimate of all bus voltages, in the RHS of (17) the most recent values of the bus voltages
is substituted. One iteration of the method involves computation of all the bus voltages. In
Gauss–Seidel method, the value of the updated voltages are used in the computation of
subsequent voltages in the same iteration, thus speeding up convergence. Iterations are
carried out till the magnitudes of all bus voltages do not change by more than the tolerance
value. Thus the algorithm for GS method is as under:

Algorithm for GS method

1. Prepare data for the given system as required.

2. Formulate the bus admittance matrix YBUS. This is generally done by the rule of
inspection.
3. Assume initial voltages for all buses, 2,3,…n. In practical power systems, the magnitude
of the bus voltages is close to 1.0 p.u. Hence, the complex bus voltages at all (n-1) buses
(except slack bus) are taken to be 1.000. This is normally refered as the flat start solution.
4. Update the voltages. In any (k +1)st iteration, from (17) the voltages are given by
Power System -III R20A0209

Here note that when computation is carried out for bus-i, updated values are already
available for buses 2,3….(i-1) in the current (k+1)st iteration. Hence these values are used.
For buses (i+1)…..n, values from previous, kth iteration are used.

Where,e is the tolerance value. Generally it is customary to use a value of 0.0001 pu.
Compute slack bus power after voltages have converged using (15) [assuming bus 1 is
slack bus].

7. Compute all line flows.

8. The complex power loss in the line is given by Sik + Ski. The total loss in the system is
calculated by summing the loss over all the lines.

Case (b): Systems with PV buses also present:

At PV buses, the magnitude of voltage and not the reactive power is specified. Hence it is
needed to first make an estimate of Qi to be used in (18). From (15) we have
Power System -III R20A0209

Case (c): Systems with PV buses with reactive power generation limits specified:
In the previous algorithm if the Q limit at the voltage controlled bus is violated during any
iteration, i.e (k +1) i Q computed using (21) is either less than Qi, min or greater than
Qi,max, it means that the voltage cannot be maintained at the specified value due to lack
of reactive power support. This bus is then treated as a PQ bus in the (k+1)st iteration and
the voltage is calculated with the value of Qi set as follows:

If in the subsequent iteration, if Qi falls within the limits, then the bus can be switched
back to PV status.
Acceleration of convergence
It is found that in GS method of load flow, the number of iterations increase with increase
in the size of the system. The number of iterations required can be reduced if the
correction in voltage at each bus is accelerated, by multiplying with a constant α, called
the acceleration factor. In the (k+1)st iteration we can let

where  is a real number. When  =1, the value of (k +1) is the computed value. If 1<
<2 then the value computed is extrapolated. Generally _ is taken between 1.2 to 1.6, for
GS load flow procedure. At PQ buses (pure load buses) if the voltage magnitude violates
Power System -III R20A0209

the limit, it simply means that the specified reactive power demand cannot be supplied,
with the voltage maintained within acceptable limits.

Examples on GS load flow analysis:

Power System -III R20A0209

Since the difference in the voltage magnitudes is less than 10-6 pu, the iterations can be
stopped. To compute line flow
Power System -III R20A0209

The total loss in the line is given by S12 + S21 = j 0.133329 pu Obviously, it is observed
that there is no real power loss, since the line has no resistance.
Power System -III R20A0209

Example-2:
For the power system shown in fig. below, with the data as given in tables below, obtain
the bus voltages at the end of first iteration, by applying GS method.
Power System -III R20A0209
Power System -III R20A0209
Power System III R20A0215

Example-3:
Obtain the load flow solution at the end of first iteration of the system with data as given
below. The solution is to be obtained for the following cases
(i) All buses except bus 1 are PQ Buses
(ii) Bus 2 is a PV bus whose voltage magnitude is specified as 1.04 pu
Power System III R20A0209

(iii) Bus 2 is PV bus, with voltage magnitude specified as 1.04 and 0.25_Q2_1.0 pu.
Power System -III R20A0209
Power System -III
s
Power System -III R20A0209
Power System -III R20A0209
Power System -III R20A0209

Limitations of GS load flow analysis

GS method is very useful for very small systems. It is easily adoptable, it can be
generalized and it is very efficient for systems having less number of buses. However, GS
LFA fails to converge in systems with one or more of the features as under:
• Systems having large number of radial lines
• Systems with short and long lines terminating on the same bus
• Systems having negative values of transfer admittances
• Systems with heavily loaded lines, etc.

GS method successfully converges in the absence of the above problems. However,

convergence also depends on various other set of factors such as: selection of slack bus,
initial solution, acceleration factor, tolerance limit, level of accuracy of results needed,
type and quality of computer/ software used, etc.
Power System -III R20A0209

UNIT–V
LOAD FLOW STUDIES II:
Power System -III R20A0215

Here, the matrix [J] is called the Jacobian matrix. The vector of unknown variables is
updated using (30). The process is continued till the difference between two successive
iterations is less than the tolerance value.

24
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Power System Analysis R17A0215

FINAL WORD

In this chapter, the load flow problem, also called as the power flow problem, has
been considered in detail. The load flow solution gives the complex voltages at all the
buses and the complex power flows in the lines. Though, algorithms are available
using the impedance form of the equations, the sparsity of the bus admittance matrix
and the ease of building the bus admittance matrix, have made algorithms using the
admittance form of equations more popular. The most popular methods are the Gauss-
Seidel method, the Newton-Raphson method and the Fast Decoupled Load Flow
method. These methods have been discussed in detail with illustrative examples. In
smaller systems, the ease of programming and the memory requirements, make GS
method attractive. However, the computation time increases with increase in the size
of the system. Hence, in large systems NR and FDLF methods are more popular.
There is a trade off between various requirements like speed, storage, reliability,
computation time, convergence characteristics etc. No single method has all the
desirable features. However, NR method is most popular because of its versatility,
reliability and accuracy.