Mathematics: Numbers and Operations

- Operations

An operation is a mathematical action. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and calculating

the root are all examples of a mathematical operation.

- Ratio and Proportion

A ratio is an ordered pair of numbers a and b, written a / b where b does not equal 0.

A proportion is an equation in which two ratios are set equal to each other.

For example, if there is 1 boy and 3 girls you could write the ratio as: 1 : 3 (for every one boy there are 3
girls) 1 / 4 are boys and 3 / 4 are girls. 0.25 are boys (by dividing 1 by 4)

A ratio can be written in different forms like x : y or x/y and is commonly read as, x is to y. On the other
hand, proportion is an equation that says that two ratios are equivalent. A proportion is written as x :
y : : z : w, and is read as x is to y as z is to w. Here, x/y = z/w where w & y are not equal to 0.

- Averages

Average is the middle value of a set of numbers. This isn't to be confused with the median, which is
the middle of a set of numbers. The average is the middle value of the numbers. If you need to find the
average of a set of numbers, you add them all together and divide by the amount of numbers.

- Percentages

A percentage is a number or ratio that can be expressed as a fraction of 100. If we have to calculate
percent of a number, divide the number by the whole and multiply by 100. Hence, the percentage
means, a part per hundred. The word per cent means per 100.

- Elementary number theory

Refers to those problems whose solution does not require methods from calculus.

1. Finite differences – any of a sequence of differences obtained by incrementing

successively the dependent variable of a function by a fixed amount.
2. Mathematical induction- is a powerful and elegant technique for proving certain types
of mathematical statements.
- Base Step: Verify that P(a) is true.
-Inductive Step: Show that if P(k) is true for some integer k≥a, then P(k+1) is also true.
Assume P(n) is true for an arbitrary integer, k with k≥a. ...
-Conclude: by the Principle of Mathematical Induction (PMI) that P(n) is true for all
integers n≥a.
3. Euclidean algorithm- is a way to find the greatest common divisor of two positive
integers, a and b. A method of finding the greatest common divisor of two numbers by
dividing the larger by the smaller, the smaller by the remainder, the first remainder by
the second remainder, and so on until exact division is obtained whence the greatest
 common divisor is the exact divisor. called also Euclid's algorithm. ex. First let me show
the computations for a=210 and b=45. Divide 210 by 45, and get the result 4 with
remainder 30, so 210=4·45+30. Divide 45 by 30, and get the result 1 with remainder 15,
so 45=1·30+15.
4. Factoring- To factor a number is to express it as a product of (other) whole numbers,
called its factors. For example, we can factor 12 as 3 × 4, or as 2 × 6, or as 2 × 2 × 3. So 2,
3, 4, and 6 are all factors of 12.

Factor expressions, also known as factoring, mean rewriting the expression as the
product of factors. For example, 3x + 12y can be factored into a simple expression of 3 (x
+ 4y). In this way, the calculations become easier. The terms 3 and (x + 4y) are known as
factors.
To solve factoring process. (The factorization formula N = Xa × Yb × Zc, N stands for
any number which is to be factorized.)
1. Move all terms to one side of the equation, usually the left, using addition or
subtraction.
2. Factor the equation completely.
3. Set each factor equal to zero, and solve.
4. List each solution from Step 3 as a solution to the original equation.

5. Congruence- Two shapes that are the same size and the same shape are congruent
Different rules of congruency:
SSS (Side-Side-Side)
SAS (Side-Angle-Side)
ASA (Angle-Side-Angle)
AAS (Angle-Angle-Side)
RHS (Right angle-Hypotenuse-Side)

SSS refers to the equality of three sides between triangles.

AAS refers to the equality between two sides and an angle between triangles.
SAS refers to the equality between two sides and an angle (between the sides) between
triangles.
ASA refers to the equality between two angles and one side between triangles.
RHS in two right-angled triangles, if the length of the hypotenuse and one side of one
triangle, is equal to the length of the hypotenuse and corresponding side of the other
triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.

- Fractions and Decimals

A fraction is a part of a whole. In arithmetic, the number is expressed as a quotient, in which the
numerator is divided by the denominator. In a simple fraction, both are integers. A complex fraction
has a fraction in the numerator or denominator. In a proper fraction, the numerator is less than the
denominator. Three major types of fractions: They are proper fractions, improper fractions and
mixed fractions.
 Decimals are the numbers, which consist of two parts namely, a whole number part and a fractional
part separated by a decimal point. For example, 12.5 is a decimal number.

- Sequences

Ordered lists of numbers (called "terms"), like 2,5,8. Some sequences follow a specific pattern that can
be used to extend them indefinitely. For example, 2,5,8 follows the pattern "add 3," and now we can
continue the sequence. Sequences can have formulas that tell us how to find any term in the sequence.

- Arithmetic mean

To calculate the arithmetic mean. To do this, add up all the values and divide the sum by the number of
values. For example, if there are a set of “n” numbers, add the numbers together for example: a + b + c +
d and so on. Then divide the sum by “n”.

Mathematics: Algebra and functions

- Expressions

An expression or algebraic expression is any mathematical statement which consists of numbers,

variables and an arithmetic operation between them. In mathematics, an algebraic expression is an
expression built up from constant algebraic numbers, variables, and the algebraic operations. For
example, 3x² − 2xy + c is an algebraic expression.

1 – Exponent (power), 2 – coefficient, 3 – term, 4 – operator, 5 – constant, x, y – variables

- Equations

The definition of an equation is a mathematical statement that shows that two mathematical
expressions are equal. For instance, 3x + 5 = 14 is an equation, in which 3x + 5 and 14 are two
expressions separated by an 'equal' sign. An equation can be defined as a statement that supports the
equality of two expressions, which are connected by the equals sign “=”. For example, 2x – 5 = 13. The
sign that connects these two expressions is “=”.
Important Note: Equations are first-degree when they can be written in the form ax + b = c , where
x is a variable and a , b , and c are known constants and a a ≠0.

A quadratic equation is defined as the polynomial equation of the second degree with the
standard form ax2 + bx+ c =0, where a≠0, The solutions obtained from the equation are called roots
of the quadratic equation. In case, if a = 0, then the equation is called the linear equation. A cubic
equation is an algebraic equation of third-degree.

A cubic equation is an algebraic equation of third-degree. The general form of a cubic function is:
f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx1 + d. And the cubic equation has the form of ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0, where a,
b and c are the coefficients and d is the constant.

- Properties of Functions
1. The characteristic property of linear functions is that when the input variable is changed, the
change in the output is proportional to the change in the input.
2. A polynomial function consists of either zero or the sum of a finite number of non-zero terms,
each of which is a product of a number, called the coefficient of the term, and a variable raised
to a non-negative integer power.
3. properties of rational functions. If the numerator and denominator are of the same degree
(n=m), then y = a_n / b_m is a horizontal asymptote of the function. If the degree of the
denominator is greater than the degree of the numerator, then y=0 is a horizontal asymptote.

Mathematics: Geometry and Mensuration

- Plane Geometry- In geometry, a plane is a flat surface of two dimensions. It extends

endlessly and has no thickness. You can think of a piece of paper or the surface of a wall
as a part of a geometric plane. The flat shapes in plane geometry are known as plane
figures.

1. The different types of lines are as mentioned

below:
Lines Straight line.
Curved line.
Horizontal line.
Vertical line.
Parallel lines.
Intersecting lines.
Perpendicular lines.
Transversal line.
2. Different Angles

Acute Angles.

Obtuse Angles.

Right Angles.

Straight Angles.

Reflex Angles.

Full Rotation.
3. Circles- A circle is a geometric shape made with no straight lines. We can assume that a
circle is made of uncountable points placed at the same distance from the center point.
Examples of circular objects are whole pizzas and wheels. A triangle is made up of three
connected line segments.
4. Theorems of Triangles
Theorem 1: The total of the three interior angles in any triangle is 180 degrees.
Theorem 2: When a triangle side is constructed, the exterior angle formed is equal to the
sum of the interior opposite angles.
Theorem 3: The base angles of an isosceles triangle are equivalent.

Three types of
triangles that
are categorized
by the
measure of
their largest
angle and
 sides. These are the acute, right, and obtuse triangles.

- Coordinate Geometry (or the analytic geometry) describes the link between geometry and algebra
through graphs involving curves and lines. It provides geometric aspects in Algebra and enables them to
solve geometric problems.

1. Solids have properties such as: Width, depth, height. volume (think of how much water it could hold)
surface area (think of the area you would have to paint) how many vertices (corner points), faces and
edges they have.

The answer to a volume is shown in cubic units. The formula for volume is: Volume = length x width x
height.

Cube’s Formula for:

Surface Area: 6a2, the formula for surface area is equal to six times of square of length of the sides of
cube.
Volume: The volume of a cube V is given by V = a^3 where a = length of one side of the cube. V = 4^3 =
64 cubic inches or inches^3. The volume of the cube is 64 cubic inches.

Cylinder’s Formula for:

Surface Area: 2πr(r + h). The formula to calculate the total

surface area of a cylinder is expressed as, total surface area of
cylinder = 2πr(r + h). This total surface area includes the area
of the 2 bases (2πr2) and the curved surface area (2πrh). Here
'r' is the radius and 'h' is the height of the cylinder.

Volume: π r² h When determining the volume of a cylinder,

you are simply finding the area of the circular base shape and
then multiplying this by the height.

Curved surface area = 2πrh The radius 'r' of a cylinder is the

radius of its base. Now, the area of the rectangle = length ×
breadth. 2πr is the circumference of the circle and h is the
height. Area of the curved surface will be = 2πr × h = 2πrh.

Cone’s Formula for:

Surface Area: πr2 or πr√(r2+h2) (if the slant height is absent)

Volume: V=1/3hπr²
Curved surface area = πrl, The formula that is used to calculate the curved surface area of a cone is,
CSA of cone = πrl, where 'r' is the radius of the base and 'l' is the slant height of the cone.

formula of an entire cone is the result of adding these two pieces together: πr2+πrl. The cone which
has the same base radius and height will have the same base area but its volume is not directly base
area times h, which is quite intuitive as cone with same dimensions will have lesser volume. Its volume
become 1/3rd of cylinders volume.

Sphere’s Formula for:

Radius: r = ³√[3 × V / (4 × π)] to find the radius r.

Volume: The formula for the volume of a sphere is V = 4/3 π r³, where V = volume and r = radius. The
radius of a sphere is half its diameter. So, to calculate the surface area of a sphere given the diameter of
the sphere, you can first calculate the radius, then the volume.

Curved surface area = The curved surface area is the sum of areas of all the curved regions of the solid.
CSA of a sphere = 4 π r 2 , where “r” is the sphere's radius.

Kinds of Solids:
Mathematics: Trigonometry
 - Calculation of height and distances
Altitudes can be used in the computation of the area of a triangle: one-half of the product of an
altitude's length and its
base's length equals the
Triangle Type Altitude Formula
triangle's area. Thus, the
longest altitude is
perpendicular to the
Equilateral Triangle h = (½) × √3 × s shortest side of the
triangle.

Isosceles Triangle h =√(a2−b2/4)

Right Triangle h =√(xy)

2.The distance formula
uses the coordinates of
points and the
Pythagorean theorem to calculate the distance between points. If A and B form the hypotenuse of a
right triangle, then the length of AB can be found using this formula: leg2 + leg2 = hypotenuse2.

- Period of a Trigonometric Function

The distance between the repetition of any function is called the period of the function. For a
trigonometric function, the length of one complete cycle is called a period. For any trigonometry graph
function, we can take x = 0 as the starting point. The most famous periodic functions are trigonometric
functions: sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, cosecant,

- Double Angle formula for sine and cosine

The double-angle formulas are a special case of the sum formulas, where α=β. Deriving the double-
angle formula for sine begins with the sum formula, sin(α+β)=sinαcosβ+cosαsinβ.
sin(θ+θ)=sinθcosθ+cosθsinθsin(2θ)=2sinθcosθ.

The cosine double angle formula tells us that cos(2θ) is always equal to cos²θ-sin²θ. For example,
cos(60) is equal to cos²(30)-sin²(30). We can use this identity to rewrite expressions or solve problems.

- Phytagorean theorem formula for sine and cosine

Pythagorean theorem for Cosine: a2 + b2 = c2. Sines: sin A = a/c, sin B = b/c. Cosines: cos A = b/c, cos B
= a/c.

Pythagorean theorem for Sine: a2 + b2 = c2. Sines: sin A = a/c, sin B = b/c.

< Note: Leg B

Physics: Mechanics

- Mechanics

Mechanics, science concerned with the motion of bodies under the action of forces, including the
special case in which a body remains at rest. The basic principles of physical laws and their application to
the behavior of objects. a branch of physical science that deals with energy and forces and their effect on
bodies.

Physics: Kinemechanics

- Kinematics

Kinematics is the study of motion of a system of bodies without directly considering the forces or
potential fields affecting the motion
 1. Velocity is the speed and the direction of
motion of an object.

2.
Acceleration (a) is the change in velocity (Δv)
over the change in time (Δt), represented by
the equation a = Δv/Δt. This allows you to
measure how fast velocity changes in
meters per second squared (m/s^2).

3. v(t) = at + v0 and a(t) = a.

a. First, visualize the question.
b. Take starting point as the origin and take one direction as positive and others as
negative.
c. Write down what is given in the question and what is required.
d. If it is uniform motion, then you can utilize the One-dimensional motion equation. ...
e. Calculate as require.

4. Dynamics
- Force is defined as: The push or pull on an object with mass causes it to change its
velocity. Force is an external agent capable of changing a body's state of rest or
motion. It has a magnitude and a direction.
 5. Newton’s Law of motion
In the first law (Inertia), an object will not change its motion unless a force acts on it. In the
second law (acceleration), the force on an object is equal to its mass times its acceleration. In
the third law(action and reaction), when two objects interact, they apply forces to each other
of equal magnitude and opposite direction.

6. Static is the branch of mechanics studying forces that act on bodies in static or dynamic
equilibrium. The moment of a thing at rest.

Static friction when the object is at rest on a horizontal surface and a small force is applied onto
the object, a different type of frictional force, known as static force is created.

7. Friction is defined as the resistance offered by the surfaces that are in contact when they move
past each other.

Physics: Energy, Momentum and Pendulum

- Potential and Kinetic Energy

Potential energy is energy stored in an object or system of objects. It can be related to its position, the
bonds in its chemical structure, its potential for radioactive decay or even its shape.

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion, observable as the movement of an object or subatomic particle.

- Work and Power

1. Power is the amount of energy

transferred or converted per unit time.
In the International System of Units, the
unit of power is the watt, equal to one
joule per second. In older works, power
is sometimes called activity. Power is a
scalar quantity.

2. Work is the energy transferred to or from

an object via the application of force
along a displacement. In its simplest
form, for a constant force aligned with
 the direction of motion, the work equals the product of the force strength and the distance
traveled.

- Impulse

Impulse is a certain amount of force you

apply for a certain amount of time to cause
a change in momentum.

- Converservation Laws
1. These rules are contained within Paul Grice's Cooperative Principle, and they're known as the
Conversational Maxims. There are four of these maxims to follow: Quality, Manner, Relevance,
and Quantity.

In physics, a conservation law states that a particular measurable property of an isolated physical
system does not change as the system evolves over time. Exact conservation laws include conservation
of mass and energy, conservation of linear momentum, conservation of angular momentum, and
conservation of electric charge. There are also many approximate conservation laws, which apply to such
quantities as mass, parity, lepton number, baryon number, strangeness, hypercharge, etc. These
quantities are conserved in certain classes of physics processes,

Physics: Circular Motion

- Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform circular motion can be

described as the motion of an object
moving in a circle at a constant
speed. As an object moves in a circle,
it is constantly changing its direction.
In all instances, the object is moving
tangent to the circle. Centripetal
force is in charge of an object move
along a circular way. Uniform circular
motion is a specific type of motion in
which an object travels in a circle
with a constant speed. For example, any point on a propeller spinning at a constant rate is executing
uniform circular motion.

- Centripetal Force

Centripetal force is the force acting on an object in

curvilinear motion directed towards the axis of rotation or
centre of curvature. The unit of centripetal force is newton.
The centripetal force is always directed perpendicular to
the direction of the object's displacement.

A centripetal force is a net force that acts on an object to

keep it moving along a circular path.

- Pendulum (Simple Harmonic Motion)

A pendulum is a body suspended from a fixed point so that it can swing back and forth under the
influence of gravity. The time interval of a pendulum's complete back-and-forth movement is constant.
A pendulum is an example of motion in which the restoring force is directly proportional to the
displacement of the body from its mean position (simple Harmonic motion)

Physics: Gravity

- Law of Gravitation

The Universal Law of Gravitation

(Newton's law of gravity):

1. First law, Every mass attracts

every other mass.
2. Second law, the force on an
object is equal to its mass times
its acceleration
 3. Third law, when two objects interact, they apply forces to each other of equal
magnitude and opposite direction.

- Orbits

An orbit is the curved trajectory of an object such as the trajectory of a planet around a star, or of a
natural satellite around a planet, or of an artificial satellite around an object or position in space such as
a planet, moon, asteroid, or Lagrange point.

- Kepler’s Law

Kepler's laws of planetary motion are three scientific laws describing the motion of planets around the
sun. Kepler's first law – The law of orbits, Kepler's Second Law – The Law of Equal Areas states, “The
radius vector drawn from the sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time”., and
the last is Kepler's 3rd Law is sometimes called The Law of Periods: The square of the period of any
planet is proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis of its orbit.

Physics: Electricity and magnetism

- Electric Fields, Forces and Potentials

Coulomb's inverse-square law, or simply Coulomb's law, is an experimental law of physics that
calculates the amount of force between two electrically charged particles at rest. This electric force is
conventionally called electrostatic force or Coulomb force

Induction charging is a charging method that charges an object without actually touching the object to
any other charged object. The charging by induction process is where the charged particle is held near
an uncharged conductive material that is grounded on a neutrally charged material.

Electric potential of a point charge is V=kQ/r V = k Q / r . Electric potential is a scalar, and electric field
is a vector. Addition of voltages as numbers gives the voltage due to a combination of point charges,
whereas addition of individual fields as vectors gives the total electric field. The electric field intensity at
any point due to a system or group of charges is equal to the vector sum of electric field intensities due
to individual charges at the same point.

In an electric field a charged particle, or charged object, experiences a force. If the forces acting on any
object are unbalanced, it will cause the object to accelerate. With this in mind: If two objects with the
same charge are brought towards each other the force produced will be repulsive, it will push them
apart. A charged particle in an electric feels a force that is independent of its velocity. Below the field is
perpendicular to the velocity and it bends the path of the particle; i.e. changes both direction and
magnitude of v. A charged particle in an electric feels a force that is independent of its velocity.

- Capacitance
Parallel Plate Capacitors are formed by an arrangement of electrodes and insulating material or
dielectric. A parallel plate capacitor can only store a finite amount of energy before dielectric breakdown
occurs. Capacitors are devices used to store electrical energy in the form of electrical charge. By
connecting several capacitors in parallel, the resulting circuit is able to store more energy since the
equivalent capacitance is the sum of individual capacitances of all capacitors involved.

When the power supply is connected to the capacitor, there is an increase in flow of electric charge,
called charging. When the power supply is removed from the capacitor, the discharging phase begins;
and there is a constant reduction in the voltage between the two plates until it reaches zero.

When a capacitor discharges, it does not lose its charge at a constant rate and the voltage across the
capacitor plates is equal to that of the power supply. The discharge rate is fastest when the power
supply is first removed and tapers exponentially as the capacitor loses charge.

- Circuit Elements and DC circuits

A resistor is an electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical current in an
electronic circuit. Resistors can also be used to provide a specific voltage for an active device such as a
transistor.

A device used to convert electricity into light, consisting of a source of illumination (e.g. an electric
filament or one or more LEDs) enclosed within a transparent or translucent shell, typically having a
rounded shape and designed to be fitted into a socket in a lamp.

A circuit is said to be connected in series when the same current flows through all the components in
the circuit. In such circuits, the current has only one path. Let us consider the household decorative
string lights as an example of a series circuit.

Parallel connection are components connected in parallel are connected along multiple paths, and each
component has the same voltage across it, equal to the voltage across the network. The current through
the network is equal to the sum of the currents through each component.

Ohm's Law is a formula used to calculate the relationship between voltage, current and resistance in an
electrical circuit. Ohm's Law (E = IR) is as fundamentally important as Einstein's Relativity equation (E =
mc²) is to physicists. E = I x R. Ohm law is used in every electrical device to apply the correct amount of
charge given the resistance.

Joule's law of heating states that, when a current ' passes through a conductor of resistance for time
then the heat developed in the conductor is equal to the product of the square of the current, the
resistance and time.

The joule's first law shows the relationship between heat produced by flowing electric current through
a conductor. Q = I2 R T. Where, Q indicates the amount of heat. I show electric current.

Joule's second law states that the internal energy of an ideal gas is independent of its volume and
pressure, depending only on its temperature.

Joule's third law (Law of time): The amount of heat produced in a conductor by a given current is
directly proportional to the time
 - Magnetism

A permanent magnet is called a permanent magnet because its magnetism is 'always on', it generates
its own persistent magnetic field unlike an electromagnet which is made from a coil of wire wrapped
around a steel core and requires an electric current to generate a magnetic field.

The magnetic field created by current following any path is the sum (or integral) of the fields due to
segments along the path (magnitude and direction as for a straight wire), resulting in a general
relationship between current and field known as Ampere's law.

In a moving reference frame, a magnetic field appears instead as a combination of a magnetic field and
an electric field, so electric and magnetic fields are made of the same "stuff" (photons).

Faraday’s First Law of Electromagnetic Induction

The discovery and understanding of electromagnetic induction are based on a long series of experiments
carried out by Faraday and Henry. From the experimental observations, Faraday concluded that an emf
is induced when the magnetic flux across the coil changes with time. Therefore, Faraday’s first law of
electromagnetic induction states the following:

Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an electromotive force is induced. If the
conductor circuit is closed, a current is induced, which is called induced current.

Faraday’s Second Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic induction states that, The induced emf in a coil is equal to the
rate of change of flux linkage.

Lenz's law states that the direction of the electric current induced in a conductor by a changing
magnetic field is such that the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes changes in the
initial magnetic field. It is a qualitative law that specifies the direction of induced current, but states
nothing about its magnitude.

Physics: Waves and Optics

- General Wave Properties

Wave speed is the distance a wave travels in a given amount of time, such as the number of meters it
travels per second. Wave speed is related to wavelength and wave frequency by the equation: Speed =
Wavelength x Frequency. This equation can be used to calculate wave speed when wavelength and
frequency are known.

Wave frequency is the number of waves that pass a fixed point in a given amount of time. The SI unit
for wave frequency is the hertz (Hz), where 1 hertz equals 1 wave passing a fixed point in 1 second.

Wavelength of a wave describes how long the wave is. The distance from the "crest" (top) of one wave
to the crest of the next wave is the wavelength. Alternately, we can measure from the "trough"
(bottom) of one wave to the trough of the next wave and get the same value for the wavelength.
Wavelenght=Velocity/frequency
The principle of superposition of waves, also called superposition property, states that when two or
more waves simultaneously pass through a point, the disturbance at the point is given by the sum of the
disturbances each wave would produce in absence of the other waves. Superposition principle, also
known as superposition property, states that, for all linear systems, the net response caused by two or
more stimuli is the sum of the responses that would have been caused by each stimulus individually.

Standing wave, also called stationary wave, combination of two waves moving in opposite directions,
each having the same amplitude and frequency. The phenomenon is the result of interference; that is,
when waves are superimposed, their energies are either added together or canceled out.

Doppler Effect refers to the change in wave frequency during the relative motion between a wave
source and its observer. The Doppler effect or Doppler shift is the apparent change in frequency of a
wave in relation to an observer moving relative to the wave source.

- Reflection and Refraction

The Snell's law of refraction states that: The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point
of incidence, all lie in the same plane. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the
angle of refraction is constant for the pair of the given media. Snell's law is a formula used to describe
the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction, when referring to light or other waves
passing through a boundary between two different isotropic media, such as water, glass,

The amount of refraction increases as the wavelength of light decreases. Shorter wavelengths of light
(violet and blue) are slowed more and consequently experience more bending than do the longer
wavelengths (orange and red). Thus, velocity and wavelength are directly proportional and speed of light
increases with increase in wavelength and frequency doesn't change upon passing through a medium.

- Ray Optics

The pinhole camera is the simplest kind of camera. It does not have a lens. It just makes use of a tiny
opening (a pinhole-sized opening) to focus all light rays within the smallest possible area to obtain an
image, as clearly as possible. The simple image formed using a pinhole camera is always inverted.

Images formed by mirrors can be classified as real image or virtual image. Real images are produced
when light rays converge and intersect, while virtual images are formed when light rays appear to
diverge from a point.

Lenses can form two types of images: real and virtual. Real images are formed when light rays converge
or diverge from a source and can be projected onto a screen. For example, a spherical concave mirror
can produce a real image that is inverted.

Physics: Heat and Thermodynamics

- Thermal Properties

Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of an object.

Heat transfer describes the flow of heat (thermal energy) due to temperature differences and the
subsequent temperature distribution and changes. The study of transport phenomena concerns the
exchange of momentum, energy, and mass in the form of conduction, convection, and radiation.

Latent heat is the energy absorbed or released when a substance is undergoing a phase change. Specific
heat is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree
Celsius (or one Kelvin) at a constant pressure.

Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to temperature

alterations. When a substance is heated, its particles move more and thus maintain a greater average
separation. Since thermosets are used in solid form they undergo linear thermal expansion.

- Laws of Thermodynamics
1. The first law of
thermodynamics states
that energy can neither
be created nor
destroyed, only altered
in form. For any system,
energy transfer is
associated with mass
crossing the control
boundary, external
work, or heat transfer
across the boundary. These produce a change of stored energy within the control
volume.

2. The second Law of Thermodynamics states that the state of entropy of the entire
universe, as an isolated system, will always increase over time. The second law also
states that the changes in the entropy in the universe can never be negative.

Internal energy, in thermodynamics, the property or state function that defines the energy of a
substance in the absence of effects due to capillarity and external electric, magnetic, and other fields.
For a closed system the internal energy is essentially defined by. ΔU = q + W. Where. U is the change in
internal energy of a system during a process. q is the heat.

Entropy, the measure of a system's thermal energy per unit temperature that is unavailable for doing
useful work. Because work is obtained from ordered molecular motion, the amount of entropy is also a
measure of the molecular disorder, or randomness, of a system.

The total heat energy input from the hot source. Heat engines often operate at around 30% to 50%
efficiency, due to practical limitations. It is impossible for heat engines to achieve 100% thermal
efficiency, according to the Second law of thermodynamics.

Notable

- Hydrostatics
Hydrostatics is a subcategory of fluid statics, which is the study of all fluids, both compressible or
incompressible, at rest. Hydrostatics is fundamental to hydraulics, the engineering of equipment for
storing, transporting and using fluids. Every force acting on a stationary fluid generates a pressure that
propagates in all directions with the same magnitude. This the basic law of hydrostatics. All force and
pressure processes in fluids are based on this law.

- Simple Hydraulics (Pascal law)

Pascal's law states that when there is an increase in pressure at any point in a confined fluid, there is an
equal increase at every other point in the container.

Chemistry

- States of matter

The kinetic-molecular theory explains the states of matter, and is based on the idea that matter is
composed of tiny particles that are always in motion. This theory helps explain observable properties
and behaviors of solids, liquids, and gases.

The physical principle known as Charles' law

states that the volume of a gas equals a constant
value multiplied by its temperature as measured on
the Kelvin scale (zero Kelvin corresponds to -273.15
degrees Celsius). Charles's law implies that the
volume of a gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature.

Boyle's law, also referred to as the Boyle–

Mariotte law, or Mariotte's law (especially in
France), is an experimental gas law that describes
the relationship between pressure and volume of a
confined gas. It explained that the gases spread in
the medium, that is, the volume increases if the
pressure is decreased and vice versa (the particles
are displaced from each other and move easily) if
the gas is compressed, causing the volume to
shrink.
Gas laws are a set of simple mathematical relationships between the variables of a gas. Boyle's law
states that pressure and volume have an inverse relationship. Charles's law states that volume and
absolute temperature have a direct relationship.

In chemistry and related fields, the molar volume,

symbol Vm1 of a substance is the ratio of the volume
occupied by a substance to the amount of substance,
usually given at a given temperature and pressure. It is
equal to the molar mass (M) divided by the mass
density (ρ):

Density is the measurement of how tightly a material is packed together. It is defined as the mass per
unit volume. Density Symbol: D or ρ Density
Formula: ρ = m/V, where ρ is the density, m
is the mass of the object and V is the
volume of the object.

- Reaction Types

The chemical difference between acids and bases is that acids produce hydrogen ions and bases accept
hydrogen ions. A base is a substance that neutralises acids. When bases are added to water, they split
to form hydroxide ions, written as OH-. We call a base that has been added to water an alkaline solution
 In the Brønsted–Lowry definition of acids and bases, a conjugate acid–base pair consists of two
substances that differ only by the presence of a proton (H⁺). A conjugate acid is formed when a proton is
added to a base, and a conjugate base is formed when a proton is removed from an acid

Acid Conjugate base

H
2F
+ HF Hydrogen fluoride
Fluoronium ion

HCl Hydrochloric acid Cl− Chloride ion

HSO−
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid
4 Hydrogen sulfate ion (bisulfate ion)

NO−
HNO3 Nitric acid
3 Nitrate ion

H3O+ Hydronium ion H2O Water

HSO− SO2−
4 Hydrogen sulfate ion 4 Sulfate ion

H3PO4 Phosphoric acid H2PO−

 4 Dihydrogen phosphate ion

CH3COOH Acetic acid CH3COO− Acetate ion

HF Hydrofluoric acid F− Fluoride ion

HCO−
H2CO3 Carbonic acid
3 Hydrogen carbonate ion

H2S Hydrosulfuric acid HS− Hydrosulfide ion

H2PO− HPO2−
4 Dihydrogen phosphate ion 4 Hydrogen phosphate ion

NH+
NH3 Ammonia
4 Ammonium ion

H2O Water (pH=7) OH− Hydroxide ion

HCO− CO2−
3 Hydrogencarbonate (bicarbonate) ion 3 Carbonate ion

An acid–base reaction is a type of chemical reaction that involves the exchange of one or more
hydrogen ions, H+, between species that may be neutral (molecules, such as water, H2O) or electrically
charged (ions, such as ammonium, NH4+; hydroxide, OH−; or carbonate, CO32−). The reaction between
an acid and a base is known as a neutralisation reaction.

acid + base ⟶ water + salt.

HCl (Hydrolic acid) (aq) + KOH (Potassium hydroxide) (aq) ⟶ H 2O(ℓ) + KCl(aq) or (water + salt) Potassium
chloride absorbs heat from its surroundings when it dissolves in water. Therefore, dissolution of potassium chloride is an
endothermic process.

2 HCl (Hydrogen acid) (aq) + Mg(OH) (Magnesium Hydroxide) 2(aq) ⟶ 2 H 2O(ℓ) + MgCl 2(aq) This
equation shows that one mole of magnesium chloride reacts with two moles of water to produce one mole of magnesium
hydroxide and two moles of hydrochloric acid.

HCl (Hydrolic acid) (aq) + NH3 (Ammonia) (aq) ⟶ NH4Cl(aq) (Ammonium Chloride)