Introduction To IFRS 9ed

Introduction to IFRS
Ninth Edition
Introduction to IFRS
Ninth Edition
ZR Koppeschaar K Papageorgiou
DCom (Accounting) (UP), CA(SA) MCom (Accounting) (UP), CA(SA)
Associate Professor, Senior lecturer,
Department of Financial Governance Department of Financial Accounting,
University of South Africa University of South Africa
J Rossouw A Schmulian
PhD (Accounting) (UP), CA(SA)
M Acc (UFS), CA(SA)
Associate Professor,
Associate Professor,
Department of Accounting,
Department of Accounting,
University of Pretoria
University of the Free State
A Gazi-Babana
C Brittz Mphil (Dev Finance) (USB), CA(SA)
B Acc Hons (UFS), CA(SA) Senior lecturer,
Senior lecturer, University of Johannesburg
University of the Free State
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© 2022
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Preface
The purpose of this book is to set out the principles and conceptual issues of International
Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). In addition, the book includes schematic summaries
of the accounting and disclosure requirements of the applicable accounting standards.
From an academic point of view, the publication targets second-year students in the
professional accounting programmes at SAICA-accredited universities in South Africa. In
addition, the needs of second- and third-year students at other institutions have also been
considered. We hope that this publication will assist such students in their endeavour to
obtain a thorough knowledge of the accounting standards that are discussed.
This publication focuses on certain core accounting standards specifically relevant to the
level of students the publication is aimed at. For these accounting standards we attempt to
discuss them on a fundamental, yet thorough, basis. This publication is therefore not an
attempt at a comprehensive review of the entire series of International Financial Reporting
Standards; it is rather an in-depth discussion of certain accounting standards, limited in
some instances to specific sections of those standards.
The dates used in the text should be viewed as fictitious dates and not as actual dates.
The South African Institute of Chartered Accountants (SAICA) finalised its syllabus
overload review and some aspects were excluded or moved to an awareness-level – this
edition also includes these changes.
The tax rate used to illustrate some tax effects (specifically chapter 7) was amended to
27%. As announced in the 2022 Budget Speech, the corporate income tax rate will be
reduced to 27% for years of assessment ending on or after 31 March 2023 (28% before that).
We trust that the users of this publication will gain a thorough grasp of those sections of
the accounting standards discussed in this publication.
THE AUTHORS
Pretoria
December 2022
v
Contents
Page
Chapter 1 The Conceptual Framework – Conceptual Framework for Financial
Reporting 2018 ................................................................................... 1
Chapter 2 Presentation of financial statements – IAS 1 ....................................... 25
Chapter 3 Inventories – IAS 2 ........................................................................ 55
Chapter 4 Statement of cash flows – IAS 7 ..................................................... 83
Chapter 5 Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates, and errors –
IAS 8 ............................................................................................ 109
Chapter 6 Events after the reporting period – IAS 10 ....................................... 141
Chapter 7 Income taxes – IAS 12 ................................................................... 153
Chapter 8 Property, plant and equipment – IAS 16 .......................................... 205
Chapter 9 Leases – IFRS 16 ........................................................................... 241
Chapter 10 Revenue from contracts with customers – IFRS 15 ........................... 287
Chapter 11 Employee benefits – IAS 19 ............................................................ 311
Chapter 12 The effects of changes in foreign exchange rates – IAS 21 ............... 335
Chapter 13 Impairment of assets – IAS 36........................................................ 351
Chapter 14 Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets – IAS 37;
IFRIC 1 ......................................................................................... 371
Chapter 15 Intangible assets – IAS 38 .............................................................. 395
Chapter 16 Investment property – IAS 40......................................................... 421
Chapter 17 Financial instruments – IFRS 9; IAS 32; IFRS 7 ................................ 439
Chapter 18 Companies Act – Companies Act 2008 (Act 71 of 2008) as amended
by the Companies Amendment Act 2011 (Act 3 of 2011) .................. 495
vii
viii Introduction to IFRS
Contents Ltd
Statement of financial position as at 31 December 20.23
(General framework and presentation – Chapters 1 and 2)
20.23
Chapter
ASSETS
Non-current assets 2
Property, plant and equipment 8 and 13
Investment property 16 and 13
Finance lease receivables 9
Intangible assets 15
Financial assets 17
Deferred tax assets 7
Current assets 2
Inventories 3
Trade and other receivables 17
Finance lease receivables 9
Other current assets 2 and 17
Other financial assets 17
Current tax assets 7
Cash and cash equivalents 4 and 17
Total assets 2
EQUITY AND LIABILITIES

Total equity 2
Share capital 17 and 18
Other components of equity 17 and 18
Retained earnings 2 and 18
Total liabilities 2
Non-current liabilities 2
Long-term borrowings 17 and 9
Retirement benefit obligation 11
Deferred tax liabilities 7
Other financial liabilities 17
Long-term provisions 15
Current liabilities 2
Trade and other payables 17
Short-term borrowings 17
Current portion of long-term borrowings 9
Current tax payable 7
Short-term provisions 14
Total equity and liabilities 2
Contents ix
Contents Ltd
Statement of comprehensive income for the year ended 31 December 20.23
(Classification of expense by function)
20.23
Chapter
Revenue 10
Cost of sales 3
Gross profit 2
Other income 2
Distribution costs 2
Administrative expenses 2
Other expenses 2
Finance costs 2
Profit before tax 2 and 18
Income tax expense 7
Profit for the year 2
Other comprehensive income
(Can be shown in a separate statement and amounts can also be
shown net of tax)
Financial assets 17
Revaluation surplus 8
Income tax relating to components of other comprehensive income 7
Other comprehensive income for the year, net of tax 2
Total comprehensive income for the year 2
1
The Conceptual Framework
Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting 2018
Contents
1 Evaluation criteria .......................................................................................... 2
2 Schematic representation of the Conceptual Framework ................................... 2
3 Background................................................................................................... 3
3.1 What is the purpose of the Conceptual Framework? ............................... 3
3.2 Brief history ........................................................................................ 3
4 The objective of general purpose financial reporting ........................................ 4
5 Qualitative characteristics of useful financial information .................................. 6
5.1 Fundamental qualitative characteristics ................................................. 6
5.2 Enhancing qualitative characteristics ..................................................... 9
6 Financial statements and the reporting entity .................................................. 11
6.1 Objective and scope of financial statements .......................................... 11
6.2 Reporting period.................................................................................. 11
6.3 Perspective ......................................................................................... 11
6.4 Going concern assumption ................................................................... 11
6.5 The reporting entity ............................................................................. 11
7 The elements of financial statements .............................................................. 12
7.1 Asset .................................................................................................. 12
7.2 Liability ............................................................................................... 13
7.3 Unit of account .................................................................................... 14
7.4 Substance of contractual rights and contractual obligations .................... 14
7.5 Equity ................................................................................................. 14
7.6 Income ............................................................................................... 14
7.7 Expenses ............................................................................................ 14
8 Recognition and derecognition........................................................................ 15
8.1 Recognition ......................................................................................... 15
8.2 Relevance ........................................................................................... 15
8.3 Faithful representation ......................................................................... 16
8.4 Other factors ....................................................................................... 16
8.5 Derecognition ...................................................................................... 16
9 Measurement ................................................................................................ 17
9.1 Measurement bases ............................................................................. 17
9.2 Factors to consider when selecting a measurement basis........................ 20
10 Presentation and disclosure ............................................................................ 21
10.1 Classification ....................................................................................... 21
10.2 Aggregation ........................................................................................ 22
11 Concepts of capital and capital maintenance.................................................... 22
12 Short and sweet ............................................................................................ 23
1
2 Introduction to IFRS – Chapter 1
1 Evaluation criteria
Understand the objective of financial reporting/financial statements.
Explain and apply the qualitative characteristics of useful financial information.
Understand who the reporting entity is.
Understand the underlying assumption in preparing financial statements.
Explain and apply the elements of financial statements.
Explain and apply the recognition and derecognition principles.
Explain and apply the measurement principles.
Explain and apply the presentation and disclosure principles.
Understand the concepts of capital and capital maintenance.
2 Schematic representation of the Conceptual Framework
The objective of general

purpose financial reporting is
to provide useful financial
information
Qualitative characteristics of
useful financial information
• fundamental
• enhancing
Financial statements are a Reporting entity is

particular form of general required to or
purpose financial report chooses to prepare
financial statements
Concepts of capital
and capital
maintenance
adopted in
preparing financial
statements
The elements of financial

statements Recognition
x Assets
Derecognition
x Liabilities
Measurement
x Equity
x Income Presentation
x Expenses Disclosure
The Conceptual Framework 3
3 Background
3.1 What is the purpose of the Conceptual Framework?
The Conceptual Framework serves primarily to assist the International Accounting Standards
Board (IASB) in developing and revising Standards that are based on consistent concepts.
In addition, the Conceptual Framework also assists preparers of financial reports in
developing consistent accounting policies for transactions or other events when no Standard
applies or a Standard allows a choice of accounting policies. Further, it aims to assist all
parties understand and interpret Standards. The Conceptual Framework, therefore, provides
the foundation for Standards that:
contribute to transparency;
strengthen accountability; and
contribute to economic efficiency.
While the Conceptual Framework provides concepts and guidance that underpin the
decisions the IASB makes when developing Standards, the Conceptual Framework is not a
Standard. The Conceptual Framework does not override any Standard or any requirement in
a Standard and any revision of the Conceptual Framework will not automatically lead to
changes in the Standards. When the Conceptual Framework is revised (as was the case in
2018), some existing Standards that were issued before the revised Conceptual Framework,
will inevitably conflict with the concepts in the revised Conceptual Framework. It is
expected, however, that such conflicts will gradually disappear as new principles-based
Standards are developed, based on the revised Conceptual Framework.
The Conceptual Framework is not an accounting standard and does not override any
formal accounting standard, such as the International Accounting Standards (IASs) or
International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs).
3.2 Brief history

During 1989, the then International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) issued a
document entitled Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements.
This document was based on the American Financial Accounting Standards Board’s (FASB)
conceptual framework. The Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial
Statements informed the IASCs standard setting up to 2001. In 2001 the IASC was
succeeded by the IASB who adopted the Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of
Financial Statements for its future standard setting activities.
In 2004, the FASB and the IASB initiated a joint project to develop a common conceptual
framework. The existing frameworks of the IASB and FASB served as the point of departure
for the development of the new conceptual framework. The joint project was to be
conducted in a number of phases and Phase A – Objectives and Qualitative Characteristics
was finalised in 2010, and published as chapters 1 and 3 of The Conceptual Framework for
Financial Reporting 2010.
The Conceptual Framework (2010) contained the following:
Chapter 1: The objective of general purpose financial reporting.
Chapter 2: The reporting entity (to be added).
Chapter 3: Qualitative characteristics of useful financial information.
Chapter 4: The Framework (1989): The remaining text.
Chapters 1 and 3 replaced the relevant paragraphs in the Framework for the Preparation
and Presentation of Financial Statements of 1989 (Framework). Although the Framework
was partially replaced by certain chapters in the Conceptual Framework (2010), the
International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), and specifically the older Standards (the
International Accounting Standards (IAS)), are still based on the concepts contained in the
Framework. These Standards will therefore, in many instances, still refer to the concepts
and principles contained in the Framework (1989).
The joint framework project was suspended in 2010 but ‘resumed’ in 2012 as an IASB-
only project. The IASB issued a revised Conceptual Framework in 2018. This Conceptual
Framework (2018) is effective immediately for the IASB and effective for annual periods
beginning on or after 1 January 2020 for preparers who develop accounting policies based
on the Conceptual Framework.
The revised Conceptual Framework introduces new concepts and guidance on
measurement, presentation and disclosure, and derecognition. It has also updated the
definitions of the elements of financial statements and the recognition criteria. Further, it
has clarified the concepts of prudence, stewardship, measurement uncertainty, and
substance over form.
The revised Conceptual Framework (2018), entitled “Conceptual Framework for

Financial Reporting” contains the following chapters:
Chapter 1: The objective of general purpose financial reporting;
Chapter 2: Qualitative characteristics of useful financial information;
Chapter 3: Financial statements and the reporting entity;
Chapter 4: The elements of financial statements;
Chapter 5: Recognition and derecognition;
Chapter 6: Measurement;
Chapter 7: Presentation and disclosure; and
Chapter 8: Concepts of capital and capital maintenance.
4 The objective of general purpose financial reporting
This chapter was issued in 2010. The Conceptual Framework (2010) established the
purpose of financial reporting and not just the objective of financial statements, which was
the objective addressed in the Framework (1989). This chapter was not fundamentally
reconsidered in the Conceptual Framework (2018).
According to the Conceptual Framework, the objective of general purpose financial

reporting is:
to provide financial information about the reporting entity
that is useful to existing and potential investors, lenders and other creditors
in making decisions relating to providing resources to the entity.
The Conceptual Framework, therefore, established the objective of financial reporting and
not just of financial statements. Financial statements are an integral part of financial
reporting but the scope of the objective is now broader compared to what it was in the past.
A general purpose financial report is a report that provides financial information about the
reporting entity’s economic resources, claims against the entity, and changes in those
economic resources and claims, that is useful to primary users in making decisions relating
to providing resources to the entity.
These decisions include decisions about:
buying, selling or holding equity and debt instruments;
providing or settling loans and other forms of credit; or
exercising rights to vote on (or otherwise influence) management’s actions that affect
the use of the entity’s economic resources.
These decisions depend on the returns that the potential investors, lenders and other
creditors expect from their investment. Expectations about returns are based on:
an assessment of the amount, timing and uncertainty of future net cash inflows to the
entity; and
an assessment of management’s stewardship of the entity’s economic resources.
Stewardship is the act of supervising or taking care of something such as an

organisation or property.
Existing and potential investors, lenders and other creditors therefore need information
that will help them to make these assessments. Therefore, information is needed about:
the economic resources of the entity and the claims against the entity (financial
position);
as well as changes in those resources and claims (resulting from the entity’s financial
performance or other events (such as issuing debt or equity instruments)); and
how efficiently and effectively the entity’s management have discharged their
responsibilities to use the entity’s economic resources.
The user group identified as “existing and potential investors, lenders and other creditors”
refer to those users who provide resources to a reporting entity but are not in the position
to demand specific information from the entity.
These “primary users” have to rely on the general purpose financial reports as their main
source of information.
General purpose financial reports are not primarily intended for the use of management
and regulators.
General purpose financial reports do not and cannot provide all of the information that
users need.
The IASB, in developing financial reporting standards, has as its objective the provision
of information that will meet the needs of the maximum number of users.
Users, however, also need to consider information from other sources, including the
conditions of the general economic environment in which the reporting entity operates,
political events, and industry- and company-related matters.
It must be borne in mind that general purpose financial reports are not designed to
show the value of a reporting entity, but they provide information to help existing and
potential investors, lenders and other creditors to estimate the value of the reporting
entity.
Information about a reporting entity’s economic resources and claims, and changes in its
economic resources and claims, during a period, provides a better basis for assessing the
entity’s past and future performance, than information solely about cash receipts and
payments during that period. Therefore, accrual accounting is applied in financial reports.
Accrual accounting depicts the effects of transactions and other events and
circumstances on a reporting entity’s economic resources and claims in the periods in which
those occur, even if the resulting cash receipts and payments occur in a different period.
Example 1.1: Accrual accounting

On 1 March 20.22, a company purchased inventories of R10 000 on credit. The perpetual
inventories system is used. The company has a policy of settling creditors after 60 days.
According to the accrual basis of accounting, the company must account for the purchase
transaction on 1 March 2022, and not when the actual cash flow occurs, in other words,
when settling the creditor 60 days later.
1 March 20.22 Dr Cr
Inventories (SFP) 10 000
Trade creditors (SFP) 10 000
Accounting for inventories acquisition on credit
5 Qualitative characteristics of useful financial information
The qualitative characteristics in the Framework (1989) were relevance, reliability,

understandability and comparability. The chapter as it is now, was issued in 2010. This
chapter was not fundamentally reconsidered in the Conceptual Framework (2018).
To achieve the above-mentioned objectives of financial reporting, the information contained

in the financial reports must have certain qualitative characteristics to make the information
useful to users. The qualitative characteristics are the attributes that increase the usefulness
of the information provided in the financial reports.
For information to be useful, it needs to be both relevant and faithfully represented.

The usefulness of financial information is further enhanced when it is comparable,
verifiable, timely and understandable. The Conceptual Framework distinguishes between
fundamental and enhancing qualitative characteristics.
5.1 Fundamental qualitative characteristics

The fundamental qualitative characteristics are:
relevance; and
faithful representation.
5.1.1 Relevance
Relevant information is information that is useful and has the ability to make a difference
in the decisions made by users by helping them to evaluate past, present or future events,
or confirming or correcting their past evaluations. Such information can enable users to
make more accurate forecasts about specific events, or can supply feedback on previous
expectations. Relevant information, therefore, has one or both of the characteristics of
predictive value or confirmatory value.
Materiality plays an important role when evaluating the relevance of information.
Information is considered to be material if its omission or misstatement could influence the
decisions of users based on this information.
Materiality is an entity-specific aspect of relevance based on the nature or magnitude

of the items to which the information relates.
Information may be relevant in accordance with the laid-down measures, but if it is not
material, then its relevance decreases. Materiality provides a threshold or cut-off point for
relevance. This means that the materiality of an item is measured in terms of its importance
in relation to the overall assessment of the financial report.
Example 1.2: Materiality

The following examples were given in a previous Exposure Draft (ED 216.51QC) to illustrate
the application of the concept of materiality:
A misclassification of an asset as equipment that should have been classified as plant may
not be material because it does not affect classification on the statement of financial
position, the line item “plant and equipment” is the same regardless of the misclassification.
However, a misclassification of the same amount might be material if it changed the
classification of an asset from plant or equipment to inventory.
An error of R10 000 in the amount of uncollectible receivables is more likely to be material if
the total amount of receivables is R100 000 than if it is R1 000 000. Similarly, the
materiality of such an error may depend on the significance of receivables to an entity’s total
assets and of uncollectible receivables to an entity’s reported financial performance.
5.1.2 Faithful representation

Financial reports represent economic events and transactions (economic phenomena) in
words and numbers. For financial reports to be useful the financial information contained in
them must not only be relevant, it must also be a faithful representation of the substance of
the phenomena it purports to represent.
A faithful representation provides information about the substance of an economic

phenomena, and its economic reality, instead of merely providing information about its legal
form.
In SFAC 2, which forms part of the FASB conceptual framework, faithful representation is
illustrated with an analogy to road maps that are useful to travellers. Such “. . . maps use
‘. . . symbols bearing no resemblance to the actual countryside, yet they communicate a
great deal of information about it . . .’ Just as the lines on a road map represent roads and
rivers in the real world, the descriptions and amounts in financial statements represent the
cash, property, payables, sales, and salaries of a real-world entity. And just as a map-maker
would impair the usefulness of a road map by adding roads or bridges where none exist or
leaving out roads that do exist, an accountant who adds imaginary items to financial
statements or leaves out real-world economic resources, obligations, or events would impair
their representational faithfulness, and ultimately their decision-usefulness.” (Storey, Reed K
and Sylvia Storey, FASB Special Report, The Framework of Financial Accounting Concepts and
Standards, p 105, January 1998, quoted in Revisiting the Concepts, May 2005, International
Accounting Standards Board and Financial Accounting Standards Board by Halsey G Bullen,
FASB Senior Project Manager and Kimberley Crook, IASB Senior Project Manager).
To be a faithful representation, a depiction would have three characteristics:

Complete;
Neutral; and
Free from error.
Completeness
Information included in the financial reports is complete when it includes all the information
that a user would need to be able to understand the economic events or transactions being
depicted. This should include all necessary descriptions and explanations.
Example 1.3: Effect of not providing complete information

Where an entity is involved in a lawsuit and the legal advisors of the entity are of the opinion
that the case against them will probably not succeed, a provision would not be recognised.
Although no provision will be created in the financial statements, stakeholders would want
to be alerted as soon as possible to this state of affairs, in order for them to make
appropriate economic decisions. Not disclosing the circumstances surrounding the law-suit
in the financial statements would render such financial statements incomplete and
therefore is not a faithful representation. The facts about the law-suit should, therefore, be
disclosed in the notes to the financial statements.
Neutrality
A neutral presentation is without bias when selecting or presenting financial information.
A neutral depiction is not slanted, weighted, emphasised or de-emphasised or otherwise
manipulated to increase the probability that information will be received favourably or
unfavourably.
Neutrality is supported by the exercise of prudence.
Prudence is the exercise of caution when making judgements under conditions of

uncertainty. Prudence does not allow for overstatement or understatement of assets,
liabilities, income or expenses.
Free from error

Faithful representation of information does not imply that the information is absolutely
accurate. It does, however, imply that the description of the event and/or transaction is free
from error and that the process followed to provide the reported information has been
selected and applied without errors.
5.1.3 Applying the fundamental qualitative characteristics
When monetary amounts in financial reports cannot be observed directly and

need to be estimated, measurement uncertainty exists. The use of estimates is an
essential part of the preparation of financial information. The estimates do not
undermine the usefulness of the information if they are clearly and accurately described
and explained.
For information to be useful, it must be both relevant and faithfully represented.
Users cannot make good decisions on either a faithfully represented irrelevant event or
transaction, or an unfaithfully represented relevant event or transaction. However, a faithful
representation by itself does not necessarily result in useful information. If something is not
considered relevant then the view taken is that the item does not really need to be
disclosed, perhaps regardless of whether it can be faithfully represented. However, if an
event or transaction is considered to be relevant to the users of the financial statements, it
would be important to present the information faithfully.
The Conceptual Framework suggests the following steps as the most efficient and
effective process when applying the fundamental qualitative characteristics:
Step 1: identify an economic phenomenon, information about which has the potential to
be useful to users;
Step 2: identify the type of information about that phenomena that would be most
relevant;
Step 3: determine whether that information is available and can be faithfully represented.
Once this process has been followed, the process ends and the relevant information is
presented faithfully in the financial report. Should any of the steps be impossible to
perform, the process is repeated from the start, with the next most relevant type of
information.
5.2 Enhancing qualitative characteristics
The usefulness of information that is already relevant and faithfully represented can
further be enhanced by:
Comparability;
Verifiability;
Timeliness; and
Understandability.
Comparability
In order to meet their decision-making needs, users of financial information should be given
comparable information that enables them to identify trends over time and between similar
companies.
Comparability in the accounting treatment should be consistent for:

the same items over time;
the same items in the same period; and
similar items of different but similar companies over time and in the same period.
Comparability is not uniformity. For information to be comparable, like things must look
alike and different things must look different. Comparability of financial information is not
enhanced by making unlike things look alike any more than it is enhanced by making like
things look different. Consistency is also not the same as comparability. Consistency helps
to achieve the goal of comparability.
One of the main reasons for the disclosure of accounting policies in financial statements is
to assist readers of such statements to compare the financial statements of different entities.
The accounting policy notes indicate how specific items have been treated; hence it is
possible to compare such treatment with the treatment of similar items in different entities.
The financial statements of different but similar entities can, therefore, be appropriately
analysed in order to evaluate a particular entity’s performance relative to the performance

of its peers. The comparative amounts included in the financial statements constitute the
most visible example of comparability.
Alternative accounting methods for the same transactions or events is not advisable
because comparability and other important qualities may be diminished. Nevertheless,
comparability should not be pursued at all costs. Where new accounting standards are
introduced, or when the application of a more appropriate accounting policy becomes
necessary, the current accounting policy should be changed. In such circumstances, there
are measures to ensure the highest possible degree of comparability, but absolute and
complete comparability are sometimes not achieved.
Verifiability
Verifiability is a characteristic of financial information that enables users to confirm that the
presented information does in fact faithfully present the events or transactions it purports to
present. When different knowledgeable and independent observers can reach consensus on
whether a specific event or transaction is faithfully represented, the information would be
deemed verifiable. An example of direct verification is the counting of cash to verify a cash
balance. An example of indirect verification is the confirmation of inputs used to calculate
the closing balance on inventories by physically counting the quantities and recalculating the
cost value by using the same valuation methods used by the reporting entity (for example
first-in, first-out or weighted average).
Timeliness
Information will be able to influence the decision of users when it is reported timely. Usually
older information is less useful although some information could still be useful over a longer
period of time when it is used for purposes of identifying and assessing certain trends.
Understandability
To achieve the stated objective of financial reporting, the financial statements should be
understandable to the average user who has a reasonable knowledge of business and a
willingness to study the information with the necessary diligence. This does not mean,
however, that information should be excluded from the financial statements simply because
it may be too complex for certain readers to understand.
Classifying, characterising and presenting information clearly and concisely makes it
understandable.
5.2.1 Applying the enhancing qualitative characteristics

The application of the enhancing qualitative characteristics should be maximised to the
extent possible. It is, however, very important to note that the enhancing characteristics
cannot make information useful if it is not already relevant and faithfully represented.
5.2.2 The cost constraint on useful financial reporting

A pervasive constraint on the presentation of financial information is the cost involved in
supplying the information. Where the costs of preparing the information exceed the benefits
to be derived from the supply of the information, the information will not be reported, even
though it may meet all the qualitative characteristics of useful information.
In applying the cost constraint, the IASB assesses whether the benefits of reporting
particular information are likely to justify the costs incurred to provide and use that
information.
6 Financial statements and the reporting entity
This chapter is new and was not included in the Framework (1989) or the Conceptual
Framework (2010).
6.1 Objective and scope of financial statements

Financial statements are a particular form of general purpose financial reports. Financial
statements provide information about economic resources of the reporting entity, claims
against the entity, and changes in those resources and claims, that meet the definitions of
the elements of financial statements.
The objective of financial statements is to provide financial information about:
the entity’s assets, liabilities and equity (in the statement of financial position); and
income and expenses (in the statement(s) of financial performance),
that is useful to users of financial statements on assessing the prospects for future net cash
inflows to the reporting entity and in assessing management’s stewardship of the entity’s
economic resources.
Information can also be provided in other statements or notes.
6.2 Reporting period
Financial statements are prepared for a specific period of time (this is the reporting period)
and provide information about:
assets and liabilities and equity that existed at the end of the reporting period, or during
the reporting period; and
income and expenses for the period.
Forward looking information is provided if it relates to the entity’s assets or liabilities and is
useful to the users of financial statements.
Information about transactions and other events that have occurred after the end of the
reporting period is provided if it is necessary to meet the objective of financial statements.
Comparative information is provided for at least one preceding reporting period.
6.3 Perspective
Financial statements provide information about transactions and other events viewed from
the perspective of the reporting entity as a whole, not from the perspective of any particular
group of the entity’s existing or potential investors, lenders or other creditors. This is
important for matters such as non-controlling interests in a group.
6.4 Going concern assumption
Financial statements are prepared on the assumption that the reporting entity is a going
concern and will continue in operation for the foreseeable future and has neither the
intention or the need to enter liquidation or cease trading. If this assumption is not valid,
the financial statements may have to be prepared on a different basis.
6.5 The reporting entity
A reporting entity is an entity that is required, or chooses, to prepare financial statements.
A reporting entity can be a single entity or a portion of an entity (such as a branch or
activities within a defined region) or more than one entity.
A reporting entity is not necessarily a legal entity.
Where one entity has control over another entity, a parent-subsidiary relationship exists. If
the reporting entity is the parent alone, the financial statements are referred to as
‘unconsolidated’ (other Standards use the term separate financial statements). If the
reporting entity comprises both the parent and the subsidiary, the financial
statements are referred to as ‘consolidated’. If the reporting entity comprises two or
more entities that are not all linked by a parent-subsidiary relationship, the
financial statements are referred to as ‘combined’.
Determining the boundary of a reporting entity can be difficult if the reporting entity is
not a legal entity and does not comprise only of legal entities linked by a parent-subsidiary
relationship. The boundary is driven by the information needs of the users of the reporting
entity’s financial statements. To achieve this:
the boundary of a reporting entity does not include arbitrary or incomplete information;
the set of economic activities within the boundary of a reporting entity includes neutral
information; and
an explanation is provided as to how the boundary was determined and what constitutes
the reporting entity.
7 The elements of financial statements
The definitions of an asset and a liability have been refined in the Conceptual
Framework (2018) and the definitions of income and expenses have been updated to reflect
this refinement.
The elements of financial statements in the Conceptual Framework are:

assets, liabilities and equity, which relate to a reporting entity’s financial position; and
income and expenses, which relate to a reporting entity’s financial performance.
The elements are linked to economic resources, claims and changes in economic resources
and claims.
7.1 Asset
Previous definition (1989 and 2010) New definition (2018)
A resource controlled by the entity as a result of A present economic resource controlled by
past events and from which future economic the entity as a result of past events
benefits are expected to flow to the entity An economic resource is a right that has the
potential to produce economic benefits
7.1.1 Rights
An economic resource is not seen as an object as a whole, but as a set of rights. These
rights could include rights that correspond to an obligation of another party (such as rights
to receive cash), and rights that do not correspond to an obligation of another party (such
as rights over a physical object). Rights are established by contract, legislation, or similar
means. In principle, each right could be a separate asset. However, to present the
underlying economics, related rights will be viewed collectively as a single asset that forms
a single unit of account. Legal ownership of a physical object may, for example, give rise to
several rights, such as the right to use, the right to sell, the right to pledge the object as
security, and other undefined rights. Describing the set of rights as the physical object will
often provide a faithful representation of those rights.
Not all of an entity’s rights are assets of that entity. To be an asset, the rights must
both have the potential to produce, for the entity, economic benefits beyond the economic
benefits available to all other parties, and be controlled by the entity.
7.1.2 Potential to produce economic benefits

It is necessary for the right to already exist and that, in at least one circumstance, it would
produce for the entity economic benefits beyond those available to all other parties. An
economic resource derives its value from its present potential to produce future economic
benefits. The economic resource is the present right that contains that potential. The
economic resource is not the future economic benefit that the right may produce.
7.1.3 Control
Control links a right (in other words the economic resource) to an entity. Control
encompasses both a power and a benefits element: an entity must have the present ability
to direct how a resource is used, and be able to obtain the economic benefits that may flow
from that resource. Control usually arises from an ability to enforce legal rights, but can also
arise if an entity has other means of ensuring that they, and no other party, have the ability
to direct the use, or the ability to prevent other parties from directing the use, of the
economic resource and, therefore, obtain the benefits that may flow (directly or indirectly)
from it.
7.2 Liability
Previous definition (1989 and 2010) New definition (2018)
A present obligation of the entity arising from A present obligation of the entity to transfer
past events, the settlement of which is expected an economic resource as a result of past events
to result in an outflow from the entity of An obligation is a duty or responsibility that
resources embodying economic benefits the entity has no practical ability to avoid
7.2.1 Obligation
Many obligations are established by contract, legislation or similar means and are legally
enforceable by the party to whom they are owned. Obligations can also arise from an
entity’s customary practices, published policies or specific statements, if the entity has no
practical ability to act in a manner inconsistent with those practices, policies or statements
(constructive obligation). If the duty or responsibility is conditional on a particular future
action that the entity itself may take, the entity has an obligation if it has no practical ability
to avoid taking that action.
The factors used to assess whether an entity has the practical ability to avoid transferring
an economic resource may depend on the nature of the entity’s duty or responsibility.
7.2.2 Transfer of an economic resource

It is necessary that the obligation already exists and that, in at least one circumstance, it
would require the entity to transfer an economic resource.
7.2.3 Present obligation as a result of past events

A present obligation exists as a result of past events only if:
the entity has already obtained economic benefits (for example goods or services), or
taken an action (for example constructing an oil rig in the ocean); and
as a consequence, the entity will or may have to transfer an economic resource that it
would not otherwise have had to transfer (for example the oil rig needs to be removed
and the ocean bed restored in the future).
7.3 Unit of account

Unit of account affects decisions about recognition, derecognition, measurement as well as
presentation and disclosure.
The unit of account is the right or group of rights, the obligation or group of
obligations, or the group of rights and obligations, to which the recognition criteria and
measurement concepts are applied.
A unit of account is selected to provide useful information, which means that the
information about the asset or liability and about any related income and expenses must be
relevant and must faithfully represent the substance of the transaction or other event from
which they have arisen. Treating a set of rights and obligations that arise from the same
source and that are interdependent and cannot be separated as a single unit of account, is
not the same as offsetting.
In terms of the cost constraint, it is important to consider whether the benefits of the
information provided to users of financial statements by selecting that unit of account are
likely to justify the costs of providing and using that information.
7.4 Substance of contractual rights and contractual obligations
In some cases, the substance of the rights and obligations is clear from the legal form of
the contract. In other cases, the terms of the contract or a group or series of contracts
require analysis to identify the substance of the rights and obligations. Explicit and implicit
terms in a contract, that have substance (have an effect on the economics of the contract),
are considered.
A group or series of contracts may be designed to achieve an overall commercial effect.
To report the substance of such contracts, it may be necessary to treat rights and
obligations arising from that group or series of contracts as a single unit of account.
A single contract may, however, create two or more sets of rights or obligations that may
need to be accounted for as if they arose from separate contracts, in order to faithfully
represent the rights and obligations.
7.5 Equity
The definition of equity - the residual interest in the assets of the entity after deduction all
its liabilities - is unchanged (E = A – L). The IASB has, however, already expressed their
intention to update this definition.
Equity claims are claims against the entity that do not meet the definition of a liability.
Different classes of equity claims, such as ordinary shares and preference shares, may
confer on their holders different rights.
7.6 Income
Income is increases in assets, or decreases in liabilities, that result in increases in equity,
other than those relating to contributions from holders of equity claims.
7.7 Expenses
Expenses are decreases in assets, or increases in liabilities, that result in decreases in
equity, other than those relating to distributions to holders of equity claims.
8 Recognition and derecognition
This chapter was issued in 2018 and contains revisions of the recognition criteria
contained in the Framework (1989) and the Conceptual Framework (2010).
8.1 Recognition
Recognition is the process of capturing for inclusion in the statement of financial

position or the statement(s) of financial performance an item that meets the definition
of an asset, liability, equity, income or expense (see section 7 of this chapter). In
addition to meeting the definition of an element, items are only recognised when their
recognition provides users of financial statements with information about the items that
is both relevant and can be faithfully represented.
Recognition involves depicting the item in the financial statements – either alone or in
aggregation with other items – in words and by a monetary amount, and including that
amount in one or more totals in the financial statements.
Recognition links the elements of financial statements (Diagram 5.1 in the Conceptual
Framework (2018)):
Statement of financial position at beginning of reporting period
Assets minus liabilities equal equity
+
Statement(s) of financial performance
Income minus expenses
+ Changes
Contributions from holders of equity claims minus distributions to holders of equity in equity
claims
=
Statement of financial position at end of reporting period
Assets minus liabilities equal equity
The previous recognition criteria required that an entity should recognise an

item that meets the definition of an element, if it was probable that economic
benefits would flow, and if the item had a cost or value that could be measured
reliably. The revised recognition criteria refers to the qualitative characteristics of
useful information. Derecognition has previously not been covered by the Framework
or Conceptual Framework.
8.2 Relevance
Recognition of a particular asset or liability and any resulting income, expenses or changes
in equity, may not always provide relevant information, for example if:
it is uncertain whether an asset or liability exists (existence uncertainty); or
an asset or liability exists, but the probability of an inflow or outflow of economic
benefits is low.
8.3 Faithful representation

Whether a faithful representation can be provided may be affected by the level of
measurement uncertainty (uncertainty that arises when monetary amounts in financial
reports cannot be observed directly and must instead be estimated).
The use of reasonable estimates is an essential part of the preparation of financial
information and does not undermine the usefulness of the information if the estimates are
clearly and accurately described and explained. However, in some cases, the level of
uncertainty involved in estimating a measure of an asset or liability may be so high that it
may be questionable whether the estimate would provide a sufficiently faithful
representation of that asset and of any resulting income, expenses or changes in equity.
This could be the case, for example, if the range of possible outcomes is exceptionally
wide and the probability of each outcome is exceptionally difficult to estimate (outcome
uncertainty is uncertainty about the amount or timing of any inflow or outflow of economic
benefits that will result from an asset or liability).
8.4 Other factors

It is important to consider whether related assets and liabilities are recognised. If they
are not recognised, recognition may create a recognition inconsistency (accounting
mismatch).
It is important to consider the information that would be given if an asset or liability
were not recognised (for example, if no asset is recognised when expenditure is
incurred, an expense is recognised – Dr ?; Cr Bank).
Whether or not the asset or liability is recognised, explanatory information about the
uncertainties associated with it may need to be provided in the financial statements.
The simultaneous recognition of income and related expenses is sometimes referred to
as the matching of costs with income. However, matching is not an objective in the
Conceptual Framework.
information provided to users of financial statements by recognition are likely to justify
the costs of providing and using that information.
8.5 Derecognition
Derecognition is the removal of all or part of a recognised asset or liability from

an entity’s statement of financial position. For an asset, derecognition normally occurs
when the entity has lost control of all or part of the recognised asset. For a liability,
derecognition normally occurs when the entity no longer has a present obligation for all
or part of the recognised liability.
Derecognition aims to faithfully represent both:

any assets and liabilities retained after the transaction or other event that led to the
derecognition (this represents a control approach); and
the change in the entity’s assets and liabilities as a result of the transaction or other
event (this represents a risks-and-rewards approach).
The aims are normally achieved by:
derecognising any assets or liabilities transferred, consumed, collected, fulfilled or
expired;
recognising any resultant income or expense; and
continuing to recognise assets or liabilities retained.
In some cases, an entity might appear to transfer an asset or liability, but that asset or
liability might nevertheless remain an asset or liability of the entity, and therefore
derecognition of that asset or liability may not be appropriate. Appropriate presentation and
disclosure may be required in such cases.
9 Measurement
The Framework 1989 and the Conceptual Framework (2010) included little guidance
on measurement. The revised Conceptual Framework (2018) describes what information
measurement bases provide and explains the factors to consider when selecting a
measurement basis.
Measurement is quantifying, in monetary terms, elements that are recognised in

financial statements.
To measure is the result of applying a measurement basis to an asset or liability and related
income and expenses.
A measurement basis is an identified feature – for example, historical cost or current
value – of an item being measured. The Conceptual Framework does not favour one basis
over the other, but notes that under some circumstances one may provide more useful
information than the other.
When selecting a measurement basis, it is important to consider the nature of the
information that the measurement basis will produce in both the statement of financial
position and the statement(s) of financial performance and the confirmatory or predictive
value of that information. The information provided by the measurement basis must be
useful to users of financial statements. The information must be relevant, must faithfully
represent what it purports to represent and be, as far as possible, comparable, verifiable,
timely and understandable.
The choice of measurement basis for an asset or liability and the related income and
expenses, is determined by considering both initial and subsequent measurement. Using the
same measurement basis for initial and subsequent measurement avoids recognising
income or expenses at the time of the first subsequent measurement solely because of a
change in measurement basis.
9.1 Measurement bases
Measurement bases can be categorised as:

Historical cost; and
Current value
9.1.1 Historical cost
Historical cost of an asset when it is acquired or created is the value of the costs
incurred in acquiring or creating the asset, comprising the consideration paid to acquire or
create the asset plus the transaction costs. Historical cost of a liability when it is incurred or
taken on is the value of the consideration received to incur or take on the liability minus
transaction costs.
Historical cost measures are entry values and provide monetary information about assets,
liabilities and related income and expenses, using information derived, at least in part, from
the price of the transaction or other event that gave rise to them. Transaction costs are
taken into account if they are incurred in the transaction or other event giving rise to the
asset or liability:
Dr Asset / liability
Cr Bank
The historical cost of an asset is updated over time to depict, if applicable:
The consumption of part or all of the economic resources that constitutes the asset
(depreciation);
Payments received that extinguish part or all of the asset;
The effect of events that cause part or all of the historical cost of the asset to be no
longer recoverable (impairment); and
Accrual of interest to reflect any financing component of the asset.
Because historical cost is reduced to reflect consumption of an asset and its impairment, the
amount expected to be recovered from an asset measured at historical cost is at least as
great as its carrying amount (the amount at which an asset or liability is recognised in the
statement of financial position is referred to as its carrying amount).
The historical cost of a liability is updated over time to depict, if applicable:
Fulfilment of part or all of the liability;
The effect of events that increase the value of the obligation to transfer the economic
resources needed to fulfil the liability to such an extent that the liability becomes
onerous (it is onerous if the historical cost is no longer sufficient to depict the obligation
to fulfil the liability); and
Accrual of interest to reflect any financing component of the liability.
Because the historical cost of a liability is increased when it becomes onerous, the value of
the obligation to transfer the economic resources needed to fulfil the liability is no more
than the carrying amount of the liability.
If historical cost is used, changes in value are reported not when the value changes, but
when an event such as disposal, impairment or fulfilment occurs. This could be incorrectly
interpreted as implying that all the income and expenses recognised at the time of that
event arose then, rather than over the periods during which the asset or liability was held.
Using historical cost, identical assets acquired or liabilities incurred, at different times, can
be reported in the financial statements at different amounts, which can reduce
comparability.
For financial assets and financial liabilities, a way to apply the historical cost basis,
is to measure the items at amortised cost. The amortised cost of a financial asset or
financial liability is updated over time to depict subsequent changes.
9.1.2 Current value

Current value measures provide monetary information about assets, liabilities and related
income and expenses, using information updated to reflect conditions at the measurement
date.
Current value measurement bases include:
Fair value The price that would be received to sell an asset, or paid to transfer
a liability, in an orderly transaction between market participants at
the measurement date. An exit value. Reflects market participants’
current expectations about the amount, timing and uncertainty of
future cash flows. In some cases it can be determined directly by
observing prices in an active market. In other cases it is determined
indirectly by using measurement techniques. Transaction costs are
excluded. Independent of when the asset was acquired – identical
assets or liabilities measured at fair value will be measured at the
same amount by entities that have access to the same markets –
this can enhance comparability.
Value in use (assets) The present value of the cash flows, or other economic benefits, that
an entity expects to derive from the use of an asset and from its
ultimate disposal. An exit value. Reflects entity-specific current
expectations. Determined by using cash-flow-based measurement
techniques. Transaction costs incurred on acquiring the asset are
excluded. Takes into account transaction costs expected on ultimate
disposal. Measures could be different for identical assets in different
entities.
Fulfilment value (liabilities) Present value of the cash flows, or other economic resources, that
an entity expects to be obliged to transfer as it fulfils a liability. An
exit value. Reflects entity-specific current expectations about the
amount, timing and uncertainty of future cash flows. Determined by
using cash-flow-based measurement techniques. Transaction costs
incurred on taking on the liability are excluded. Takes into account
transaction costs expected on fulfilling the liability. Measures could
be different for identical liabilities in different entities.
Current cost (assets) Cost of an equivalent asset at the measurement date, comprising
the consideration that would be paid plus the transaction costs that
would be incurred at that date. An entry value. Reflects conditions at
the measurement date. In some cases, cannot be determined
directly and must be determined indirectly. Identical assets acquired
at different times are reported in the financial statements at the
same amount – this can enhance comparability.
Current cost (liabilities) Consideration that would be received for an equivalent liability minus
the transaction costs that would be incurred at that date. An entry
value. Reflects conditions at the measurement date. In some cases,
cannot be determined directly and must be determined indirectly.
Identical liabilities incurred at different times are reported in the
financial statements at the same amount – this can enhance
comparability.
Cash-flow-based measurement techniques:

A cash-flow-based measurement technique is not a measurement basis. It is a technique
used in applying a measurement basis. When measuring an asset or liability by reference to
estimates of uncertain future cash flows, a factor to consider is possible variations in the
estimated amount or timing of those cash flows. Those variations are considered in
selecting a single amount from within the range of possible cash flows.
9.2 Factors to consider when selecting a measurement basis

9.2.1 Relevance
The relevance of information provided by a measurement basis for an asset or liability and
for the related income and expenses is affected by:
the characteristics of the asset or liability (for example, the variability of cash flows and
whether the value of the asset or liability is sensitive to market factors or other risks);
and
how the asset or liability contributes to future cash flows (for example, whether cash
flows are produced directly or indirectly in combination with other economic resources,
and the nature of the business activities conducted by the entity).
9.2.2 Faithful representation
Whether a measurement basis can provide a faithful representation is affected by:
measurement inconsistency (accounting mismatch) (using different measurement bases
for assets and liabilities that are related); and
measurement uncertainty (when a measure cannot be determined directly by observing
prices in an active market and must instead be estimated).
9.2.3 Enhancing qualitative characteristics and the cost constraint
information provided to users of financial statements by that measurement basis are likely
to justify the costs of providing and using that information.
Consistently using the same measurement bases for the same items, either from period
to period within a reporting entity, or in a single period across entities, can help make
financial statements more comparable.
A change in measurement basis can make financial statements less understandable.
Therefore, if a change is made, users of financial statements may need explanatory
information to enable them to understand the effect of that change.
Verifiability is enhanced by using measurement bases that result in measures that can be
independently corroborated either directly (for example by observing prices) or indirectly
(for example by checking inputs into a model).
Timeliness has no specific implications for measurement.
9.2.4 More than one measurement basis
In some cases, different measurement bases are used in the statement of financial position
and statement(s) of financial performance. However, in most cases, the most
understandable way is to:
use a single measurement basis for both the asset or liability in the statement of
financial position and for related income and expenses in the statement(s) of financial
performance; and
provide in the notes additional information applying a different measurement basis (if
more than one measurement basis is needed in order to provide relevant information
that faithfully represents both the entity’s financial position and its financial
performance).
9.2.5 Measurement of equity
The total carrying amount of equity is not measured directly. It equals the total of the
carrying amounts of all recognised assets less the total of the carrying amounts of all
recognised liabilities (E = A – L).
The total carrying amount of an individual class of equity or component of equity is
normally positive, but can be negative in some circumstances.
10 Presentation and disclosure
This chapter is new and was not included in the Framework (1989) or the Conceptual
Framework (2010). This chapter includes concepts that describe how information should be
presented and disclosed in financial statements, and guidance on including income and
expenses in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
Information about assets, liabilities, equity, income and expenses is communicated

through presentation and disclosure in the financial statements of a reporting entity.
Effective communication of information in financial statements makes that information more

relevant and contributes to a faithful representation. Including presentation and disclosure
objectives in Standards can support effective communication because it helps entities
identify useful information and to decide how to communicate that information in the most
effective manner.
In terms of the cost constraint, it is important to consider whether the benefits provided
to users of financial statements by presenting or disclosing particular information are likely
to justify the costs of providing and using that information.
10.1 Classification
Classification is the sorting of assets, liabilities, equity, income or expenses on the basis of
shared characteristics for presentation and disclosure purposes. Classifying dissimilar items
together (for example offsetting assets and liabilities) can obscure relevant information,
reduce understandability and comparability, and may not provide a faithful representation of
what it purports to represent.
10.1.1 Classification of assets and liabilities

Classification is applied to the unit of account. Sometimes it may be appropriate to separate
an asset or liability into components, and to classify those components separately (for
example current and non-current components).
Offsetting occurs where an entity recognises and measures both an asset and liability as
separate units of account, but groups them into a single net amount in the statement of
financial position.
10.1.2 Classification of equity

It may be necessary to classify equity claims separately if those claims have different
characteristics. It may also be necessary to classify components of equity separately if those
components are subject to particular legal, regulatory or other requirements.
10.1.3 Classification of income and expenses

Classification is applied to income and expenses resulting from the unit of account selected
for an asset or liability; or components of such income and expenses, if those components
have different characteristics that are identified separately.
Income and expenses are classified and included either:
in the statement of profit or loss; or
in other comprehensive income.
The statement of profit or loss is the primary source of information about an entity’s
financial performance for the reporting period. In principle, all income and expense items
are included in that statement. The IASB may, however, decide in exceptional
circumstances that income or expenses arising from a change in the current value of
an asset or a liability are to be included in other comprehensive income (in the
statement of other comprehensive income), when doing so would result in the statement of
profit or loss providing more relevant information or providing a more faithful representation
of the entity’s performance for that period. This discretion applies only to the IASB.
Preparers of financial statements will not be able to choose to exclude items from profit or
loss when using the Conceptual Framework to develop accounting policies.
In principle, income and expenses included in other comprehensive income in one period
are reclassified from other comprehensive income into the statement of profit or loss in a
future period, when doing so results in the statement of profit or loss providing more
relevant information or providing a more faithful representation of the entity’s performance
for that future period. Only in exceptional circumstances may the IASB decide that income
and expenses will not be reclassified to profit or loss.
10.2 Aggregation
Aggregation is the adding together of assets, liabilities, equity, income or expenses that
have shared characteristics and are included in the same classification. Different levels of
aggregation may be needed in different parts of financial statements, for example the
statement of financial position provides summarised information and more detailed
information is provided in the notes.
11 Concepts of capital and capital maintenance
This chapter has remained unchanged from the Framework (1989) to the Conceptual
Framework (2010) and the Conceptual Framework (2018).
Two different concepts of capital are identified in the Conceptual Framework:

a financial concept of capital; and
a physical concept of capital.
According to the financial concept of capital, capital is equal to the net assets or equity of
an entity. In terms of the physical concept of capital, capital is equal to the production
capacity of an entity – for example, the number of units produced per day.
Presumably the choice between the different concepts of capital (and capital
maintenance) is based on the needs of the users. In South Africa, most entities adopt a
financial concept of capital, but should the main consideration of users be to maintain
operating capacity, the physical concept of capital is selected.
Capital maintenance is once again linked to the concepts of capital:
In terms of the financial concept of capital, capital is maintained if net assets at the
beginning of a period are equal to net assets at the end of that period after excluding
any distributions to or contributions by the owners of the entity during the period. The
financial concept of capital states that profit is only earned if the financial (or money)
amount of the net assets at the end of a period exceed the financial (or money) amount
of the net assets at the beginning of that period. Measurement is done in nominal
monetary units (without taking inflation into account) or in units of constant purchasing
power.
Should capital be measured using nominal monetary units, profit represents an
increase in the nominal monetary capital over a period. Increases in the values of assets
held during a period are known as holding gains, but nevertheless remain profits from a
conceptual point of view.
Should capital be measured in units of constant purchasing power, profit is
represented by an increase in invested purchasing power over a period. Consequently,
only the portion of the increase in the prices of assets exceeding the general level of
price increases would represent profits. The rest are considered to be capital
maintenance adjustments and form part of equity, not profits.
In terms of the physical concept of capital, capital is maintained if the physical
production capacity of an entity at the beginning of a period is equal to the physical
production capacity at the end of the period after excluding any distributions to or
contributions by owners of the entity during the period. Consequently, profit under the
physical concept of capital is only earned if the physical production capacity at the end
of a period exceeds the physical production capacity at the beginning of the period.
Measurement takes place on a current cost basis.
All price changes in the assets and liabilities of the entity are considered to be changes in
the measurement of the physical production capacity of the entity. These changes are
consequently accounted for as capital maintenance adjustments against equity, and are
not recognised as profits.
12 Short and sweet
The Conceptual Framework:

Serves to assist the IASB in developing and revising Standards that are based on consistent
concepts.
Identifies the following as the objective of general purpose financial reporting:
– to provide financial information about the reporting entity;
– that is useful to existing and potential investors, lenders and other creditors; and
– in making decisions relating to providing resources to the entity.
Identifies the following fundamental qualitative characteristics of useful financial
information:
– relevance; and
– faithful representation.
Identifies the following enhancing qualitative characteristics of useful financial information:
– comparability;
– verifiability;
– timeliness; and
– understandability.
Identifies the reporting period and the reporting entity.
Identifies the following elements of financial statements:
– assets;
– liabilities;
– equity;
continued
– income; and
– expenses.
Identifies the recognition and derecognition principles.
Identifies the two measurement bases and the factors to consider when selecting a
measurement basis:
– historical cost;
– current value.
Identifies the presentation and disclosure principles.
Discusses the concepts of capital and capital maintenance.
2
Presentation of financial statements
IAS 1
Contents
2 Schematic representation of IAS 1 .................................................................. 26
3 Background................................................................................................... 27
4 Objective and components of financial statements ........................................... 28
5 General features............................................................................................ 29
5.1 Fair presentation and compliance with IFRSs ......................................... 29
5.2 Going concern ..................................................................................... 32
5.3 Accrual basis ....................................................................................... 32
5.4 Materiality and aggregation .................................................................. 33
5.5 Offsetting............................................................................................ 33
5.6 Frequency of reporting ......................................................................... 33
5.7 Comparative information ...................................................................... 34
5.8 Consistency of presentation .................................................................. 35
6 Structure and content .................................................................................... 35
6.1 Identification of financial statements ..................................................... 35
6.2 Statement of financial position.............................................................. 37
6.3 Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income .................. 43
6.4 Statement of changes in equity ............................................................ 47
6.5 Notes.................................................................................................. 49
7 Short and sweet ............................................................................................ 54
Explain and apply the objectives and components of financial statements.
Explain and apply the general features in the preparation of financial statements.
Explain and apply the structure and content of financial statements.
Present financial statements in accordance with International Financial Reporting
Standards (IFRS).
25
2 Schematic representation of IAS 1
PRESENTATION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
Prescribes the basis for preparation of general purpose financial statements.

Purpose of
Sets out minimum requirements for presentation as well as guidelines for
IAS 1
structure and content of financial statements.
Objective of To provide information about the financial position, financial performance

financial and cash flows of an entity that is useful to a wide range of users in making
statements economic decisions.
Complete set
of financial Structure and content
statements
Assets and liabilities should be presented as either current or non-

current, unless presentation is based on liquidity.
Statement of Certain line items should be presented on the face of the SFP (for
financial example property, plant and equipment, inventories, provisions, etc.).
position (SFP) Certain information should be presented either on the face of the SFP or
in the notes (for example sub-classifications of line items and details
regarding share capital).
All income and expense items recognised in a period are presented as

either:
– a single statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income;
OR
– two separate statements (one displaying profit or loss and the other
displaying other comprehensive income together with profit or loss as
an opening amount).
Expenditure items should be classified either by their function or their
nature.
Specific line items are required to be presented in the profit or loss section
Statement of (for example revenue, finance cost, tax expense, etc.).
profit or loss
and other The nature and amount of material items to be presented either on the
comprehensive face of the SPLOCI or separately in the notes.
income Other comprehensive income items to be classified as either:
(SPLOCI) – items that will not subsequently be reclassified to profit or loss; OR
– items that will subsequently be reclassified to profit or loss.
Items of other comprehensive income must be presented as either:
– net of related tax effects; OR
– before related tax effects, with one amount shown for the aggregate
amount of income tax relating to those items.
Reclassification adjustments relating to components of other
comprehensive income need to be disclosed, either on the face, or in the
notes.
The notion of extraordinary items has been abandoned.
continued
Presentation of financial statements 27
Reconciliation of equity at the beginning of the reporting period with

equity at the end of the reporting period.
Includes:
Statement of – total comprehensive income for the period;
changes in – effect of retrospective restatements; and
equity
– transactions with owners in their capacity as owners (for example issue
of shares, dividends paid).
Dividends paid and the related dividends per share should be presented
either on the face, or in the notes.
Statement of
Refer to chapter 4.
cash flows
Basis of preparation of the financial statements.

Specific accounting policies applied.
Present information required by IFRS not already presented elsewhere.
Notes Supporting information for items presented in the financial statements.
Additional information on items not presented in the financial statements.
Sources of estimation uncertainty.
Disclosures regarding capital.
Fair presentation and compliance with IFRSs.

Financial statements are prepared on the going concern assumption.
Items recognised on the accrual basis – when items satisfy the definitions
General and recognition criteria of the Conceptual Framework.
features Materiality and aggregation – present each material class of similar items
for the separately.
presentation Offsetting – not allowed unless required/permitted by an IFRS.
of financial Frequency of reporting – at least annually.
statements
Comparative information – in respect of preceding period for all amounts
presented.
Consistency of presentation – retain presentation and classification
between periods.
3 Background
The aim of IAS 1 is to set out the following:

overall requirements for the presentation of financial statements;
guidelines for their structure; and
minimum requirements for their content.
This Standard provides guidance on the overall presentation by setting out the basic
requirements for general purpose financial statements. It therefore forms the minimum
basis when preparing financial statements. This Standard follows the Conceptual Framework
for Financial Reporting (Conceptual Framework), through presentation of the elements
(assets, liabilities, equity, income and expenses) in a useful manner to the users. Items with
shared characteristics will be aggregated and also separated from items with different
characteristics.
General purpose financial statements should ensure comparability with the entity’s
financial statements of previous periods as well as with other entities. Other IFRSs set out
specific disclosure requirements which should be added to the basic general purpose
financial statements as required by IAS 1, Presentation of Financial Statements.
The financial statements of specialised institutions, such as banks and similar financial
institutions, should fulfil the requirements of IAS 1, as well as the specific requirements for
their presentation that have been laid down elsewhere.
Although the scope of IAS 1 applies to all general purpose financial statements, the
terminology is more suited to profit-oriented entities. It may therefore be necessary to
amend descriptions and line items in the financial statements when IAS 1 is applied to
non-profit organisations and entities other than companies, such as sole traders,
partnerships and close corporations.
General purpose financial statements are those statements that are intended to
satisfy the needs of the group of interested parties who are not in a position to demand that
financial statements should be specifically compiled for their purposes.
Shareholders and creditors are examples of interested parties who must depend on general
purpose financial statements. In contrast, members of management can ensure that
management information is compiled in such a way that their needs are adequately
addressed. IAS 1 attempts to serve the interests of the former group.
IAS 1 applies to financial statements in documents such as prospectuses and annual
reports, but not to condensed interim financial statements falling under the scope of IAS 34,
Interim Financial Reporting. It applies to both separate and consolidated financial
statements in accordance with IFRS 10, Consolidated Financial Statements.
While IAS 1 deals with the presentation of information in the financial statements, it is
important to emphasise that complete disclosure can never correct inappropriate accounting
treatment.
4 Objective and components of financial statements
The objective of financial statements is to provide information about the:

financial position;
financial performance,, and
cash flows
of an entity that is useful to a wide range of users when making economic decisions.
A complete set of financial statements comprises (IAS 1.10):

a statement of financial position as at the end of the period;
a statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the period;
a statement of changes in equity for the period;
a statement of cash flows for the period;
notes to the financial statements, comprising significant accounting policies and other
explanatory information;
comparative information in respect of the preceding period; and
a statement of financial position as at the beginning of the earliest comparative period
when an entity applies an accounting policy retrospectively or makes a retrospective
re-statement of items in its financial statements, or when items in the financial
statements were reclassified.
An entity may use titles for the components of financial statements other than those used in
IAS 1. The Standard acknowledges that preparers of financial statements do provide
additional information, such as a value added statement and environmental reports, if
required by users. A financial overview of the entity’s activities can also be provided to include
the following information:
the main factors that influenced the performance of the entity in the current period and
may do so in future periods;
the entity’s policy regarding the maintenance and enhancement of performance, as well
as its policy in respect of dividends;
the sources of funding and the policies in respect of gearing and risk management;
the strengths and resources of the entity that are not reflected in the statement of
financial position; and
the changes in the environment within which the entity functions, how it reacts to the
changes and the effect thereof on its performance;
The content and format of these reports, however, fall outside the scope of IAS 1.
5 General features
The following general features for the presentation of financial statements are
identified in IAS 1.15 to .46:
fair presentation and compliance with IFRSs;
going concern;
accrual basis of accounting;
materiality and aggregation;
offsetting;
frequency of reporting;
comparative information; and
consistent presentation.
5.1 Fair presentation and compliance with IFRSs

5.1.1 Fair presentation
IAS 1.15 states that financial statements should fairly present the financial position
(referring to the statement of financial position), financial performance (referring to the
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income) and cash flows (referring to
the statement of cash flows) of an entity.
IAS 1 states that fair presentation is achieved by faithful representation of the effects
of transactions, other events and conditions in accordance with the definitions and recognition
criteria for assets, liabilities, income and expenses as set out in the Conceptual Framework.
Certain of the concepts of the Conceptual Framework are employed in an attempt to

describe this rather difficult term of fair presentation. These concepts are:
faithful representation;
definitions of elements (assets, liabilities, equity, income and expenses) of financial

statements, and
recognition criteria for elements of financial statements.
Faithful representation refers to that characteristic of financial reports that will reassure
users of such reports that they can rely on the information contained therein to faithfully
represent the economic circumstances and events that they purport to represent or would
reasonably be expected to represent. Users of financial statements are assured that all
items that impact on the financial position, financial results and cash flow of an entity are
represented appropriately. At a practical level, this means that, for instance, the item
“inventories” in the statement of financial position actually represents those units and only
those units that qualify for inclusion as inventory (and would therefore meet the definition of
assets), appropriately recognised and measured in accordance with the relevant
Standards.
Fair presentation is usually accomplished by complying with the Standards and

Interpretations of the IASB. Each set of financial statements should state that it complies
with IFRS, unless compliance with all applicable IFRSs as well as each applicable approved
Interpretation has not been achieved.
IFRSs include all the Standards of the IFRS series and the IAS series and all applicable
Interpretations, both IFRIC and the SIC series.
5.1.2 Non-compliance with IFRSs
IAS 1 recognises that there may be rare circumstances where compliance with a
particular requirement of a Standard or Interpretation may be misleading and in conflict with
the objectives of financial statements as set out in the Conceptual Framework. In such
extremely rare cases, the entity shall depart from the requirement in the Standard if the
relevant regulatory framework requires or does not otherwise prohibit such a departure.
When assessing whether a specific departure is necessary, consideration is given to the

following:
why the objective of financial statements is not achieved in the particular circumstances;
and
the way in which the entity’s circumstances differ from those of other entities which
follow the requirement. There is a rebuttable presumption that if other entities in similar
circumstances comply with the requirement, the entity’s compliance with the requirement
would not be so misleading that it would conflict with the objective of financial
statements set out in the Conceptual Framework. The entity departing from the
particular requirement will, therefore, have to motivate and justify the departure.
Where departure from a requirement in IFRS is deemed necessary in order to achieve fair
presentation and where the regulating authority permits such departure, the following must
be disclosed (IAS 1.20):
the fact that management has concluded that the financial statements fairly present the
entity’s financial position, financial performance and cash flows;
the fact that the financial statements comply in all material respects with applicable
Standards and Interpretations except for the departure in question;
the Standard or Interpretation from which the entity has departed;

the nature of the departure, including the treatment that the Standard would require;
the reason why the treatment would be so misleading in the circumstances that it would
conflict with the objective of financial statements as set out in the Conceptual
Framework;
the treatment adopted; and
the financial impact of the departure on each item in the financial statements that would
have been reported in complying with the requirement, for each period presented.
If an entity departed from a Standard or Interpretation in a previous year and the departure
still affects amounts recognised in the financial statements, the information in the last five
bullet points above must be disclosed.
Should management conclude that compliance with a requirement in a Standard or an
Interpretation would be so misleading that it would conflict with the objectives of financial
statements set out in the Conceptual Framework, but the regulatory authority under
which the entity operates prohibits departure from the requirement, the entity is required
to reduce the perceived misleading aspects to the maximum extent possible by disclosing
(IAS 1.23):
the title of the Standard or Interpretation requiring the entity to report information
concluded to be misleading;
the nature of the requirement;
the reason why management has concluded that complying with that requirement is
misleading and in conflict with the objective of financial statements as set out in the
Conceptual Framework; and
for each period presented, the adjustments to each item in the financial statements that
management has concluded would be necessary to achieve fair presentation.
In assessing fair presentation, the management of a reporting entity should also consider the
definitions of elements and recognition criteria in the Conceptual Framework, as discussed
in chapter 1.
Example 2.1: Definitions of elements and recognition criteria

A claim for damages to the amount of R2 million has been instituted against a newspaper
company following the publication of an allegedly defamatory report. On the advice of the
company’s lawyers, a decision was made to provide for the amount of the claim in its financial
statements, since it is probable that judgment will be in favour of the plaintiff. The company
wishes to fairly present this matter in its financial statements. Consider the following
questions:
Question 1: Which elements of the financial statements (if any) are involved?
Answer 1: Firstly, a liability, since a present obligation (probable that judgment will be in
favour of the plaintiff) exists, resulting from a past event (the publication of the report), the
settlement of which will result in the outflow of economic benefits (payment of the claim).
Example 2.1: Definitions of elements and recognition criteria (continued)

Secondly, an expense, since an outflow of assets (payment of the claim) following the raising
of a liability will result in a decrease in equity (not related to distributions to equity participants).
Question 2: What are the recognition criteria for liabilities and expenses?
Answer 2: The items must:
meet the definition of a liability and an expense;
probably lead to the outflow of future economic benefits from the entity; and
have a cost or value that can be measured reliably.
Question 3: Do the liability and expense meet the recognition criteria stated above?
Answer 3: Yes, since the items meet the definitions of a liability and an expense respectively,
it is probable that future economic benefits associated with them (cash) will flow from the
entity and the items can be measured reliably (R2 million).
Conclusion: The claim for damages should be recognised in the financial statements as a
liability (provision) and an expense respectively and measured at R2 million.
Comment:
¾ Since IAS 37, Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets addresses this
issue, disclosure should be made in terms of that Standard.
5.2 Going concern
In terms of this concept, it is assumed that the entity will continue to exist in the
foreseeable future. More specifically, it means that the financial statements are drafted on
the assumption that there is no intention or need to cease or materially curtail operations.
When management assesses whether the going concern assumption is appropriate, it takes
all appropriate information for at least 12 months from the end of the reporting period into
account. The existence of material uncertainties about the possibility of a going concern
problem should be disclosed. The financial history, circumstances and access to financial
resources are also considered.
This concept has an effect on the valuation of assets and liabilities. If the entity is no
longer a going concern, consideration should be given to the use of the liquidation valuation
method, while provision should also be made for liquidation expenses. These facts, with the
basis used and the reason why the entity is no longer a going concern, should be disclosed.
5.3 Accrual basis

Financial statements (except the statement of cash flows) are prepared on an accrual basis.
Accrual basis of accounting requires that entities recognise the elements of financial
statements when they satisfy the definitions and recognition criteria in the Conceptual
Framework. This implies that transactions are accounted for when they occur, not when
cash is received or paid.
In terms of the accrual concept, only the value that has been earned during a specified
period may be recognised in profit calculations, irrespective of when the revenue (for
example cash) was received. In addition, only the cost that has been incurred within the
same specified period may be recognised as expenses in the profit calculation, irrespective
of when payment took place.
5.4 Materiality and aggregation
According to IAS 1.29 each material class of similar items should be presented
separately in the financial statements.
Materiality is established with reference to both the nature and the size of an item.
Items of a dissimilar nature or function should be presented separately unless they are
immaterial. For example, a single event that leads to 85% of the inventories being written
off, is shown separately, and not merely aggregated with other instances of routine asset
write-offs.
A line item may not be sufficiently material to be disclosed in the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income, but it can be sufficiently material to be included in
the notes to the financial statements. A user of the financial statements usually regards an
item as being material if its non-disclosure may lead to a different decision.
Individual items belonging to the same category (nature) are aggregated even though they
may all be of large amount (size); items belonging to different categories are not aggregated.
5.5 Offsetting
An entity shall not offset assets and liabilities or income and expenses unless
required or permitted by an IFRS.
Offsetting of profits, losses and related expenditure is allowed when these amounts are not
material and concern the same items. Examples of offsetting are gains and losses arising
from financial instruments as well as foreign exchange transaction, in which event only the
net amount of the gains or losses is included in the profit or loss section of the statement of
profit or loss and other comprehensive income. When income and expenditure are offset
against one another, the entity should, in the light of the materiality thereof, nevertheless
consider disclosing the amounts that were offset against one another in the notes to the
Assets measured net of valuation allowances, such as obsolescence allowances on
inventories and allowance for credit losses on receivables, are not regarded as offsetting.
Offsetting is required where set-off reflects the substance of the transaction or event
(amounts are aggregated and indicated on a net basis). Gains and losses on the disposal of
non-current assets, including investments, are reported by deducting the carrying amount
of the asset and related selling expenses from the proceeds on disposal. Expenditure related
to a provision that is recognised in accordance with IAS 37, Provisions, Contingent Liabilities
and Contingent Assets and reimbursed under a contractual arrangement with a third party
(for example, a supplier’s warranty agreement) may be netted against the related
reimbursement (refer to chapter 15).
5.6 Frequency of reporting
Financial statements should be published at least annually.
In exceptional cases, in which an entity’s reporting date changes with the result that the
financial statements are presented for a period shorter or longer than one year, the
following additional information should be provided:
the reason why the reporting period is not one year; and
the fact that the amounts in the various components of the financial statements are not
comparable.
5.7 Comparative information
All amounts in financial statements should be accompanied by a comparative amount

for the previous period unless a Standard or Interpretation permits otherwise (IAS 1.38).
Narrative and descriptive information should be accompanied by comparative information if
it is necessary for the understanding of the current period’s financial statements.
It is of vital importance that users of financial statements should be able to discern trends in
financial information. Consequently, comparative information should be structured in such a
way that the usefulness of the financial statements is enhanced.
When presenting comparative information, an entity shall present as a minimum
(IAS 1.38A):
two statements of financial position;
two statements of profit or loss and other comprehensive income;
two separate statements of profit or loss (if presented);
two statements of cash flows;
two statements of changes in equity; and
related notes.
In addition to the above minimum requirements, an entity may present additional
comparative information as long as that information is prepared in accordance with IFRSs.
This additional comparative information need not consist of a full set of financial statements
but may consist of one or more statements. The entity must also provide related notes for
the additional statements presented (IAS 1.38C, and .38D).
An entity must present a third statement of financial position as at the beginning
of the preceding period under the following circumstances:
the retrospective application of a change in accounting policy;
the retrospective restatement of items in financial statements; or
the reclassification of items in financial statements.
This additional statement of financial position is only required if the application, restatement
or reclassification is considered to have a material effect on the information included in
the statement of financial position at the beginning of the preceding period. The date of this
third statement of financial position should be the beginning of the preceding period,
regardless of whether earlier periods are being presented. IAS 8, Accounting Policies,
Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors, lists the full disclosure requirements when an
entity changes an accounting policy or corrects an error.
Where a change in presentation or classification of items is made in the current period,
comparatives should be reclassified accordingly. The following disclosure is called for in such
cases:
the nature of the reclassification;
the amount of each item or class of items that is reclassified; and
the reason for the reclassification.
However, where such reclassifications are impracticable, they need not be made, but the
following should be disclosed:
the reasons why they were not changed; and
the nature of the changes that would have been effected had the comparatives indeed
been reclassified.
IAS 1.7 has introduced the notion of impracticability. IAS 1 defines a requirement as
impracticable when an entity cannot apply it after making every reasonable effort to do so.
For example, the data may not have been collected in the prior period in a way that allows
for reclassification. Clearly, the preferred treatment is to reclassify wherever possible.
5.8 Consistency of presentation
There should be consistency of accounting treatment of like items within each

accounting period, and from one period to the next. Consistency has two aspects:
consistency over time; and
consistency of disclosure.
IAS 1.45 states that the presentation and classification of items in the financial statements
should be retained from one period to the next, unless:
a significant change in the nature of the operations has taken place; or
upon a review of its financial statements, it was decided that the change is necessary for
more appropriate disclosure; or
a Standard or an Interpretation requires a change.
In such circumstances comparative amounts should be restated. An entity changes the
presentation of its financial statements only if the change provides information that is
reliable and more relevant.
Where a Standard requires or permits separate categorisation or measurement of items, a
different, allowed, alternative accounting policy may be applied to each category. Where
separate categorisation of items is not allowed or permitted by a Standard, the same
accounting policy should be applied to all similar items. For example, in IAS 2,
Inventories, separate classifications of inventories and separate disclosure of the different
classifications are allowed. Consequently, a separate cost allocation method may be
employed for each separate classification of inventory.
6 Structure and content
Information may be disclosed on the face of the statement of financial position,

statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income, statement of changes in equity or
in the notes. IAS 1 together with other Standards identifies specifically which disclosures
should be on the face of the financial statements.
6.1 Identification of financial statements

Financial statements should be clearly distinguished and identified separately from other
information that forms part of the annual report. The following information should be indicated
prominently and repeated when necessary for information to be understandable (IAS 1.51):
the name of the reporting entity or any other form of identification, as well as any
change in that information since the previous reporting date;
whether the financial statements cover an individual entity or a group of entities;
the date of the end of the reporting period or the period covered by the set of
financial statements or notes;
the relevant component of the financial statements, for example statement of cash
flows or statement of financial position;
the currency used in the financial statements; and
the level of rounding used in presenting amounts, for example that the amounts
have been rounded off to the nearest thousand or million.
Example 2.2: Identification of financial statements

Siegetown Ltd1
Statement of financial position4 as at 28 February 20.233
Company2
20.23 20.22
R’0005 R’000
1 Name of the reporting entity
2 Whether information is for single company or group of entities.
3 Date of the end of the reporting period.
4 The component of the financial statements.
5 The currency used and precision of amounts presented.
The structure of financial statements can be illustrated as follow:

Statement of profit Statement of
or loss and other changes in equity
comprehensive
income
Profit or loss
section
(P/L)
*income/expenses: Retained earnings
revenue, cost of sales,
other income, other
expenses
Choice to Other
present as comprehensive
one or two income section
separate (OCI)
statements *items not reclassified
to P/L:
revaluation surplus, Recognise directly Statement
remeasurement of in equity: of financial
defined benefit plan, mark-to-market position
credit risk component reserve, revaluation
for liabilities held at surplus, cash flow Assets –
fair value through hedge reserve Liabilities =
profit or loss Equity
*items reclassified
to P/L:
cash flow hedge,
exchange difference
on foreign operations
Transactions with
owners in their
capacity as owners:
dividends,
share capital issues,
transfers between
reserves
6.2 Statement of financial position

According to IAS 1.60 an entity should present current and non-current assets, and current
and non-current liabilities, as separate classifications on the face of its statement of financial
position, except when a presentation based on liquidity provides information that is reliable
and more relevant. When this exception applies, all assets and liabilities should be
presented in order of liquidity. For some entities, such as financial institutions, a
presentation of assets and liabilities in increasing or decreasing order of liquidity provides
information that is reliable and more relevant than a current/non-current presentation,
because the entity does not supply goods or services within a clearly identifiable operating
cycle.
An entity is permitted to present some of its assets and liabilities using a current/
non-current classification and others in order of liquidity when this provides information that
is reliable and more relevant. The need for a mixed basis of presentation may arise when an
entity has diverse operations (IAS 1.64).
Disclosure of the expected realisation of assets and liabilities is also useful, as it allows
users to assess the liquidity and solvency of the entity.
6.2.1 Current assets and current liabilities
An asset is classified under current assets if it satisfies the following criteria

(IAS 1.66):
it is expected to be realised in, or is intended for sale or consumption in, the entity’s normal
operating cycle;
it is held primarily for the purpose of being traded;
it is expected to be realised within 12 months after the end of the reporting period; or
it is cash or a cash equivalent unless it is restricted from being exchanged or used to settle a
liability for at least 12 months after the end of the reporting period.
All other assets, including tangible, intangible and financial assets of a long-term nature, are
classified as non-current assets.
The operating cycle of an entity is the average time that elapses from the acquisition of raw
material or inventories until it has been sold and converted into cash. The operating cycle of
a manufacturer of clothing will possibly be one season (three months), while that of a trader
in groceries will probably be one month. If the operating cycle cannot be determined reliably,
it is assumed to be 12 months.
Example 2.3: Operating cycle

Months
1 2 3 4 5
Inventories Inventories sold Debtor

purchased on credit payment
Operating cycle
A liability is classified as current liabilities if it satisfies the following criteria (IAS 1.69):
it is expected to be settled in the entity’s normal operating cycle;
it is held primarily for the purpose of being traded;
it is due to be settled within 12 months after the end of the reporting period; or
the entity does not have the right to defer settlement of the liability for at least 12 months
after the end of the reporting period.
An entity’s right to defer settlement of a liability for at least 12 months after the reporting
period must have substance and exist at the end of the reporting period. If the right to defer
settlement is subject to the entity complying with specified conditions, the right exists only if
the entity complies with those conditions at the end of the reporting period (IAS 1.72A).
All other liabilities are classified as non-current liabilities.
Certain liabilities, such as trade payables, are part of the working capital of the entity and
are classified as current liabilities, even if they are settled more than 12 months after the
end of the reporting period (IAS 1.70). Other current liabilities are not settled as part of the
normal operating cycle, but are due for setlement within 12 months after the reporting
period or held primarily for the purpose of trading and include financial liabilities held for
trading, bank overdrafts, dividends payable, income taxes and the current portion of non-
current financial liabilities (IAS 1.71).
Note that the same normal operating cycle applies to the classification of an entity’s assets
and liabilities. When the entity’s normal operating cycle is not clearly identifiable, its
duration is assumed to be 12 months.
An entity classifies its financial liabilities as current when they are due to be settled
within 12 months after the end of the reporting period, even if:
the original repayment term was for a period longer than 12 months; and
an agreement to refinance, or to reschedule, payments on a long-term basis, is
completed after the end of the reporting period and before the financial statements are
authorised for issue (IAS 1.72).
If an entity has the right to refinance or roll-over an obligation for at least 12 months after the
reporting period under an existing loan facility, it classifies the obligation as non-current,
even if it would otherwise be due within a shorter period. However, if the entity has no such
right, the potential to refinance is not considered and the obligation is classified as current
(IAS 1.73).
If an entity breaches a condition of a long-term loan agreement on or before the
end of the reporting period, with the effect that the liability becomes payable on demand,
the liability is classified as a current liability. This applies even if the lender has agreed,
after the reporting period and before the authorisation of the financial statements for
issue, not to demand payment as a result of the breach. The liability is classified as a
current liability because, at the end of the reporting period, the entity does not have the
right to defer its settlement for at least 12 months after the reporting date (IAS 1.74).
However, the liability is classified as a non-current liability if the lender agreed by the end
of the reporting period to provide a period of grace, ending at least 12 months after the
end of the reporting period, within which the entity can rectify the breach and during which
the lender cannot demand immediate repayment (IAS 1.75).
The classification of the liability is not affected by the likelihood that the entity will exercise
its right to defer settlement of the liability. If a liability meets the criteria for classification as
non-current, it is classified as non-current even if management intends or expects the entity
to settle the liability within 12 months after the reporting period, or even if the liability was
settled between the reporting period and the date the financial statements were authorised
for issue. In both circumstances, the entity needs to disclose information about the timing of
settlement of the liability (IAS 1.75A).
The determining factor for classification of liabilities as current or non-current is whether
the conditions existed at end of the reporting period. Information that becomes available
after the reporting period is not adjusted, but may qualify for disclosure in the notes, in
accordance with IAS 10 Events after the Reporting Period.
Settlement, for the purpose of classifying a liability a current of non-current, refers to a
transfer to another party that results in the extinguishment of the liability. The transfer
could be of cash, other economic resources (for example goods or services) or the entity’s
own equity instruments (except an equity component of a compound financial instrument)
(IAS 1.76A-B).
The following diagram gives an indication of the classification of liabilities in circumstances
where a long-term refinancing agreement has been concluded or is being contemplated:
Current liability
Concluded after Concluded before

the end of the the end of the
reporting period reporting period
Long-term
refinancing
agreement?
Expected
Reclassify as
NO YES non-current
Current Entity has
the right? liability
liability
If, for loans classified as current liabilities, the following events occur between the end of the
reporting period and the date the financial statements are authorised for issue, those events
qualify for disclosure as non-adjusting events in accordance with IAS 10, Events after the
Reporting Period:
refinancing on a long-term basis;
rectification of a breach of a long-term loan agreement; or
the receipt from the lender of a period of grace to rectify a breach of a long-term loan
agreement ending at least 12 months after the end of the reporting period (IAS 1.76).
6.2.2 Items presented in the statement of financial position

The statement of financial position shall include line items that present the following
amounts:
property, plant and equipment;
investment property;
intangible assets;
financial assets (excluding investments accounted for using the equity method, trade
and other receivables and cash and cash equivalents);
investments accounted for using the equity method;
biological assets;
inventories;
trade and other receivables;
cash and cash equivalents;
total assets classified as held for sale and assets included in disposal groups in
accordance with IFRS 5, Non-current Assets Held for Sale and Discontinued Operations;
trade and other payables;
liabilities and assets for current tax;
deferred tax liabilities and deferred tax assets;
provisions;
financial liabilities (excluding trade and other payables and provisions);
liabilities included in disposal groups classified as held for sale in accordance with
IFRS 5;
issued capital and reserves attributable to the owners of the parent; and
non-controlling interests, presented within equity.
Additional line items, headings and subtotals should also be presented on the face of the
statement of financial position when such presentation is relevant to an understanding of
the entity’s financial position.
When an entity presents current and non-current assets, and current and non-current
liabilities as separate classifications on the face of its statement of financial position, it
should not classify deferred tax assets (liabilities) as current assets (liabilities) (IAS 1.56).
Line items are included if the size, nature or function of an item or the composition of
similar items is such that separate disclosure is appropriate to the understanding of the
financial position of the entity. The descriptions and order of the items or aggregation of
separate items are adapted in accordance with the nature of the entity and its transactions.
For example, a financial institution will provide information that is relevant to its operations.
The following criteria are applied in deciding whether an item should be disclosed
separately:
the nature and liquidity of the assets, leading to a distinction between, for example,
long-term assets and liabilities; tangible and intangible assets; monetary and
non-monetary items, and current assets and liabilities;
the function of the relevant items, leading to a distinction between, for example,
operating assets and financial assets; and
the amount, nature and settlement date of liabilities, leading to a distinction between,
for example, long-term liabilities and trade creditors and provisions.
6.2.3 Items presented in the statement of financial position or in the notes

Sub-classifications of items presented (see above), appropriately classified based on
requirements of IFRSs and on the size, nature and function of the amounts are provided in
either the statement of financial position or in the notes, for example:
items of property, plant and equipment are disaggregated into classes;
receivables are disaggregated into amounts receivable from trade customers, receivables
from related parties, prepayments and other amounts;
inventories are disaggregated into classifications such as merchandise, production
supplies, materials, work in progress and finished goods;
provisions are disaggregated into provisions for employee benefits and other items; and
equity capital and reserves are disaggregated into various classes such as paid-in capital,
share premium and reserves.
For share capital, the following are disclosed for each class, either in the statement of
financial position or in the statement of changes in equity or in the notes (IAS 1.79):
the number of shares authorised;
the number of shares issued and fully paid;
the number of shares issued but not fully paid;
the par value per share, or that the shares have no par value;
a reconciliation of the number of shares outstanding at both the beginning and the end
of the period;
the rights, preferences and restrictions applicable to each category, including restrictions
on the distribution of dividends and the repayment of capital;
the shares in the entity held by the entity or its subsidiaries or associates; and
the shares reserved for issuance under options and sales contracts, including the terms
and amounts thereof.
Furthermore, a description of the nature and purpose of each reserve that forms part of
equity are disclosed either in the statement of financial position or in the statement of
changes in equity or in the notes. Entities without share capital, for example partnerships
and trusts, should disclose, to the extent applicable, information equivalent to the above.
Movements during the accounting period in each category of equity interest and the rights,
preferences and restrictions attached to each category of equity interest should be duly
disclosed.
Example 2.4: Presentation of the statement of financial position

The following is the trial balance of Ngwenya Ltd, a company with a 31 December year-end.
The information will be used to prepare a statement of financial position.
Ngwenya Ltd
Trial balance on 31 December 20.23
Dr Cr
R R
Advertising costs 29 600
Delivery costs 44 200
Income tax expense 687 190
Profit on expropriation of land 400 000
Dividends paid 160 000
Dividends received 14 000
Rental received 6 000
Cost of sales 2 093 200
Interest paid 78 600
Salaries 356 000
Administrative personnel 187 600
Sales agents 168 400
Stationery 22 000
Sales 4 022 400
Depreciation 69 800
Delivery vehicles 53 400
Office buildings 16 400
Bank 1 313 610
Debtors 90 000
Property, plant and equipment 713 600
Retained earnings (1.1.20.23) 600 000
Creditors 61 000
Current portion of long-term borrowings 40 000
Long-term borrowings 404 000
Revaluation surplus (ignore the tax effect) (20.22: Rnil) 50 000
Issued ordinary share capital 150 000
Preference share capital 100 000
Inventories (20.22 – R160 400) 189 600
Raw materials (20.22 – R43 000) 46 000
Consumables (20.22 – R8 400) 10 000
Work-in-progress (20.22 – R57 800) 71 200
Finished goods (20.22 – R51 200) 62 400
5 847 400 5 847 400

Example 2.4: Presentation of the statement of financial position (continued)

Ngwenya Ltd
Assets R
Non-current assets
713 600
Current assets
Inventories 189 600
Trade receivables 90 000
Cash and cash equivalents 1 313 610
1 593 210
Total assets 2 306 810
Equity and liabilities
Share capital (150 000 + 100 000) 250 000
Retained earnings (600 000 (opening balance) + 1 061 810 (refer to
Example 2.5 for the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive
income ) – 160 000 (dividends paid)) 1 501 810
Other components of equity (Revaluation surplus) 50 000
Total equity 1 801 810
Non-current liabilities
404 000
Current liabilities
Trade payables 61 000
Current portion of long-term borrowings 40 000
101 000
Total liabilities 505 000
Total equity and liabilities 2 306 810
6.3 Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income

All income and expense items recognised in a period should be presented in either a single
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income or in two separate statements,
where one statement displays the items of profit or loss (statement of profit or loss) and the
other displays the items of other comprehensive income together with the total profit or loss
as an opening amount.
The statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income therefore consists of the
following two sections:
profit or loss for the year; and
other comprehensive income for the year.
In addition to the above, the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
should also present:
profit or loss;
total other comprehensive income; and
comprehensive income for the period, being the total of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income.
On the face of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income (or on the
statement of profit or loss) profit or loss for the year should be allocated as follows:
attributable to owners of the parent; and
attributable to non-controlling interests.
On the face of the statement presenting comprehensive income total comprehensive
income for the year should be allocated as follows:
attributable to owners of the parent; and
attributable to non-controlling interests.
All income and expense items are recognised in profit or loss for a specific accounting
period, unless a Standard requires or permits otherwise. This implies that the effect of
changes in accounting estimates is also included in the determination of profit or loss.
Only in a limited number of circumstances may particular items be excluded from profit or
loss for the period: these circumstances include the correction of errors and the effect of
changes in accounting policies in terms of IAS 8, Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting
Estimates and Errors (IAS 8.14 to .31 and .41 to .48).
There are a number of items (including reclassification adjustments) that meet the
Conceptual Framework’s definitions of income or expense but are excluded from the
determination of profit or loss and are presented separately as items of other
comprehensive income. Examples of items of other comprehensive income include the
following:
revaluation surpluses and deficits against existing revaluation surpluses;
remeasurements of defined benefit plans;
gains and losses arising from the translation of the financial statements of a foreign entity;
gains or losses on remeasuring equity instruments classified as financial assets at fair
value through other comprehensive income;
gains and losses on cash flow hedges;
changes in credit risk based on changes in fair value for liabilities held at fair value
through profit or loss; and
share of other comprehensive income of associates or joint ventures.
The profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
may be presented in two ways: either by classifying income and expenditure in terms of the
functions that give rise to them or by classifying income and expenditure in terms of their
nature (IAS 1.99). Note that expenses are sub-classified in terms of frequency, potential
for gain or loss and predictability.
When income and expenditure are classified in terms of the functions that give rise to
them, additional information of the nature of the expenditure should be provided in the
notes to the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income, including
depreciation;
amortisation; and
employee benefit expense.
The reason why the above additional disclosure is required in the case of a presentation of
income and expenditure in terms of their function is that the nature of expenses is useful in
predicting future cash flows. The method selected should be the one most suitable to the
entity, depends on historical and industry factors, and should be consistently applied.
6.3.1 Information to be presented in the profit or loss section or the statement of profit
or loss
In addition to items required by other IFRSs, the profit or loss section or the statement of
profit or loss should include the following line items (IAS 1.82):
revenue;
gains and losses arising from the derecognition of financial assets measured at
amortised cost;
finance cost;
impairment losses (including reversals) determined in accordance with section 5.5 of
IFRS 9, Financial Instruments;
share of the profit or loss of associates and joint ventures accounted for using the equity
method;
when a financial asset is reclassified out of the amortised cost measurement category so
that it is measured at fair value through profit or loss, any gain or loss arising from a
difference between the previous carrying amount and its fair value at the reclassification
date;
when a financial asset is reclassified out of the fair value through other comprehensive
income measurement category so that it is measured at fair value through profit or loss,
any cumulative gain or loss previously recognised in other comprehensive income that is
reclassified to profit or loss;
a single amount for the total of discontinued operations (see IFRS 5, Non-current Assets
Held for Sale and Discontinued Operations); and
income tax expense.
Additional line items, headings and subtotals should be added where it is required by a
Standard or where it is in the interest of fair presentation, for example in the case of a
material item or when such presentation is relevant to an understanding of the entity’s
financial performance. Factors considered include materiality and the nature of the
components of income and expenses. Descriptions are adapted to suit the activities of the
reporting entity. It is important to note that the notion of extraordinary items has been
abandoned and no disclosure whatsoever of such an item is allowed.
6.3.2 Information to be presented in the other comprehensive income section

The other comprehensive section shall present line items for all other comprehensive
income items, classified by nature, grouped into the following categories, in accordance with
other IFRSs:
items that will not subsequently be reclassified to profit or loss; and
items that will subsequently be reclassified to profit or loss when specific conditions are
met.
The abovementioned information will be presented separately for the share of the other
comprehensive income of associates and joint ventures accounted for using the equity
method.
An entity shall also disclose the amount of income tax relating to each item of other
comprehensive income, including reclassification adjustments, in the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income or in the notes.
Each item of other comprehensive income is shown:
net of the related tax effects; or
before the related tax effect with a separate line item for the aggregate amount of
income tax relating to those items.
When an entity presents an amount showing the aggregate tax amount, this tax amount
should also be grouped into items that will not subsequently be reclassified to profit or loss
and those that will subsequently be reclassified to profit or loss.
Reclassification adjustments are amounts that are reclassified to profit or loss in the
current period that were previously recognised in other comprehensive income (in the
current or previous periods). These adjustments may be presented in the statement of
profit or loss and other comprehensive income or in the notes. When presented in the
notes, the items of other comprehensive income are presented after any related
reclassification adjustments.
6.3.3 Information to be presented in the statement(s) of profit or loss and other

comprehensive income or in the notes
Items of such material size, nature or incidence that the users of financial statements
should be specifically referred to them to ensure that they are able to assess the
performance of the entity should be disclosed separately. The following are examples of
items that will probably require specific separate disclosure in particular circumstances
(IAS 1.98):
the write-down of inventories to net realisable value (or of property, plant and
equipment to the recoverable amount) as well as the reversal of such write-downs;
the restructuring of the activities of an entity, and the reversal of any provisions for the
cost of restructuring;
the disposal of property, plant and equipment;
the disposal of investments;
discontinued operations;
the settlement of litigation; and
other reversals of provisions.
Example 2.5: Presentation of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive
income
The following is an example of the presentation of a single statement of profit or loss and
other comprehensive income in which income and expenditure are presented in terms of
their function (“cost of sales” method) using the trial balance given in Example 2.4:
Ngwenya Ltd
Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the year ended
31 December 20.23
R
Revenue 4 022 400
Cost of sales (2 093 200)
Gross profit 1 929 200
Other income (400 000 + 14 000 + 6 000) 420 000
Distribution costs (168 400 + 53 400 + 44 200 + 29 600) (295 600)
Administrative expenses (187 600 + 16 400 + 22 000) (226 000)
Other expenses –
Finance costs (78 600)
Profit before tax 1 749 000
Income tax expense (687 190)
Profit for the year 1 061 810
Example 2.5: Presentation of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive
income (continued)
R
Other comprehensive income:
Items that will not be reclassified to profit or loss:
Revaluation surplus 50 000
Income tax relating to items that will not be reclassified –
Other comprehensive income for the year, net of tax 50 000
Total comprehensive income for the year 1 111 810
The following is an example of the presentation of a single statement of profit or loss and
other comprehensive income in which income and expenditure are presented according to
their nature:
Ngwenya Ltd
31 December 20.23
R
Revenue 4 022 400
Other income (400 000 + 14 000 + 6 000) 420 000
Changes in inventories of finished goods and work in progress
(57 800 + 51 200 – 71 200 – 62 400) 24 600 *
Raw materials and consumables used
(43 000 + 8 400 – 46 000 – 10 000 + 2 093 200 – 160 400 + 189 600) or (2 117 800)
(2 093 200 + 24 600*)
Employee benefits expense (356 000)
Depreciation (69 800)
Other expenses (29 600 + 44 200 + 22 000) (95 800)
Finance costs (78 600)
Income tax expense (687 190)
Items that will not be reclassified to profit or loss:
Income tax relating to items that will not be reclassified –
Other comprehensive income for the year, net of tax 50 000
6.4 Statement of changes in equity

A statement of changes in equity forms part of the financial statements. Essentially, what is
required is a reconciliation of equity at the beginning of the reporting period with equity
at the end of the reporting period.
6.4.1 Information to be presented in the statement of changes in equity

The statement should include the following:
total comprehensive income for the period, showing separately the total amounts
attributable to owners of the parent and to non-controlling interests;
the effect of retrospective application or restatement as a result of changes in

accounting policy or the correction of errors for each component of equity (refer to
IAS 8, Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors); and
for each component of equity, a reconciliation between the carrying amount at the
beginning and the end of the period, separately disclosing movements resulting from:
– profit or loss;
– other comprehensive income; and
– transactions with owners in their capacity as owners, showing contributions by and
distributions to owners separately, and including the following:
• issue of shares;
• buy back of shares;
• dividends paid; and
• transfers between reserves.
6.4.2 Information to be presented in the statement of changes in equity or in the notes

An entity shall present:
an analysis of each item of other comprehensive income;
dividends paid for the period; and
dividends per share (IAS 1.106A and 107).
Example 2.6: Presentation of statement of changes in equity

The following information relates to Tiger Ltd for the year ended 31 December 20.23:
1. The balances of the capital accounts and reserves of Tiger Ltd on 31 December 20.22 were
as follows:
R
Ordinary share capital (1 550 000 shares) 2 350 000
Redeemable preference share capital (200 000 shares) 200 000
Revaluation surplus –
Retained earnings 1 200 000
2. On 1 January 20.23 Tiger Ltd’s property was revalued upwards by R50 000.
3. On 31 March 20.23 100 000 ordinary shares were issued at R1,20 each.
4. On 30 June 20.23 the total preference share capital was redeemed. Shares were not
issued to fund this redemption.
5. On 15 July 20.23 a material error amounting to R32 000 (net amount) relating to the year
ended 31 December 20.22 was discovered. This error was corrected during 20.23
(increase in net profit), by restating the 20.22 amounts.
6. Profit for the year amounted to R92 000. Dividends amounting to R35 000 were declared
and paid by Tiger Ltd on 31 December 20.23. It is the accounting policy of Tiger Ltd to
present dividend per share in the statement of changes in equity.
7. The revaluation surplus is realised through the use of the asset. The revaluation resulted
in an increase in the annual depreciation charge of R5 000.
Example 2.6: Presentation of statement of changes in equity (continued)

Tiger Ltd
Statement of changes in equity for the year ended 31 December 20.23
Share Revaluation Retained
capital surplus earnings Total
R’000 R’000 R’000 R’000
Balance at 31 December 20.22 2 550 – 1 200 3 750
Correction of error – – 32 32
Restated balance 2 550 – 1 232 3 782
Changes in equity for 20.23
Total comprehensive income – 50 92 142
Profit for the year – – 92 92
Other comprehensive income – 50 – 50
Dividends – – (35) (35)
Issue of ordinary share capital 120 – – 120
Redemption of preference shares (200) – – (200)
Realisation of revaluation surplus to
retained earnings – (5) 5 –
Balance at 31 December 20.23 2 470 45 1 294 3 809
20.23
R
Dividend per share (35 000/1 650 000) 0,02
(2,12 cent)
6.5 Notes
The notes to the financial statements provide additional information on items that
appear in the financial statements in order to ensure fair presentation. The notes are
presented systematically with cross-references to the financial statements. The following is
the usual sequence in which the notes are presented:
a statement that the financial statements comply with International Financial Reporting
Standards;
a statement in which the basis of preparation and accounting policies are set out;
supporting information on items that appear in the statement of financial position,
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income, statement of changes in
equity or statement of cash flows;
additional information on items that do not appear in the statement of financial
position, statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income, statement of
changes in equity or statement of cash flows; and
other disclosures, such as contingencies, commitments and disclosures of a financial and
a non-financial nature, for example, financial risk management target.
The sequence may vary according to circumstances. In some cases, for instance, the notes
on accounting policies are presented as a separate component of financial statements.
6.5.1 Accounting policies

The notes on accounting policy should disclose the following:
the measurement basis used in the compilation of the financial statements, for
example historical cost, current cost, net realisable value, fair value, and recoverable
amount. Where more than one measurement basis is used, for instance when particular
classes of assets are revalued, an indication of only the categories of assets and liabilities to
which each measurement basis applies, is given; and
each specific accounting policy matter that is relevant to an understanding of the
financial statements. Management has to decide whether disclosure of a particular
accounting policy would assist users in understanding how transactions, other events
and conditions are reflected. Disclosure of accounting policies is especially important
where the Standards allow alternative accounting treatments, for example whether an
entity applies the cost model or the fair value model of IAS 40, Investment Property, to
its investment property.
Accounting policies relating to at least the following, but not limited thereto, should be
disclosed:
revenue recognition;
consolidation principles;
application of the equity method of accounting for investments in associates or joint
ventures;
business combinations;
joint arrangements;
recognition and depreciation/amortisation of tangible and intangible assets;
capitalisation of borrowing costs and other expenditure;
construction contracts;
investment properties;
financial instruments and investments;
leases;
inventories;
taxes, including deferred taxes;
provisions;
employee benefit costs;
foreign currency entities and transactions;
definition of business and geographical segments and the basis for the allocation of
costs between segments;
government grants; and
definition of cash and cash equivalents.
Each entity is expected to disclose the accounting policies that are applicable to it, even if
the amounts shown for current and prior periods are not material – the accounting policy
may still be significant. For example, an entity that is subject to income taxes would disclose
the accounting policies on income taxes, including those pertaining to deferred taxes and
tax assets. Accounting policies relevant to foreign exchange are disclosed in the case of an
entity with offshore transactions, and when a business combination has occurred, the
policies on goodwill and non-controlling interests are disclosed.
In its choice of appropriate accounting policy, the management of an entity often makes
judgements when formulating a particular policy, for instance when determining whether
financial assets should be classified as at amortised cost or not. In order to enable the users
of financial statements to better understand the accounting policies and to be able to make
comparisons between entities, those judgements that have the most significant effect on
the amounts of items recognised in the financial statements are disclosed in the summary of
significant accounting policies (when accounting policies are disclosed in a separate
summary) or in the notes to the financial statements (IAS 1.122). Some of these
judgements are required disclosures in terms of other Standards.
6.5.2 Sources of estimation uncertainty
In the determination of the carrying amounts of certain assets and liabilities, it is

often necessary for management to estimate the effects of uncertain future events.
Management has to make certain assumptions about these uncertain future events in order
to be able to determine the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities that are influenced by
such events.
The following are examples of items that are influenced by such uncertain future events
that management are called upon to assess:
the absence of recent market prices in thinly traded markets used to measure certain
assets;
the recoverable amount of property, plant and equipment;
the rate of technological obsolescence of inventories;
provisions subject to the effects of future litigation or legislation; and
long-term employee-benefit liabilities, such as pension obligations.
Factors that should be taken into account in making the judgement on the carrying amounts
of these items include assumptions about future interest rates, future changes in salaries,
the expected rate of inflation and discount rates. Disclosure of estimations is, however, not
required if assets and liabilities are measured at fair value based on a quoted price in an active
market for an identical asset or liability. It is also not necessary to disclose information on
budgets and forecasts.
In order to enhance the relevance, reliability and understandability of the information
reported in the financial statements, entities are required to disclose (IAS 1.125 and .129):
information regarding key assumptions about the future (such as interest rates, future
changes in salaries and the expected rate of inflation); and
other sources of measurement uncertainty at the end of the reporting period that
have a significant risk of causing a material adjustment to the carrying amounts of
assets and liabilities within the next reporting period. In respect of such assets and
liabilities, details should be disclosed about:
– the nature of the asset or liability;
– the nature of the assumption or estimation uncertainty; and
– their carrying amounts as at the end of the reporting period, for example:
• the sensitivity of carrying amounts to the methods, assumptions and estimates
underlying their calculation, including the reasons for the sensitivity;
• the expected resolution of an uncertainty and the range of reasonably possible
outcomes within the next reporting period in respect of the carrying amounts of the
assets and liabilities affected; and
• an explanation of changes made to past assumptions concerning those assets and
liabilities, if the uncertainty remains unresolved;
when it is impracticable to disclose the effects of key assumptions or other sources
of measurement uncertainty, the entity discloses:
– the nature and carrying amount of the asset or liability affected; and
– a statement that it is reasonably possible, based on existing knowledge, that changes
in conditions within the next reporting period may require a material adjustment to
the carrying amount of the asset or liability affected.
In certain IFRSs, disclosures of estimates are already required, for example, the major
assumptions about future events which affect classes of provisions (IAS 37, Provisions,
Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets) and the disclosure of significant assumptions
when measuring the fair values of assets and liabilities that are carried at fair value
(IFRS 13, Fair Value Measurement).
Note that IAS 1 defines impracticability as instances when the entity cannot apply a
requirement after making every reasonable effort to do so. Note further that key sources of
estimate uncertainty should not be confused with the judgements of management made in
the process of selecting an accounting policy (which is disclosed in terms of paragraph 122).
Example 2.7: Disclosure of key sources of estimation uncertainty

Zero Ltd guarantees its clients that it will exchange any electrical appliance sold by it for
cash within a year of purchase, should the appliance become faulty within that period. The
company makes provision for returns and refunds in its financial statements, i.e. a liability is
created for the expected amount of the refunds.
The key assumption in this case is that a certain volume of the appliances sold will indeed
become faulty within a year of sale and will therefore be returned by the customers for the
cash refund. The measurement uncertainty at the date of the statement of financial position
is: what would the amount of the refunds be? A possible solution to this measurement
problem may be to express the amount of refunds paid in the last reporting period as a
percentage of sales in the previous year. If this calculation is performed for a number of prior
years and the percentage remains relatively stable, the company is reasonably certain that
by providing this percentage of last year’s sales, some of the measurement uncertainty is
removed.
The following will be disclosed in the notes to the financial statements:
“The company guarantees that it will refund the original selling price to a customer
within one year of purchase of any electrical appliance, should it become faulty within
that year. Based on experience during the last 10 years, 1% of sales during a previous
year is normally returned for refund. A liability of 1% of sales has therefore been
created for such occurrences. This assumption has been made for the past 10 years.
There has been no significant deviation from this percentage over that period.”
6.5.3 Capital disclosure

The purpose of the capital disclosure is to enable users to assess the objectives, policies and
processes of the entity relating to the management of its capital (IAS 1.134). The following
should be disclosed:
The entity discloses qualitative information on:
– how it manages its capital;
– any external capital requirements (such as regulatory or legislative requirements);
and
– a performance assessment on the meeting of its objectives.
The quantitative information disclosed includes:
– the level of capital;
– the definition applied to capital;
– changes during the previous period; and
– the extent of compliance to externally imposed capital requirements.
Note that IAS 1 does not specifically require quantification of externally-imposed capital
requirements. The disclosure focuses instead on the extent of compliance to such
externally-imposed requirements. If an entity does not comply with such requirements, the
consequences of non-compliance should be disclosed. This assists users to evaluate the risk
of breaches of capital requirements.
Although some industries may also have specific capital requirements, IAS 1 does not
require disclosure of such requirements because of the different practices among industries
that will affect the comparability of the information. Similarly, an entity may have internally
imposed capital requirements. IAS 1 also does not require disclosure of such capital targets,
or the extent or consequences of any non-compliance.
6.5.4 Dividends
In accordance with IAS 1.107, the entity must disclose the amount of dividends
recognised as distributions to equity holders, as well as the dividends per share, in the
statement of changes in equity or in the notes to the financial statements.
In addition, IAS 1.137 requires that the entity should disclose the amount of dividends
proposed or declared before the financial statements are authorised for issue but after the
end of the reporting period, and the related dividend per share, in the notes to the financial
statements. In terms of the definition of a liability in the Conceptual Framework, a dividend
declared after the end of the reporting period may not be recognised as a liability, because
no current obligation exists at the end of the reporting period, yet such declaration provides
useful information to users and should therefore be disclosed.
The entity should also disclose any cumulative preference dividends that may be in
arrears and have therefore not been recognised in the financial statements.
6.5.5 Other disclosures

The following additional information should be provided, unless it is already contained in the
information that is published with the financial statements:
the domicile of the entity;
the legal form of the entity;
the country of incorporation;
the address of the registered office (or principal place of business, if it is different from
the registered office);
a description of the nature of the entity’s operations and its principal activities;
the name of the parent and the ultimate parent entity of the group;
if it is a limited life entity, details regarding length of its life;
the fact that the financial statements comply with IFRS, but only if they comply with all
the requirements of each applicable Standard and Interpretation;
when the provisions of a Standard are applied before its effective date, that fact should
be disclosed;
when management is aware of material uncertainties that may cast doubt on the entity’s
ability to continue as a going concern, those uncertainties should be disclosed;
when the financial statements are not prepared on a going concern basis, that fact
should be disclosed, stating also the basis on which the financial statements are
prepared and the reasons why the entity is not considered to be a going concern; and
when it is impracticable to reclassify comparative amounts in accordance with a change
in presentation in the current year, the reason for not reclassifying and the nature of the
changes that would have been made if amounts were reclassified, should be disclosed.
7 Short and sweet
The purpose of IAS 1 is to outline the structure, content and general considerations
applicable to the preparation of general purpose financial statements, and also to discuss
certain underlying concepts.
IAS 1 is applicable to general purpose financial statements.
The objective of financial statements is to provide information about the financial position,
performance and cash flows of an entity.
This information is presented in the statement of financial position, statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income, statement of changes in equity, statement of cash
flows and the notes.
The following general features of the presentation of financial statements are identified in
IAS 1:
– fair presentation and compliance with IFRSs;
– going concern;
– accrual basis of accounting;
– materiality and aggregation;
– offsetting;
– frequency of reporting;
– comparative information; and
– consistency of presentation.
IAS 1, along with other Standards, identifies specific items that must be presented in the
A distinction must be made in the statement of financial position between those items that
are current and those that are non-current.
A distinction is made between those items included in the profit or loss section and those
items included in the other comprehensive income section of the statement of profit or loss
and other comprehensive income.
An entity’s accounting policies must be disclosed along with any key assumptions made
when determining the carrying amount of certain items in the financial statements.
3
Inventories
IAS 2
Contents
3 Background................................................................................................... 57
4 Nature of inventories ..................................................................................... 57
5 Measurement of inventories ........................................................................... 58
6 Cost of inventories......................................................................................... 58
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 58
6.2 Allocation of overhead costs ................................................................. 63
6.3 General ledger accounts ....................................................................... 67
7 Application of cost allocation techniques and cost formulas............................... 69
7.1 Standard cost ...................................................................................... 69
7.2 Retail method...................................................................................... 69
7.3 Cost formulas ...................................................................................... 70
8 Determining net realisable value ..................................................................... 73
9 Lower of cost and net realisable value............................................................. 74
9.1 General rule ........................................................................................ 74
9.2 Firm sales contracts ............................................................................. 76
9.3 Exceptions .......................................................................................... 77
10 Recognition of expense .................................................................................. 78
11 Disclosure ..................................................................................................... 79
12 Short and sweet ............................................................................................ 82
Know and apply the definitions.
Calculate historical cost.
Apply the various cost formulas to measure the cost of inventories.
Calculate the net realisable value of inventories.
Present and disclose inventories in the annual financial statements.
55
INVENTORIES
SCOPE
Include: Exclude:
held for sale in the ordinary course of financial instruments
business biological assets to point of harvest
in the process of production for such sales Partially exclude:
consumables to be used in the production mineral and mineral products
of goods and services for sale commodity brokers
producers of agricultural and forest
products after harvest
Measure at lower of cost and net realisable value

(Note the exclusions as well as the fact that certain inventories are disclosed
at fair value less costs to sell rather than at net realisable value.)
Cost Net realisable value

Cost by using either (The estimated selling price in the
FIFO; ordinary course of business less costs of
Weighted average; completion and less costs necessary to
Specific identification, only where make the sale.)
goods have been manufactured for Based on reliable evidence of
specific purposes and are normally expected realisation values available
not interchangeable; at the time of making the estimates.
or Write-down by item or by group of
Standard costs; similar items; applied consistently.
Retail method, only if the results Where inventories are being kept in
approximate of the lower of costs and terms of a firm sales contract, still to
NRV. be delivered, NRV based on
contracted price.
In the case of raw materials, no write-
down to NRV from cost takes place if
the raw materials form part of finished
goods that are expected to realise
their cost or more.
Costs of purchasing Conversion costs Other costs

Cost price; Variable production To bring the
Import duties and other overheads; inventories to their
taxes; Fixed production present location and
Any other directly overheads allocated condition.
attributable costs of based on normal Expenses incurred in
acquisition less rebates, capacity of production respect of the design
discounts and subsidies on facilities; of a specific product
purchases. Excludes abnormal for a particular
spillage. customer
Normally excluding
selling administrative
expenses, and
sometimes storage,
and interest related
expenses.
Inventories 57
3 Background
Inventories represent a material portion of the assets of numerous entities. The
measurement, as well as the disclosure of inventories, can have a significant impact on
determining and presenting the financial position and results of operations of entities.
The objective of IAS 2 is to prescribe:

how the cost of inventories is determined; and
which useful and understandable information is provided in the financial statements.
IAS 2 does not apply to the following categories of inventories:

agricultural produce at the point of harvest, and biological assets related to agricultural
activity (refer to IAS 41); and
financial instruments (refer to IAS 32, IFRS 9 and IFRS 7).
IAS 2 applies only partially to certain inventories, as the measurement requirements do
not apply to:
Producers of agricultural and forest products, agricultural produce after harvest, and
minerals and mineral products. These inventories are measured at net realisable value in
accordance with well-established practices in those industries. When such inventories
are measured at net realisable value, changes in that value are recognised in profit or
loss in the period of the change.
Commodity broker-traders who measure their inventories at fair value less costs to sell.
With such inventories, changes in fair value less costs to sell are recognised in profit or
loss in the period of the change.
Note the difference between net realisable value and fair value less costs to sell:
Net realisable value is an entity-specific amount realised from the sale of inventories in the
ordinary course of business by that entity.
Fair value less costs to sell is not entity specific. Fair value reflects the price that would be
received to sell the same inventories in an orderly transaction between market participants
(IFRS 13.9).
4 Nature of inventories
Inventories include all assets, both tangible (have physical substance) and intangible
(have no physical substance), that:
are held for sale in the ordinary course of business, for example fuel at a petrol station and
sweets sold by a café.
are in the process of production for such sale, for example a furniture manufacturer’s partly
completed piece of furniture (work in progress); and
are consumed during the production of saleable goods or services, for example materials
such as rivets used during the manufacture of a bus, or supplies such as shampoo used in a
hair salon.
The decision whether a certain item is classified as inventories or not, relates to its
purpose to the entity.
Example 3.1: Classification based on purpose

Take for example a motor vehicle. Should the entity be a motor vehicle dealer where the
motor vehicle is used by the financial manager for travelling purposes, the vehicle would be
classified as an item of property, plant and equipment. If the motor vehicle is placed in the
showroom, so that it can be sold to the public, then it is classified as inventories. From this,
it is evident that neither the item itself nor the kind of entity in which it is being utilised
determines whether it should be classified as inventories or not; instead, the determining
factors are the above-mentioned criteria, referred to in IAS 2.6.
5 Measurement of inventories
Inventories are measured at the lower of cost and net realisable value (IAS 2.9).
The measurement of inventories for financial reporting entails the following steps:
determining of the cost;
applying a cost allocation technique to measure the cost of inventories;
determining the net realisable value; and
recording the lower of cost and net realisable value in the financial statements.
Each of these aspects is now discussed.
6 Cost of inventories
6.1 Introduction
The historical cost of inventories includes:

purchasing costs;
conversion costs; and
other costs incurred in bringing inventories to their present location and condition.
The cost of inventories excludes:

abnormal spillage of raw materials, labour and other production costs during the
production process in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition*;
fixed production overhead costs that are not allocated to production on the grounds that
normal capacity (instead of actual capacity) was used as the basis of allocation. The
portion not allocated is written off as an expense*;
storage costs, unless such costs are necessary in the production process prior to a
further production stage;
administrative expenses not related to the location and condition of the inventories; and
selling expenses (IAS 2.16).
* Note that while these items are excluded from measuring the cost of inventories, they
are included in cost of sales.
Inventories 59
It is important to emphasise that IAS 2 relates directly to inventories and indirectly to

cost of sales. This is reflected in the standard’s name, i.e. “Inventories”, and not “Cost of
sales”. Therefore, although abnormal spillage and under- or over-allocated fixed overheads
are excluded from the closing inventories, they are included in cost of sales (refer to
Examples 3.2 and 3.4).
Example 3.2: Cost of inventories and cost of sales

Bakker Ltd purchased wooden planks for R100. An employee, who is paid an hourly wage of
R20, normally takes one hour to make a desk from the wood. A particular employee was,
however, engaged in a strike in an attempt to secure higher wages, and took four hours to
manufacture a desk (he was therefore involved in the strike for the equivalent of three
hours). In the manufacturing process, the employee used 40 nails costing a total of R5.
The cost of inventories is calculated as follows: R
Wooden planks 100 (purchasing costs)
Wages (normal capacity – 1 hour) 20 (conversion costs)
Nails 5 (conversion costs)
Cost of inventory manufactured 125
The additional R60 (R20 × 3 hours) wages paid to the employee is abnormal, and is
excluded from the cost of inventories.
When the inventories are sold, the cost of the above inventories will be transferred to cost of
sales. The cost of sales would then be calculated as follows:
R
Cost of inventories transferred (sold) 125
Abnormal spillage expense (wages – 3 hour) 60
Cost of sales (in statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income) 185
6.1.1 Purchasing costs

These costs include the following:
purchase price of finished goods or raw materials;
import duties and other taxes, other than those subsequently recoverable from the taxing
authorities, such as VAT if the buyer is registered for VAT purposes;
transport costs;
handling costs; and
other costs directly attributable to the acquisition of the inventories.
From these costs the following are deducted if included:
trade discounts;
cash and settlement discounts; and
rebates and other similar items such as subsidies on purchases.
Example 3.3: Cost of purchase

Reneben Ltd purchased 10 office desks for resale. The supplier agreed to supply the desks
at R200 per desk. The supplier grants a 10% early settlement discount provided that the
invoice is settled within 30 days. It is highly probable that Reneben Ltd will utilise the
settlement discount. Reneben Ltd has contracted a furniture removal company to collect the
furniture from the supplier in Durban and deliver it to the showroom in Gauteng. The
removal company charged the entity a non-refundable R400 for delivery of the 10 desks. A
goods-in-transit insurance was taken out with the entity’s insurance brokers covering any
damage to the desks while in transit, limited to the value of the original invoiced purchase
price paid. The premium in respect of this insurance was R100. On route to Gauteng, an
attempt was made to hijack the delivery truck, and one of the desks was irreparably
damaged. A claim was submitted to the insurance company. The entity is not a registered
VAT vendor, and has a policy of claiming all discounts available to it.
The cost of inventories after delivery would be calculated as follows:
R
Purchase price (10 × R200) 2 000
Allowance for settlement discount (R2 000 × 10%) (200)
1 800
Delivery costs 400
Insurance 100
Goods returned at cost (R1 800/10 desks) (180)
Cost of nine office desks purchased 2 120
6.1.2 Conversion costs

These are costs incurred in converting raw materials into finished products ready for sale.
Conversion costs include the following:
direct labour;
variable production overhead costs; and
fixed production overhead costs based on normal capacity.
IAS 2 defines normal capacity as the production expected to be achieved on average over a
number of periods or seasons under normal circumstances, taking into account the loss of
capacity resulting from planned maintenance. The cost of normal spillage also forms part of
conversion costs. For a detailed discussion of fixed production overhead costs refer to
section 6.2.
Example 3.4: Conversion costs

Cerlon Ltd manufactures product Topaz for resale. Purchases of raw materials are made at
the start of every week and amount to 800 tons per week (which equals normal capacity).
Purchasing cost per ton of raw material is R75. In addition to this, customs duties of R5 per
ton and carriage of R10 per ton are incurred to transport the materials to the factory.
Further information in respect of product Topaz for the year ended 31 December 20.21:
Variable production overheads R25 per ton
Fixed production overheads R16 000 per week
One ton of raw material produces one ton of finished goods. Closing inventories of finished
goods on hand at 31 December 20.21 amounted to 200 tons. Inventories are measured in
accordance with the first-in, first-out method. Product Topaz is sold for R200 per ton. The
entity was incorporated at the beginning of the current financial period and was operational
for 50 weeks during the year. No raw materials were on hand at the end of the financial
period.
Inventories 61
Example 3.4: Conversion costs (continued)

Cost of inventories would be calculated as follows: R
Purchase cost paid to supplier 75
Customs duties 5
Carriage 10
Variable production costs 25
Fixed production overheads – based on normal capacity (R16 000 per 20
week/800 tons per week)
Unit price per ton 135
Closing inventories: 200 tons × R135 per ton 27 000
Cost of sales would be calculated as follows: R’000
Production for the year: 40 000 tons (50 weeks × 800 tons)
Opening inventories –
Manufacturing costs 5 400
Purchase cost paid to supplier (40 000 × 75) 3 000
Customs duties (40 000 × 5) 200
Carriage (40 000 × 10) 400
Variable production overheads (40 000 × 25) 1 000
Fixed production overheads (40 000 × 20) or (16 000 × 50) 800
Closing inventories: 200 tons × R135 per ton (27)
Cost of sales 5 373
The production process may sometimes produce two or more products simultaneously, such
as in a chemical process. These are called joint products. If the costs of conversion of the
joint products cannot be identified separately, a rational and consistent allocation basis
should be used. The relative sales value of the products, either at the stage in production
where they originate, or at the stage of completion, may be appropriate.
Example 3.5: Joint products

Material, labour and overhead costs incurred to produce 150 litres of chemicals amount to
R1 500. One third (1/3) of this output is in the form of bathroom cleaner to be sold at R20
per litre, and the remainder is in the form of kitchen cleaner to be sold at R30 per litre.
There was no spillage.
Relative sales values: R
Bathroom cleaner (50 litres × R20) 1 000
Kitchen cleaner (100 litres × R30) 3 000
4 000
The cost of the various joint products in inventories is calculated as follows: R
Bathroom cleaner (R1 500 × 1 000/4 000) 375
Kitchen cleaner (R1 500 × 3 000/4 000) 1 125
Total inventories on hand 1 500
If the production process results in a main product and a by-product, the value of the
latter is usually immaterial. Consequently, no cost is usually allocated to the by-product and
the by-product is often carried at its net realisable value – this is an exception to the
application of the net realisable value rule (refer to section 9.3). The net realisable value of
the by-product is deducted from the joint costs of the main product.
Example 3.6: Main and by-products

A pharmaceutical entity uses two raw materials, X and Y, in equal portions in a chemical
process that produces two main products, Headeze and Headache, and a by-product (Calc),
which is sold to fertiliser manufacturers. Costs to sell are immaterial. One production cycle
produces:
Headeze: 3 000 litres; Headache: 1 000 litres; Calc: 2 000 litres
The sales price for Headeze is R25.00 per litre, for Headache R15.00 per litre and for Calc
R1.50 per litre. The total cost of production is R60 000 per cycle. You may assume that the
value of the Calc inventories is immaterial.
The cost price of the main products and the by-product can be calculated as follows:
Sales value: R Percentage
Headeze 3 000 × 25,00 75 000 83,33%
Headache 1 000 × 15,00 15 000 16,67%
90 000 100,00%
Calc 2 000 × 1,50 3 000
93 000
The cost of production of the joint main products (Headeze and Headache) is allocated on
the basis of sales value. The net realisable value of the by-product is deducted from the total
production cost before allocation to the main products. See below:
Allocation of costs: Gross
R
Headeze (60 000 – 3 000) × 83,33% 47 500
Headache (60 000 – 3 000) × 16,67% 9 500
Calc 3 000
Total cost 60 000
Comment:
¾ By-products that are not material may be measured at net realisable value. This may
result in by-products being measured at above cost if NRV is higher than actual cost. This
is a departure from the basic rule that inventories should be measured at the lower of
cost and NRV. It seems, however, that the objective of IAS 2 is to provide an expedient
and cost-effective solution, and to recognise a generally accepted practice in the valuing
of by-products (refer to section 9.3).
The costs incurred by service providers are measured at the costs of their production,
which usually consist of labour and other costs of personnel directly engaged in providing
the service. The costs of supervisory personnel and attributable overheads are also
included. The costs of service providers are not classified as inventory. IFRS 15, Revenue
from Contracts from Customers requires that these costs should be classified as contract
cost and should be amortised to profit or loss on a systematic basis (IFRS 15.99). General
administrative costs, for example, are not included and they are recognised as expenses in
the period in which they are incurred (IFRS 15.98).
Inventories 63
6.1.3 Other costs

Included in these costs are all the other costs incurred in bringing the inventories to the
present location and condition. Examples are:
costs of designing products for a particular customer;
borrowing costs relating to inventories where substantially long ageing periods are required,
as in the case of wine; and
necessary storage costs in the production process (for example when units need to be
freezed during the manufacturing process).
Where an entity purchases inventories on deferred settlement terms and the
arrangement effectively contains a financing element, that element is recognised as interest
expense over the period of the financing and is, therefore, not included in the cost of the
inventories (IAS 2.18). This element would normally be the difference between the
purchase price for normal credit terms and the amount actually paid for the inventories.
Example 3.7: Deferred settlement terms

A supplier agrees to supply inventories with a cash price of R10 000, but since payment is
deferred beyond the normal settlement terms of 30 days, the purchaser will be expected to
pay R11 200 at settlement 12 months after delivery. The difference of R1 200 represents
interest costs in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income, recognised over
a period of 12 months.
The general rule applicable when determining the cost of the inventories is, therefore,
that all costs incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition are
included. The theoretical basis for this is that all costs of inventories in the statement of
financial position are carried forward to the following accounting period until the related
revenue is generated.
6.2 Allocation of overhead costs

The determination of cost can be subject to manipulation in practice, especially in respect of
the allocation of production and other overhead costs, and the application of cost formulas.
The choice of cost formulas may result in significantly different outcomes that impact on the
profit for the year and the earnings per share.
Overheads are sometimes also referred to as indirect costs. For the purposes of this
discussion, a distinction is made between production overhead costs and other overhead
costs:
Production overhead costs are those costs incurred in the manufacturing process, which
do not form part of the direct raw material or direct labour costs – for example, indirect
materials and labour, rates and taxes of a factory, depreciation on production machinery,
administration of a factory, etc.
Other overhead costs that do not relate to the production process and are normally
incurred in running the operations of the entity – for example, office rental, salaries of
administrative personnel, selling and marketing costs, etc. These items are often referred
to as “expenses”.
The main distinction is that the former costs are included in the cost of the inventories,
while the latter expenses are included only in exceptional instances.
6.2.1 Production overhead costs
The general principle is that only those production overheads involved in bringing the
inventories to their present location and condition should be included in the costs.
Therefore, both fixed overheads, which remain constant regardless of production, and
variable overheads, which change in direct relation to production, are included. Other
overhead costs are, however, omitted and expensed.
Variable overhead costs can be allocated to inventories with reasonable ease, as the
costs are normally directly related to the production volumes. The number of units
manufactured serves as the basis for allocating such costs.
Fixed production overhead costs are not allocated directly to a product with the same
ease. IAS 2.13 provides the following guidelines in this respect:
The normal capacity of the production plant is used as the basis for allocation and not
the actual production levels. Normal capacity can refer to either the average normal
production volume over a number of periods, or to the maximum production which is
practically attainable. IAS 2 adopts the former.
The actual capacity may only be used when it approximates normal capacity.
The interpretation of the concept “normal capacity” is determined in advance and should be
applied consistently, unless other considerations of a permanent nature result in increasing
or decreasing production levels.
If the production levels are particularly high in a certain period, the fixed overhead
recovery rate should be revised, to ensure that inventories are not measured above cost.
In such a case fixed overhead should be allocated based on actual capacity.
If the production levels are lower than normal capacity, the fixed overhead recovery rate
based on normal capacity is used, and the under-recovered portion is charged directly to
the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income, forming part of the cost
of sale expense.
Assume the fixed overhead recovery rate based on normal capacity is R10 per unit
and R1 000 000 fixed overhead costs were incurred, but 250 000 units were produced
instead of the normal capacity of 100 000 units. If allocation is done on 250 000 units ×
R10 per unit, R2 500 000 will be allocated to cost of inventories, although only R1 000 000
was actually incurred. During times of high production, the allocation is therefore based on
actual capacity; therefore, 250 000 units × R1 000 000 /250 000 = R1 000 000 allocated
to cost of inventories.
From another perspective: The cost of inventory based on normal capacity is R10 per unit,
whilst the actual cost is R4 per unit (R1 000 000 / 250 000). If the measurement of
inventory is done at R10 per unit. it would be higher than the cost. Inventory can’t be
measured at a higher than the cost (see paragraph 5 above and paragraph 9 below). The
cost of inventory will therefore be R4 per unit.
The large measure of judgement involved in the calculations may result in numerous
practical problems arising from the allocation of fixed overhead production costs.
Nevertheless, it is imperative that a regulated allocation of both variable and fixed
production costs be included in the costs of inventories in order to achieve the best possible
measurement of the inventory.
Inventories 65
6.2.2 Other overhead costs

Costs that are not related to the production function of an entity, such as those of
personnel, research and development, financial management, and marketing, are part of
the other overhead costs. They form a significant part of the expenses of an entity and
without these functions there can be no successful production. The relationship between the
production function and the other functions is an indirect connection and, therefore, other
overhead costs do not normally form part of the cost of inventories. This stipulation is based
on the premise that such costs cannot be seen as being directly related or necessary in
bringing inventories into their present location or condition.
Certain exceptions to the above-mentioned rule exist, namely:
Other overhead costs that clearly relate to bringing inventories to their present location
and condition, for example design costs, research and development, etc.
Borrowing costs which have been capitalised in respect of inventories where long ageing
processes are required to bring them to their saleable condition, for example wine and
spirits.
Storage costs that are necessary in the production process prior to the further
production stage, for example the maturation of cheese or when freezing is needed
during the production process.
Example 3.8: Allocation of overheads

The normal capacity of an entity is 50 000 units per annum. The raw materials cost is R50
per unit, and direct labour is R25 per unit. Variable production overheads are R15 per unit,
and fixed production overheads incurred amount to R980 000. The closing balance of
finished goods is 15 000 units. Assume there is no opening balance. Calculate the cost of
sales in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income if actual production
of the company is:
(1) 70 000 units per year (very high level of production); or
(2) 40 000 units per year.
Suggested solution
(1) Cost of inventories calculation if actual production is 70 000 units per year
Cost per unit R
Raw material 50
Direct labour 25
Variable production overheads 15
Fixed production overheads (980 000/70 000) 14
Total cost per unit 104
Cost of inventories (finished products sold)
Opening balance finished goods –
Transferred from work in progress (70 000 × 104) 7 280 000
Closing balance finished goods (15 000 × 104) (1 560 000)
Cost of inventories (sold) 5 720 000
Fixed production overheads
Incurred 980 000
Allocated (70 000 × 14) (980 000)
Under-/over-recovery –
Cost of sales
Cost of inventories (finished goods sold) 5 720 000
Example 3.8: Allocation of overheads (continued)

(2) Cost of inventories calculation if actual production is 40 000 units per year
Cost per unit R
Raw material 50,00
Direct labour 25,00
Variable production overheads 15,00
Fixed production overheads (980 000/50 000) 19,60
Total cost per unit 109,60
Cost of inventories (finished products sold)

Opening balance finished goods –
Transferred from work in progress (40 000 × 109,60) 4 384 000
Closing balance finished goods (15 000 × 109,60) (1 644 000)
Cost of inventories (sold) 2 740 000
Fixed production overheads
Incurred 980 000
Allocated (40 000 × 19,60) (784 000)
Under allocation 196 000
Cost of sales
Cost of inventories (finished goods sold) 2 740 000
Fixed production overheads under-allocated 196 000
The principles regarding the allocation of production overhead costs can be presented
diagrammatically:
TOTAL OVERHEAD COSTS
Production overheads Other overheads
Variable Fixed
Always allocated based Allocation based on Allocated in

on actual levels of normal capacity (note the exceptional
production exceptions) cases only
Basic principle: Are they related (and necessary) to bringing the inventories to their
present location and condition?
Inventories 67
6.3 General ledger accounts
Example 3.9: General ledger of manufacturing concern

The purpose of this example is to reinforce basic principles through the use of a double
entry system. Assume the perpetual inventories system is applicable. The year end of the
company is 31 December 20.22.
The following information relates to the inventories and production for the current year:
Opening inventories:
Raw materials R600
Work in progress (WIP) R1 000
Finished goods R1 000
Production costs incurred during the year:
Labour R300
Fixed and variable overheads R120
Raw materials purchased R200
Overheads of R20 could not be allocated to inventories as the production level was below
normal capacity.
Closing inventories (at cost):
Raw materials R300
Work in progress (WIP) R1 000
Finished goods R600
The net realisable value of the finished goods amounted to R450. Asume for this example
that the net realisable value of the other inventories was higher than cost (the net realisable
value of the other inventories would also have been lower than cost).
General legder accounts:
Labour (Allocated)
Bank (1) 300 31.12.22 WIP (2) 300
300 300
(1) Paid labour in respect of current year’s production.
(2) Transfer allocated production costs to WIP account – closing entry.
Overheads (Fixed and variable cost allocated to production)
Bank (3) 31.12.22 WIP (4) 100
120 CoS (5) 20
120 120
(3) Paid overheads (fixed and variable) in respect of the year’s production.
(4) Transfer allocated production overhead (actual production × a rate per unit) to WIP
account.
(5) Under-allocated production overheads allocated to cost of sales (not cost of
inventories).
Example 3.9: General ledger of manufacturing concern (continued)

Raw materials
01.01.22 Balance (6) 600 WIP (8) 500
Bank (7) 200 31.12.22 Balance (9) 300
800 800
01.01.23 Balance b/d 300
(6) Raw materials on hand at beginning of the year (opening inventories).
(7) Purchase of raw materials – apply purchase cost principles (excl VAT, discounts, etc.).
(8) Transfer raw materials to WIP account – closing entry.
(9) Raw materials on hand at end of the period (closing inventories) = SFP amount.
Work in progress (WIP)
01.01.22 Balance (10) 1 000 Finished products (12) 900
Labour (2) 300 31.12.22 Balance (11) 1 000
Overheads (4) 100
Raw materials (8) 500
1 900 1 900
01.01.23 Balance b/d 1 000
(10) WIP on hand at beginning of the year (opening inventories).
(11) WIP on hand at end of the year (closing inventories) = SFP amount.
(12) Transfer WIP to finished products.
Finished products
01.01.22 Balance (13) 1 000 Cost of (15) 1 300
inventories sold
WIP (12) 900 31.12.22 Balance (14) 600
1 900 1 900
31.12.22 Balance b/d 600 31.12.22 Cost of sales (16) 150
Balance (17) 450
600 600
01.01.23 Balance b/d 450
(13) Finished products on hand at beginning of the year (opening inventories).
(14) Finished products on hand at end of the year (closing inventories) = Cost price,
amount in the SFP.
(15) Transfer cost of inventories sold to cost of inventories sold account. Note that, in
practice, this step could be skipped and the amount transferred directly to cost of sales.
(16) NRV of finished products is R450, therefore the balance of R600 must be written
down to R450. This is done through a credit entry of R150 (600 – 450).
(17) New balance of the finished products on hand is R450, i.e. the NRV, because
inventories must be shown in the statement of financial position at the lower of cost
or NRV. The R150 represents the write-off to NRV.
Inventories 69
Example 3.9: General ledger of manufacturing concern (continued)

Cost of inventories sold
Finished (15) 1 300 31.12.22 Cost of sales (18) 1 300
products
1 300 1 300
(18) Cost of inventories sold closes off to cost of sales.
Cost of sales
31.12.22 Cost of (18) 1 300 31.12.22 Profit and loss (19) 1 470
inventories sold
31.12.22 Overheads (5) 20
31.12.22 Finished (16) 150
products
1 470 1 470
(19) Cost of sales closes off to the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive
income. This amount represents the line item in the statement of profit or loss and
other comprehensive income. It represents the cost of inventories sold (units sold ×
allocated costs per unit) as well as all other costs directly related to inventories (for
example: write-down to NRV).
Note:: Those entries without specific dates generally take place during the course of a year
and do not represent a single transaction. Both the perpetual and the periodic inventories
recording systems will result in the same cost for sales.
7 Application of cost allocation techniques and cost formulas
Other than the actual cost of inventories (that was discussed above), various
techniques can be used to calculate the cost of inventories. The following are possibilities:
standard cost; and
the retail method.
7.1 Standard cost

This method involves working with expected costs, based on normal levels of operations and
operating efficiency measures and entails the application of predetermined information. This
method allows management to monitor and control costs. Standard costs can be used for
convenience as long as the inventories values determined in this way approximate actual
cost (IAS 2.21). A regular review, and change where necessary, is required of the standard
costs where conditions change, for example in times of rising costs.
7.2 Retail method

This method is particularly suitable for trading entities that do not maintain complete
records of purchases and inventories. Inventories values are determined at the end of the
reporting period by determining the selling price of the inventories, which is reduced by the
average profit margin, to determine the approximate cost of the trading inventory
(IAS 2.21).
Example 3.10: Retail method

The trading inventories of a sports shop measured at selling price amounted to R980 000
on a particular date. If the owner normally adds a mark-up of 25% to the cost price of his
products, the retail method is applied as follows to calculate the approximate cost of the
inventories:
100
R980 000 × = R784 000
125
This method can be applied only if the profit margins of homogenous groups of products
are known. If certain inventories items are marked at reduced selling prices as a result of
special offers, the profit margins on these items are determined individually. As with
standard costs, this basis may be applied only if the results obtained approximate cost.
7.3 Cost formulas
According to IAS 2.23 to .27, the number of items left in closing inventories and their
unit cost, therefore the cost of inventories, is determined by using one of the following cost
formulas:
first-in, first-out (FIFO);
weighted average costs; or
specific identification.
7.3.1 First-in, first-out (FIFO)

FIFO values inventories in accordance with the assumption that the entity will sell the items
of inventories in the order in which they were purchased; i.e. first the old inventories items
and then the new items. The “oldest” prices are debited first to cost of sales in the
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income. This method is normally
appropriate to interchangeable items of large volumes and is currently the most popular
method used by listed companies in South Africa.
Example 3.11: FIFO

Assume that an entity purchases 100 units at R16 each, and purchases a further 300 units
at R16,50 each. At year-end there are 320 units on hand. These inventories would be
measured as follows:
R
20 at R16 320
300 at R16,50 4 950
320 5 270
The purchases and the sales can also be reflected as follows:
R
100 at R16 1 600
300 at R16,50 4 950
(80) at R16 (1 280)
320 5 270
Inventories 71
7.3.2 Weighted average method

The word “weighted” refers to the fact that the number of items is taken into account when
calculating cost. The weighted average is calculated either after each purchase or
periodically, depending on the circumstances. This basis, just as in the case of FIFO, is
appropriate to interchangeable inventories usually of large volumes.
Example 3.12: Weighted average

Assume an entity purchases 100 units at R16 each, and a further 300 units at R16,50 each.
The average price is not R16,25 [(R16 + R16,50) ÷ 2].
The average cost should be weighted with the number of units as follows:
R
100 at R16 1 600
300 at R16,50 4 950
400 6 550
Weighted average price = R16,375 (R6 550/400)
Assuming that all inventories sales took place after the above-mentioned purchase
transactions and resulted in a closing inventories on hand at year end of 320 units, closing
inventories would be measured at: 320 × R16,375 = R5 240. The units sold will be debited
to costs of sales at the weighed average price of R16,375: 80 × R16,375 = R1 310.
7.3.3 Specific identification

According to IAS 2, this method allocates costs to separately identified items of inventories.
It is particularly appropriate for items acquired or manufactured for a specific project, and
for items that are normally not interchangeable. This basis, generally not suitable for large
volumes of interchangeable items, should not be used as a means of manipulating profits.
From the above-mentioned discussion it is clear that a variety of measurement bases
exist to determine the costs of inventories. These measurement bases necessarily result in
different operating results and different statement of financial position amounts.
IAS 2.25 requires that the same cost formula be used for inventories having the same
nature and use to the entity. Where the nature or use of groups of items differs from
others, the application of different formulas is allowed. This means that if a group of
companies owns materials with different uses, they may be measured by using different
cost formulas. Where inventories are similar in nature and use and held in different
geographical locations, different cost formulas may not be applied. Where different metals
are, for example, fused in a production process, the average method is appropriate.
However, where inventories are used on an item-for-item basis in the production process,
the FIFO formula is more appropriate.
Example 3.13: Application of cost formulas for perpetual and periodic inventories
recording systems
A Ltd has incurred the following inventories transactions during the month of October 20.22:
Units R/U
01.10 Opening balance 200 20
05.10 Purchases 300 24
recording systems (continued)
Units R/U
02.10 Sales 120 40
15.10 Sales 200 48
25.10 Sales 150 50
The cost price of inventories is determined using:
(1) the FIFO method
(2) the weighted average method.
First–in, first-out method:
31.10 Inventories on hand (200 – 120 + 300 – 200 + 150 – 150) = 180 units
R
Cost price 150 × 30 4 500 (from the purchase of 150 units at R30/unit)
30 × 24 720 (left from the purchase of 300 units at R24/unit)
180 5 220
Comment:
¾ Both the perpetual and the periodic inventories recording systems result in the same
cost for inventories.
Weighted average method:
Perpetual inventories recording system:
31.10 Inventories on hand 180 units
Cost price Total
Units per unit cost price
R R
01.10 Opening balance 200 20
02.10 Sales (120) 20
80
380 23,16*
15.10 Sales (200) 23,16
180
330 26,27**
25.10 Sales (150) 26,27
Closing inventories 180 26,27 4 729
*80 × 20 = 1 600
300 × 24 = 7 200
380 8 800
8 800/380 = R23,16
** 180 × 23,16 = 4 169
150 × 30 = 4 500
330 8 669
8 669/330 = R26,27
Inventories 73
recording systems (continued)
Periodic inventories recording system: Cost price Total
Units per unit cost price
R R
Opening balance 200 20 4 000
Purchases 300 24 7 200
Purchases 150 30 4 500
650 15 700
Weighted average cost price (R15 700/650) R24,15
Closing inventories (180 × R24,15) 4 347
Comment:
¾ The cost of inventories calculated using the weighted average method differs under the
perpetual and periodic inventories recording systems, as different averages are used.
The average may be calculated on a periodic basis, or as each additional shipment of
purchases is received (IAS 2.27).
8 Determining net realisable value
Net realisable value (NRV) is the estimated selling price which could be realised in
the normal course of business less the estimated costs to be incurred in order to complete
the product and to make the sale.
Such estimates will take account of changes in prices and cost changes after the period
under review, in accordance with the requirements of IAS 10 to the extent that events
confirm conditions existing at the end of the reporting period. As the determination of this
value entails the use of estimates, an element of judgement is involved, and caution should
be exercised when making use of estimates. It may often be difficult to determine the net
realisable value of a product due to a lack of information regarding the costs necessary to
make the sale. In such cases, the current replacement value can be used as a possible
solution (especially for raw materials) (refer to IAS 2.32). After having taken everything into
consideration, estimates of the NRV should be based on the most reliable information
available at the time of making the estimate.
The diagram below illustrates net realisable value.
NET REALISABLE VALUE
Estimated selling price in the Less Costs to make the sale, namely:
normal course of business Costs to complete work in progress
inventories
Trade and other discounts
allowed
Sales commission
Packaging costs
Transport costs
9 Lower of cost and net realisable value

9.1 General rule
In accordance with IAS 2, inventories are measured at cost at the end of a reporting period
and are carried over to the following accounting period. This cost should, however, not
exceed the net amount, which, according to estimates, will be realised from the sales. The
definition of an asset, in terms of the Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting
(Conceptual Framework) is a resource under control of an entity as result of a past event,
from which future economic benefits will flow. The NRV represents the future economic
benefits. Should the cost exceed the NRV, it implies that the inventories are expected to be
sold for an estimated loss. The cost is then reduced to the net realisable value and the
write-off is recognised and shown as a loss (within cost of sales) in the profit or loss secion
of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income. If such inventories are
still unsold at the end of the following reporting period, the cost is compared with the latest
NRV, and the carrying amount is adjusted accordingly.
Inventories are written down to net realisable value on an item-by-item basis, or (where
appropriate) a group-by-group basis. In cases where items relate to the same product
range, and have similar purposes or end uses and are marketed in the same geographical
area, they cannot be evaluated separately; the items belonging to the range are grouped
together when assessing NRV. It should be noted that “finished goods” or “inventories of
shoes” are probably not product ranges.
Example 3.14: Net realisable value (continues Example 3.4)

An entity manufactures product Topaz for resale. The manufacturing cost per ton is R135.
Finished products are sold for R140 per ton. Sales expenses amount to R15 per ton, and
delivery costs amount to R5 per ton. Closing inventories on hand at 31 December 20.21
amounts to 2 000 tons.
NRV per ton – Product Topaz: R
Selling price 140
Selling expenses (15)
Delivery costs (5)
NRV 120
Carrying amount of closing inventories is measured at the lower of cost or NRV. Therefore (in
this instance), it is measured at an NRV of R120 per ton as it is lower than R135 per ton.
Carrying amount of inventories at 31 December 20.21:
2 000 tons closing inventories × R120 NRV = R240 000.
Journal entries Dr Cr
If the perpetual inventory system is used R R
Note: inventories (SFP) will have a balance at the cost prior to this
journal:
31 December 20.21
Cost of sales (P/L) 30 000
Inventories (SFP) ((2 000 × R135) – R240 000) 30 000
Write-down of inventories
Inventories 75
Example 3.14: Net realisable value (continues Example 3.4) (continued)

If the periodic inventory system is used:
A separate journal is not recorded, as the inventories value is
determined and correctly put through as the closing inventories
Dr Cr
31 December 20.21 R R
Closing inventories (Cost of Sales – P/L) 240 000
Recognition of closing inventories
A new assessment of net realisable value is made in each financial year. Indicators of
possible adjustments to net realisable value may include:
damaged inventories;
wholly or partially obsolete inventories;
a decline in selling prices;
increases in estimated costs to complete the incomplete goods/or work in progress; and
increases in selling costs.
Example 3.15: Net realisable value per item and per group
The following schedules reflect the inventories values of an entity on 31 December 20.23:
Cost Net Lowest
realisable value
value per item
R’000 R’000 R’000
Wall tiles
Hand-painted 6 000 7 500 6 000
Normal process 10 000 9 000 9 000
16 000 16 500 15 000
Bricks
A-Type 48 000 36 000 36 000
B-Type 53 000 58 000 53 000
C-Type 16 000 20 000 16 000
117 000 114 000 105 000
According to IAS 2.29, inventories can be measured as follows:
Item-by-item: R15 million + R105 million = R120 million or
Per group (if conditions were met): R16 million + R114 million = R130 million
Comment:
¾ A comparison of the total cost (R133 million) of the inventories with the total net
realisable value (R130,5 million) is not permitted by IAS 2, because unrealised profits
and losses may not be netted against each other.
When there is clear evidence of an increase in net realisable value because of changed
economic circumstances or because the circumstances that previously caused inventories to
be written down below cost no longer exist, the amount of the write-down is reversed, but
the amount of the reversal is limited to the amount of the original write-down, as
inventories may not be restated above their original cost. The new carrying amount is again
the lower of the cost and the (revised) net realisable value. This may, for example, occur
when an item of inventories that is carried at net realisable value, because its selling price
has declined, is still on hand in a subsequent period and its selling price has now increased.
Example 3.16: Reversal of net realisable value

On 31 December 20.22, the end of the financial period, Protea Ltd had inventories of bricks
on hand with a cost of R117 000. On this date these inventories were written down to the
net realisable value of R114 000. On 31 December 20.23, half of these bricks were still on
hand. The net realisable value of these bricks has been estimated at R60 000. The closing
inventories on hand at the end of the 20.23 financial period is calculated as follows:
R
Remaining bricks on hand on 31 December 20.23 @ original NRV (R114 000/2) 57 000
Original cost of bricks on hand on 31 December 20.23 (R117 000/2) 58 500
Revised NRV of bricks on hand on 31 December 20.23 60 000

Reversal of previous write-down (R58 500 – R57 000) (limited to original cost) 1 500
Closing inventories on 31 December 20.23 (limited to the original cost) 58 500
9.2 Firm sales contracts

If the inventories are being held in terms of a binding sales contract, in terms of which the
inventories will be delivered at a later date, the NRV of these inventories should be based
on the contract price. If the contract quantities are less than the total inventories for this
particular item, the NRV of the surplus inventories is based on normal selling prices. Any
expected losses on firm sales contracts in excess of the inventories quantities held are dealt
with by IAS 10. If inventories quantities are less than quantities required for firm purchase
contracts, onerous contracts may arise and the provisions of IAS 37 apply.
Example 3.17: Firm sales contracts

Inventories on hand at year end are 200 units at a cost of R15 each. The units can be sold
for R16 each. Commission on sales of all units is paid to sales personnel at 10% of the
gross selling price. The entity has a contract to supply a customer with 40 of these units at
R19 each (before the deduction of commission). The measurement of inventories on hand
at year end is calculated as follows:
R
40 units at fixed contract price:
Cost: R15 × 40 units 600
NRV: [R19 – (R19 × 10%)] × 40 units 684
Or [R19 × 90%] × 40 units
160 units at general selling price:
Cost: R15 × 160 units 2 400
NRV: [R16 – (R16 × 10%)] × 160 units 2 304
Or [R16 × 90%] × 160 units
Total carrying amount at lower of cost or NRV:
40 at cost (contracted) – no write-down necessary 600
160 at NRV (general sales) – write-down of R96 necessary 2 304
2 904
Inventories 77
9.3 Exceptions
One exception to the general rule that inventories be measured at the lower of cost and net
realisable value is mentioned in IAS 2.32. In accordance with this stipulation, raw materials
or supplies that will be incorporated in the finished product are not written down below cost
if the finished product is expected to realise the cost or more. In our opinion, IAS 2 gives
insufficient guidance in cases where the finished product sells at less than the cost. By
implication it appears that the raw materials and other supplies should be written down to
NRV in these cases.
Example 3.18: NRV of raw materials

An entity uses a single raw material to manufacture a finished product. Three units of the raw
material are used to produce one unit of the finished product. The cost per unit of raw material
is R200. The total production cost to manufacture one finished product is R1 500 (Raw
material plus conversion cost). At year end, there are 300 units of raw material and 500 units
of finished products on hand. There were no incomplete goods. Due to market competition, the
raw material can presently be sold for R60 per unit. The net selling price of the finished
product is R1 200 on 31 December 20.21. The carrying amount of inventories is calculated as
follows:
Finished products:
Finished product per unit: R
Cost of inventories 1 500
Net realisable value 1 200
Write-down to NRV 300
Finished products @ NRV – 31 December 20.21 (500 × R1 200) 600 000
Total write-down (included in cost of sales) (500 × R300) 150 000
Raw materials:
NRV if completed 1 200
Cost to complete: Production costs excluding raw materials (1 500 – 3 × R200) (900)
NRV of three units of raw materials 300
NRV per unit of raw materials (R300/3) 100
Cost of raw material inventory (300 × R200) 60 000
NRV of raw material inventory – 31 December 20.21 [300 × R100)] 30 000
Total write-down (included in cost of sales) (60 000 – 30 000) 30 000
Using the information given above, with the exception that the NRV of the finished goods
should be R1 600 per unit and not R1 200 per unit as above, the following situation would occur:
Finished products: R
Finished products – 31 December 20.21 (500 × R1 500) (not written down) 750 000
Raw material:
NRV if completed 1 600
Cost to complete: Production costs excluding raw materials (1 500 – 3 × R200) (900)
NRV of three units of raw materials 700
NRV per unit (700/3) 233
Raw material inventory:
Cost (300 × R200) 60 000
NRV (300 × R233) 69 900
Raw material at cost – 31 December 20.21 [300 × R200] (not written down) 60 000
Example 3.18: NRV of raw materials (continued)

Comment:
¾ From the above example it is clear that raw materials are not adjusted if the
finished products are sold at an amount higher that the cost.
Caution should be applied in cases where the NRV of the raw material component drops
below the cost, particularly where the raw materials form a significant part of the finished
product. This could mean that the selling price of the finished product will also have to drop,
particularly in cases where the selling price of a product reacts sensitively to changes in the
cost of the raw material components.
A further exception to the general rule stated in IAS 2.14 relates to by-products. As
mentioned previously, by-products are the inevitable result of a production process directed
at the production of another (primary) product. The costs of the primary product, which
consist of raw material, labour and allocated production overhead costs, are allocated to the
primary product in total. The by-product normally has no cost price and should be measured
at net realisable value, as long as this value is deducted from the lower of cost or NRV of
the primary product (refer to Example 3.6).
A further exception exists in respect of inventories acquired for the construction of plant
and equipment. In this case, the principle that applies is that such inventories are written
down only as the plant and equipment depreciate, after the costs of the inventories have
been incorporated into the cost of the plant and equipment.
10 Recognition of expense
The carrying amount of the inventories is recognised as an expense when the inventories
are sold and the revenue is recognised. The sales and corresponding expenses may be
recognised throughout the period if the entity uses a perpetual inventories system. The
expense is recognised only at the end of the period if a periodic inventories system is used.
Any write-down of inventories to NRV for damages, obsolescence or fluctuations in costs
or selling prices forms part of the cost of sales expense and is written off directly to the
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income. These write-downs are,
however, disclosed separately in the notes that form part of the financial statements. It is
important to distinguish between write-downs that should be disclosed and inventories
losses that do not have to be disclosed separately. Inventories losses arise typically when
the physical inventories on hand differs from the inventories records.
Where write-downs of inventories are reversed due to subsequent increases in NRV, the
amount is recognised as a reduction in the cost of sales expense in the statement of profit
or loss and other comprehensive income. The reversal of any write-downs should also be
disclosed separately.
Example 3.19: Composition of the cost of sales expenses

The cost of sales expenses of a manufacturing entity may include the following expenses:
Cost of inventories (finished products sold) (calc 1) (allocated costs) xxx xxx
Abnormal spillage of raw material, labour and other production costs
(not allocated) xxx xxx
Under- or over-allocation of fixed production overheads (not allocated) (calc 4) xxx xxx
Inventories write-downs (inventories losses) xxx xxx
Inventories write-downs to NRV xxx xxx
Recovery of NRV write-down (xx xxx)
Cost of sales xxx xxx
Inventories 79
Example 3.19: Composition of the cost of sales expenses (continued)

The cost of sales expenses of a manufacturing entity may include the following expenses:
(1) Cost of inventories (finished products sold)
Opening inventories (finished products) xxx xxx
Transferred from work in progress (calc 2) xxx xxx
Closing inventories (finished products) (xx xxx)
Cost of inventories (sold) xxx xxx
(2) Work in progress
Opening inventories (work in progress) xxx xxx
Raw materials (calc 3) xxx xxx
Direct labour xxx xxx
Variable production overheads (allocated) xxx xxx
Fixed production overheads (allocated) xxx xxx
Closing inventories (work in progress) (xx xxx)
Transferred to finished products xxx xxx
(3) Raw materials
Opening inventories xxx xxx
Purchases xxx xxx
Cost xxx xxx
Other purchase costs xxx xxx
Abnormal spillage (Expenses and not cost of sales) (xxx xxx)
Closing inventories (xx xxx)
Transferred to work in progress xxx xxx
(4) Under-/over-allocated fixed production overheads

Fixed production overheads incurred xxx xxx
Allocated (actual units produced × rate based on normal capacity) (xxx xxx)
Under-/over-allocation of fixed production overheads xxx xxx
11 Disclosure
The disclosure requirements regarding inventories are prescribed as follows by IAS 2
paragraphs 36 to 39:
accounting policy pertaining to the measurement and cost formula used.
the total carrying amount of inventories in classifications suitable for the entity, for
example:
– materials (materials and spares included);
– finished goods;
– merchandise shown under appropriate subheadings;
– consumable goods (including maintenance spares);
– work in progress (including the inventories of a service provider); and
– work in progress – construction work.
the carrying amount of inventories carried at fair value less costs to sell, as provided by
commodity broker-traders;
the amount of inventories recognised as cost of sales during the period;

the amount of any write-down of inventories recognised as an expense in cost of sales;
if such a write-down is reversed in a subsequent period, the amount reversed and the
circumstances which resulted in the reversal; and
the carrying amount of any inventories pledged as security.
Note that the disclosure of the carrying amount of inventories carried at net realisable value
is not required, but that the amount of any write-down of inventories should be disclosed,
typically in the note on profit before tax. Note also that the disclosure of the carrying
amount of inventories carried at fair value less costs to sell is required, for instance in the
case of commodity broker-traders.
In terms of IAS 1, the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income may be drafted according to the nature or the function of expenses.
In accordance with the functional approach, the cost of sales will be disclosed as a line
item. The disclosure requirements of IAS 2 will be met, provided that separate disclosure of
write-downs and the reversals of write-downs and their circumstances are provided.
Entities using the nature of expenses approach will disclose operating costs such as raw
materials, labour costs, other operating costs, and the net movement in finished goods and
work in progress, where applicable. To comply with IAS 2, the cost of such expenses will
have to be disclosed elsewhere in the financial statements. The disclosure of the cost of
sales expense does allow for the calculation of the gross profit margin, but the calculation
may not support comparison to other entities as the composition of the amounts may differ.
Example 3.20: Comprehensive example

Inyati Ltd’s inventories consist of the following:
Opening Closing Net
inventories inventories realisable
value
R’000 R’000 R’000
Raw materials 35 000 15 000 14 500
Work in progress 15 000 25 500 20 000
Finished goods 40 000 20 500 30 000
Packaging materials 1 750 1 600 1 450
The following information for the year ended 31 December 20.22 is available:
R’000
Revenue 275 000
Administrative expenses 75 000
Raw material purchases 90 000
Transport costs – raw materials 250
Variable production overhead costs 50 250
Fixed production overhead costs 41 500
Selling expenses 2 750
Inyati Ltd measures raw materials and work in progress according to the FIFO method.
Finished goods and consumables are measured using the weighted average method. Fixed
production overhead costs are allocated at R40 per unit based and the normal capacity
1 million units were produced.
Inventories 81
Example 3.20: Comprehensive example (continued)

Inyati Ltd
Assets Note R’000
Current assets
Inventories 3 62 450
Inyati Ltd
31 December 20.22
R’000
Revenue 275 000
Cost of sales (211 150)
Gross profit 63 850
Inyati Ltd
Notes for the year ended 31 December 20.22
1. Accounting policy
1.1 Inventories
Inventories are measured at the lower of cost and net realisable value using the
following measurement methods:
Raw materials and work in progress: first-in, first-out method.
Finished goods and consumables: weighted average method.
2. Profit before tax
Profit before tax includes the following item: R’000
Remeasurement of consumables to net realisable value (1 600 – 1 450) 150
3. Inventories
Raw materials 15 000
Work in progress 25 500
Finished goods 20 500
Consumables 1 450
62 450
Calculations Raw Work in Finished
Inventories materials progress goods
R’000 R’000 R’000
Opening inventories 35 000 15 000 40 000
Plus purchases/transfers received 90 000 110 250 190 000
Plus other costs 250 *90 250 –
Less transfers/sales (110 250) (190 000) (209 500)
Closing inventories 15 000 25 500 20 500
* 50 250 000 + (40 × 1 000 000)
Cost of sales
R’000
Finished goods 209 500
Fixed production overhead costs – under-recovery (41 500 – 40 000) 1 500
Consumables written off to net realisable value (1 600 – 1 450) 150
211 150

Comment:
¾ Raw materials, work in progress and other supplies held for use in the production of
inventories are not written down below cost if the finished products in which they will be
incorporated are expected to be sold at or above cost. The consumables are however
written down to their net realisable value.
12 Short and sweet
The objective of IAS 2 is to prescribe the recognition and measurement criteria and
the presentation and disclosure requirements for inventories.
Inventories generally include all assets held for sale, assets being manufactured for sale,
and any consumables used in the manufacturing or service delivery process.
Initially inventories are measured at cost.
Cost consists of purchasing costs, conversion costs (labour and production overheads) and
other costs (all costs required to bring the item to its place and condition for sale).
Production overheads consist of fixed and variable components, of which the fixed
component is usually allocated to inventories based on normal capacity.
These costs may be determined with reference to actual costs, standard costs, or by utilising
the retail method.
The cost formulas are: FIFO, weighted average and specific identification.
Subsequently, inventories are measured at the lower of cost or NRV.
4
Statement of cash flows
IAS 7
Contents
3 Background................................................................................................... 85
4 Objective of a statement of cash flows ............................................................ 85
5 Elements of a statement of cash flows ............................................................ 86
5.1 Cash flows from operating activities ...................................................... 87
5.2 Cash flows from investing activities ....................................................... 89
5.3 Cash flows from financing activities ....................................................... 93
5.4 Cash and cash equivalents ................................................................... 93
5.5 Net increase or decrease in cash and cash equivalents ........................... 94
6 Specific aspects ............................................................................................. 94
6.1 Interest and dividends ......................................................................... 94
6.2 Taxes ................................................................................................. 95
6.3 Value-added tax (VAT) ......................................................................... 95
6.4 Gross figures ....................................................................................... 97
6.5 Foreign currency cash flows ................................................................. 98
6.6 Leases ................................................................................................ 100
6.7 Segment information ........................................................................... 100
7 Comprehensive example ................................................................................ 101
8 Disclosure ..................................................................................................... 107
9 Short and sweet ............................................................................................ 108
Understand the concept “cash flow items” and be able to distinguish it from “non-cash
flow items”.
Understand and explain the purpose of a statement of cash flows.
Prepare a statement of cash flows, with notes, from practical information according to
both the direct and indirect method.
83
Objective of a statement of cash flows

To provide useful information in respect of the historical changes in cash and cash equivalents.
Enables the users to formulate an opinion and make a better estimate of the cash performance
of an entity.
Cash and cash equivalents

Cash consists of cash on hand and demand deposits.
Cash equivalents consist of short-term (<3 months) highly liquid investments that are readily
convertible to known amounts of cash.
Elements of cash flow

Cash flows are divided into three categories:
(1) (2) (3)

Operating activities Investing activities Financing activities
Principal revenue- Activities which relate to Activities that result in
producing activities; the acquisition and changes in size and
Cash effect of disposal of: composition of the
transactions that are – long-term assets; borrowings and equity
used in determining – other investments. capital;
profit or loss; Distinguish between Includes:
Calculated in one of two maintenance of – raising new
ways: operating capacity and borrowings;
– indirect method; or increase in operating – repayment of existing
– direct method. capacity. borrowings; and
– issuing and
redemption of
capital.
Specific aspects
Interest and dividends paid and received are disclosed separately.
Taxation paid is normally shown as cash flows relating to operating activities.
Deferred tax is not a cash flow.
The cash flow effect of VAT is disclosed under “cash generated from operating activities”.
Information relating to investing and financing activities is reflected at gross rather than net
amounts.
Unrealised foreign exchange gains and losses do not represent cash flows.
Realised foreign exchange gains and losses are viewed as cash flows.
Repayments of a capitalised finance lease are divided between capital and interest portions:
– Interest = classified as operating activities.
– Capital = classified as financing activities.
Cash flows per primary segment should be disclosed under each category of cash flows.
Statement of cash flows 85
3 Background
In terms of IAS 1.9 and .10, a statement of cash flows is one of the components of the
financial statements prepared by entities that provide information about the financial
position, performance and changes in financial position of such entities. A statement of cash
flows must be prepared in accordance with IAS 7, Statement of Cash Flows.
For the purpose of cash flows, the activities of an entity are categorised into three
main classes: operating activities (activities that are revenue-producing), investing activities
(activities that are needed to support the income-generating process, for example investing
in fixed and other long-term assets), and financing activities (activities that have as their
objective the organising of the financing requirements of the entity, for example obtaining
loans and issuing shares) (IAS 7.10).
Non-cash transactions are not included in the statement of cash flows. Only if there
was an inflow or outflow of cash or cash equivalents, will the amount be included in the
statement of cash flows (IAS 7.43).
Where an asset, for example, is acquired via mortgage bond financing, no cash changes
hands and the transaction is, therefore, not reflected in the statement of cash flows. This
also applies where assets are exchanged, shares are issued to acquire another entity, or
where liabilities are converted to equity. These transactions are, however, disclosed in the
notes to the financial statements so that all relevant information is supplied to the users of
the financial statements.
In reality, the statement of cash flows basically represents a summary of the movement
of the cash and bank balances (cash and cash equivalents) of the entity for the period
under review. “Cash” refers to cash on hand and demand deposits, and “cash equivalents”
refers to highly liquid investments that are readily convertible to known amounts of cash
and are subject to insignificant risk of changes in value.
4 Objective of a statement of cash flows
The objective of the statement of cash flows is to provide useful information in

respect of the historical changes in cash and cash equivalents.
The statement of cash flows enables the users of financial statements to formulate an
opinion and make a better estimate of the cash performance of an entity.
The users may find the information obtained from the statement of cash flows useful for the
following purposes:
to formulate an opinion about the risk profile of an entity by paying particular attention
to the ability of the entity to:
– pay interest and dividends;
– make capital repayments on borrowed funds; and
– access the appropriate sources of financing to finance the activities of the entity;
to forecast the cash that may be available in the future to finance expansions;
to determine which sources of cash have been used to finance operating and investing
activities;
to evaluate whether the entity is capable of generating sufficient cash flows from
operating activities so that a part thereof can be reinvested back into the entity;
to evaluate the timing and certainty of generated cash in order to assess the ability of
the entity to adapt to changing circumstances;
to enhance the comparability of operating results of entities by eliminating the effect of
different accounting policies; and
to determine the relationship between the profitability and cash flows of the entity.
The provision of cash flow information is primarily aimed at more effectively informing users
about the liquidity and solvency of the entity. This information is of the utmost importance
as a cash deficit could result in financial failure. A statement of cash flows could timeously
recognise possible problems in this regard, as it provides quality information regarding the
timing and amounts of the cash flows of an entity.
Remember that the financial statements (except the statement of cash flows) are
prepared on an accrual basis, accounting for transactions when they occur. However, the
statement of cash flows presents the actual cash receipts and cash payments of the
transactions for the period.
5 Elements of a statement of cash flows
Cash flows in the statement of cash flows are categorised as follows:

cash flows from operating activities;
cash flows from investing activities; and
cash flows from financing activities.
There is a mathematical relationship between these three categories in that cash

retained from operating activities plus the cash proceeds of financing activities is used in
investing activities. Conversely, cash retained from operating activities may be utilised for
both investing and financing activities. Other combinations also exist.
IAS 7 does not prescribe a specific format for the statement of cash flows. Instead, it
suggests that the format most appropriate for the particular entity be used to reflect the
cash flows from operating, financing and investing activities.
The format of the statement of cash flows can be summarised as follows:

Cash flows from operating activities;
add/subtract: cash flows from investing activities;
add/subtract: cash flows from financing activities;
equals: net movement in cash and cash equivalents.
Cash flows originating from one transaction may be classified under two activities
(IAS 7.12). For example, the repayment of a loan is disclosed under financing activities,
while the payment of interest relating to the loan is disclosed under operating activities.
Furthermore, items such as interest and dividends may be disclosed under operating,
investing, or financing activities (IAS 7.31).
5.1 Cash flows from operating activities
Operating activities are the principal revenue-producing activities of the entity, and
include other activities that do not constitute investing activities or financing activities
(IAS 7.14).
The cash generated from operating activities (or conversely, the cash deficit from operating
activities) is generally the cash effect of transactions and other events that are used in
determining profit or loss. This represents the difference between the cash received from
customers during the period and cash paid in respect of goods and services. Cash flows
from operating activities include the following (IAS7.14):
cash receipts from the sale of goods and the rendering of services;
cash receipts from royalties, fees, commissions and other revenue;
cash payments to suppliers for goods and services;
cash payments to and on behalf of employees (such as contributions to pension funds);
cash payments or refunds of income taxes (unless they can be specifically linked with
financing and investing activities); and
cash receipts and payments from contracts held for dealing or trading purposes, since
such contracts constitute the inventories of the particular entity.
The amount for cash flows from operating activities enables the users of the financial
statements to evaluate the cash component of the normal operating activities for the period,
and in doing so to assess the quality of the earnings.
Cash flows from operating activities also gives an indication of the extent to which the
operations of the entity have generated sufficient cash flows to repay loans, maintain the
operating capability of the entity, pay dividends and make new investments without having
to resort to external sources of financing. Cash generated from operations is calculated in
one of two ways, namely:
the indirect method; or
the direct method,
and is presented as such in the statement of cash flows (see IAS 7.18).
Although IAS 7.19 encourages entities to use the direct method to report cash flows from
operating activities, no prescriptive guidance is given in IAS 7 about the circumstances
under which the respective methods must be used. This situation calls for the application of
consistency in terms of IAS 8, Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and
Errors.
If a standard allows a choice of accounting policy, but is silent on the manner of
exercising that choice, a policy is chosen and applied consistently. Here the entity must
choose between the direct or indirect method, and this method must be applied
consistently from year to year.
5.1.1 The indirect method
In terms of the indirect method (IAS 7.20), cash generated from operating activities is
determined by adjusting profit or loss for the effects of:
non-cash items;
changes in working capital (inventories, operating receivables and payables); and
all other items for which the cash effects are investing or financing cash flows.
In terms of the indirect method, profit before tax is adjusted for:

non-cash items such as:
– depreciation charges;
– impairment losses;
– gains or losses on disposal of property, plant and equipment;
– unrealised foreign exchange gains or losses; and
– fair value adjustments;
changes in working capital, in other words changes in current assets and current
liabilities. This will include:
– inventories;
– receivables;
– payables;
– provisions;
– income received in advance; and
– prepaid expenses.
amounts disclosed separately as components of cash flows from operating activities
which include:
– interest paid;
– interest received; and
– investment income.
Taxation and dividends payable are dealt with separately in the statement of cash flows
(see section 6.1 and 6.2). In addition, cash at bank, cash on hand and cash equivalents
such as money market instruments are also excluded from the calculation, as these
represent the opening and closing balances respectively of the statement of cash flows (see
section 5.5).
Alternatively, cash flows from operating activities may be presented using the indirect
method as the difference between revenue (excluding investment income) and expenses
(excluding non-cash expenses and interest charges); and changes in working capital, i.e
inventories and operating receivables and payables (IAS 7.20).
5.1.2 The direct method
In accordance with the direct method (IAS 7.18(a)), cash generated from operations is
presented as being the difference between:
gross cash receipts from customers; and
gross cash paid to suppliers and employees.
In accordance with the direct method, the major classes of gross cash receipts and
payments are disclosed. These two amounts cannot be obtained directly from the profit or
loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income, and,
therefore, provide additional useful information which can be used in estimating future cash
flows.
The amounts are determined by either referring to the entity’s accounting records or
making the necessary additional calculations. For a trader, these “additional calculations”
entail adjusting sales and cost of sales for changes in inventories, receivables and payables
as well as adjusting for other non-cash items, and items for which the cash effects are
investing or financing cash flows.
Example 4.1: Indirect and direct method

The following example illustrates the difference between the indirect and direct methods:
Indirect method
Cash flows from operating activities R
Profit before tax 250 000
Adjustments for:
– Depreciation 15 000
– Gain on disposal of equipment (2 500)
– Investment income (5 000)
– Finance costs 20 000
Net changes in working capital 3 000
Cash generated from operations 280 500
Direct method
Cash flows from operating activities R
Cash receipts from customers 950 000
Cash paid to suppliers and employees (669 500)
5.2 Cash flows from investing activities
Investing activities are activities that relate to the acquisition and disposal of
long-term assets and other investments, which do not fall within the definition of cash
equivalents.
In terms of IAS 7.16, only expenditures that result in a recognised asset being disclosed
in the statement of financial position qualify for classification as investing activities. The
following are examples of cash flows arising from investing activities:
cash payments to acquire property, plant and equipment (including capitalised
development costs and self-constructed property, plant and equipment), intangible
assets and other long-term assets;
cash receipts from the disposal of property, plant and equipment, intangible assets and
other long-term assets;
cash payments to acquire or cash receipts to dispose of equity or debt instruments of
other entities;
cash advances and loans made to other parties, or cash receipts from their repayment; and
cash receipts or payments for futures contracts, forward contracts, options and swap
contracts, except where these are held for speculative purposes or if they are classified as
financing activities.
Cash flows of a hedging instrument are disclosed in the statement of cash flows in the same
way as the hedged item (IAS 7.16).
It should be remembered that movements in property, plant and equipment and
investments may not, in all instances, result in a flow of cash. Amongst such non-cash
transactions are internal transactions such as revaluations, impairments, the scrapping of
assets and routine depreciation charges. Certain external transactions such as the purchase
of assets financed by a mortgage bond, by the issue of shares, or a lease will not result in
cash flows.
Example 4.2: Assets acquired without cash outflow or indirect cash flows
Case 1: Asset acquired, financed by a mortgage bond
On 1 December 20.22, Alpha Ltd purchased a piece of land for R600 000 and financed this
transaction by way of a mortgage bond.
The journal entry to account for this transaction would be as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
1 December 20.22
Land (SFP) 600 000
Long-term borrowings (SFP) 600 000
Recognise asset financed by way of mortgage bond
This journal entry illustrates that no direct cash flows took place at acquisition of the asset
as the land was financed by means of a mortgage bond.
At 31 December 20.22, the following line items will appear in the financial statements of
Alpha Ltd in respect of the above transaction:
Extract from the statement of financial position as at
31 December 20.22
Assets R
Non-current assets
For the purposes of the statement of cash flows, this transaction would have no cash flow
effect (it is neither an investing activity nor a financing activity) and the fact that the asset
was acquired by way of a mortgage bond will be disclosed in the notes to the financial
statements.
Example 4.2: Assets acquired without cash outflow or indirect cash flows (continued)
Case 2: Asset acquired in exchange for shares issued
On 1 December 20.22, Alpha Ltd acquired a machine for R500 000 in exchange for
100 000 ordinary shares with a fair value of R500 000.
The journal entry to account for this transaction would be as follows:
Dr Cr
Machine at cost (SFP) 500 000
Share capital (SCE) 500 000
Recognise asset acquired in exchange for shares issued at fair
value in terms of IAS 16, Property, Plant and Equipment
From the above journal entry, it is clear that there was no cash flow involved in this
transaction.
31 December 20.22
Assets R
Non-current assets
Share capital 500 000
When the statement of cash flows is prepared, it must be borne in mind that an increase in
property, plant and equipment took place that did not result in a cash outflow. Similarly,
there would be an increase in share capital that did not result in a cash inflow. These asset
and equity movements for the year must thus be excluded from the amounts that will be
presented in the financing and investing sections of the statement of cash flows. The fact
that there was no direct cash flow involved with the purchase of the asset is disclosed in the
notes to the financial statements.
Case 3: Asset acquired under a lease agreement
Alpha Ltd entered into a lease agreement with Bank B on 1 December 20.22 to acquire a
machine. The fair value of the machine, as well as the present value of the minimum lease
payments, amounted to R400 000 on 1 December 20.22.
The journal entry to account for this transactions is as follows:
Dr Cr
Right-of-use asset (machine) (SFP) 400 000
Lease liability (SFP) 400 000
Recognition of lease liability in terms of IFRS 16, Leases
This journal entry clearly illustrates that the transaction has no cash flow implications.
Example 4.2: Assets acquired without cash outflow or indirect cash flows (continued)
31 December 20.22
Assets R
Non-current assets
Lease liability 400 000
For the purpose of preparing the statement of cash flows, it must be borne in mind that
there is an increase in property, plant and equipment that did not result in a cash outflow.
The same applies in respect of the increase in the lease liability, as it did not result in a cash
inflow. The increase in property, plant and equipment and increase in the lease liability are
excluded from the amounts that will be presented in the investing and financing sections of
the statement of cash flows.
It is important to the users of financial statements to evaluate whether or not the entity’s
reinvestment (i.e. the amount ploughed back) is sufficient to achieve the following
objectives:
the maintenance of operating capacity; and
the increase in operating capacity.
For this reason, a distinction must be made as far as practically possible between
investing activities to replace property, plant and equipment (maintaining operating
capacity), and the cash used in investing activities to expand investments in property, plant
and equipment (purchasing additional items to increase operating capacity) (IAS 7.51).
The major classes of gross cash receipts and payments arising from investing activities are
shown in the statement of cash flows. An exception to this rule in respect of “gross”
presentation is discussed later in this chapter (refer to section 6.4).
Example 4.3: Investing activities section of the statement of cash flows

The following is an illustration of the possible line items that will appear in the investing
activities section of the statement of cash flows:
Extract from the statement of cash flows of Alpha Ltd for the year ended
31 December 20.22
R
Cash flows from investing activities 100 000
Purchase of property, plant and equipment to maintain operations:
Replacement of equipment (50 000)
Purchase of property, plant and equipment to expand operations:
Additions to property (120 000)
Purchase of investments (60 000)
Proceeds from disposal of investments 200 000
Proceeds from disposal of equipment 130 000
5.3 Cash flows from financing activities
Financing activities are activities that result in changes in the size and composition of
the borrowings and contributed equity. They include raising new borrowings, the repayment
of existing borrowings and the issuing and redemption of shares or other equity instruments.
In IAS 7.17, the following examples of cash flows arising from financing activities are
given (cash proceeds and/or payments):
proceeds from the issuing of shares or other equity instruments;
payments to acquire shares of the entity or redeem them;
proceeds from the issuing of debentures, loans, notes, bonds, mortgages and other
short- and long-term borrowings;
repayments in respect of amounts borrowed; and
payments by a lessee to reduce the liability relating to a lease.
The principal classes of gross cash receipts and gross cash payments arising from financing
activities are shown in a statement of cash flows. An exception to this rule is discussed later
in this chapter (refer to section 6.4.).
Example 4.4: Financing activities section of the statement of cash flows

The following is an illustration of the possible line items that will appear in the financing
activities section of the statement of cash flows:
Extract from the statement of cash flows of Alpha Ltd for the year ended
31 December 20.22
R
Cash flows from financing activities: (150 000)
Ordinary shares issued 100 000
Redemption of redeemable preference shares (200 000)
Repayment of mortgage bond (300 000)
Long-term loan obtained during the year 400 000
Repayments of lease liability (150 000)
5.4 Cash and cash equivalents
Cash consists of cash on hand and demand deposits, while cash equivalents consist
of short-term highly liquid investments that are readily convertible to known amounts of
cash that are subject to insignificant risk of changes in value (IAS 7.6).
Short-term is usually viewed as three months or less from date of acquisition. Equity
investments are usually not classified as cash equivalents, while bank overdrafts normally
would be. Bank borrowings are generally considered to be financing activities. Cash
movements between cash and cash equivalents are not reflected separately as they are part
of the normal cash management activities of the entity to which the statement of cash flows
reconciles.
The reporting entity discloses the accounting policy for determining cash and cash
equivalents, and discloses the components and a reconciliation of the components to the
equivalent items, in the statement of financial position (IAS 7.45 and .46).
5.5 Net increase or decrease in cash and cash equivalents

In this single line, the net cash result of the operating, investing and financing activities is
aggregated. This amount is used to reconcile the cash and cash equivalents at the
beginning of the year with cash and cash equivalents at the end of the year as reported in
the statement of financial position.
Example 4.5: Reconciliation between cash and cash equivalents at the beginning and
end of the year
The following is an extract from the statement of financial position of Pluto Ltd, as it appears
in the financial statements for the year ended 31 December 20.22:
20.22 20.21
Assets R R
Current assets
Cash and cash equivalents – 150 000
Current liabilities
Overdrawn bank account (100 000) –
The following extract from the statement of cash flows for the year ended
31 December 20.22 illustrates the reconciliation between cash and cash equivalents at the
beginning and the end of the year as it would appear at the bottom of the statement of cash
flows:
Extract from the statement of cash flows for the year ended
31 December 20.22
R
Cash flows from operating activities* 300 000
Cash flows from investing activities* (350 000)
Cash flows from financing activities* (200 000)
Net decrease in cash and cash equivalents# (250 000)
Cash and cash equivalents at the beginning of the year 150 000
Cash and cash equivalents at the end of the year (100 000)
* Note that a complete statement of cash flows would have several line items under the above
sections of cash flows from operating activities, investing activities and financing activities.
# (–100 000 (bank overdraft) – 150 000 = –250 000.
6 Specific aspects
6.1 Interest and dividends
Payments to the suppliers of finance and amounts received from investments for interest
and dividends are disclosed separately in the statement of cash flows. Accrued and
unpaid amounts are not included as there is no cash flow from these items; hence the
necessary adjustments must be made to the amounts reflected in the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income and statement of financial position.
In terms of IAS 7.31, cash flows associated with interest and dividends paid and
received must be disclosed separately, on a consistent basis, as operating, investing, or
financing activities.
Since there is no consensus regarding the classification of these items as operating,
investing, or financing activities, consistency in the treatment of these items is encouraged.
Some argue that these items are the fruits of financing and/or investing activities and
should, therefore, be disclosed under operating activities. Alternatively, it may be argued
that dividends and interest received are the result of investing activities, and that dividends
and interest paid are the result of financing activities, therefore, the items should be
disclosed accordingly. Interest and dividends paid and received are treated as operating
activities in this chapter.
6.2 Taxes
As the principle of the statement of cash flows is to show the flow of cash and cash
equivalents, the proper “matching” of cash inflows with the relevant cash outflows cannot
always occur. This is particularly true in terms of taxes, where the tax arising from items
reflected in the current statement of cash flows is shown only in the next statement of cash
flows, as the tax is only paid after the date of the current statement of cash flows. For this
reason, it is difficult to envisage that the tax cash flows related to items reflected in the
statement of cash flows can be matched against the relevant items.
To illustrate this point, suppose that the sale of depreciable assets results in the
recoupment of tax allowances and thus is a tax expense. In the profit or loss section of the
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income, the tax expense can be linked
with the gain on disposal of the asset, and be disclosed as such. In the statement of cash
flows, this would not be possible, as the actual tax paid is reflected in the statement of cash
flows of the following year, even though the proceeds from the disposal of the asset are
reflected under investing activities in the current year’s statement of cash flows.
For this reason, IAS 7.35 and .36 states that taxes paid are normally shown as cash
flows relating to operating activities, but where practical to identify the nature, classify
accordingly as investing or financing activities.
The tax charges in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
include, in many cases, an amount in respect of deferred tax. The annual charge for deferred
tax is not a flow of cash and must, therefore, not be reflected in the statement of cash flows.
6.3 Value-added tax (VAT)

The treatment of VAT in a statement of cash flows is not addressed in IAS 7. However, if it
is considered that the cash flow from VAT gives no indication of the level of activity of the
entity itself, and that the entity is actually acting as an “agent” of the South African
Revenue Service (SARS), it is clear that the cash flow effect of VAT must be disclosed
separately in the statement of cash flows under the section “cash flow from operating
activities”.
Example 4.6: Treatment of VAT

Sue Ltd is a registered vendor for VAT purposes and all purchases and sales are subject to
VAT of 15%. The following summary was obtained from the general ledger of Sue Ltd:
Reconstruction of important accounts
Receivables Sales
R R R
Balance 22 650 Bank 114 750 Receivables 96 000
Sales # 110 400 Balance 18 300
133 050 133 050
Inventories Payables
R R R R
Balance 21 850 Cost of 62 400 Bank 70 803 Balance 27 500
sales
Purchases 60 150 Donations 300 Balance 25 870 Purchases *69 173
Balance 19 300
82 000 82 000 96 673 96 673
VAT control account

R R
Balance 100 Sales J1 #14400
Purchases *9 023 Balance 80
Bank 5 357
14 480 14 480
* = 15% × 60 150 (VAT on purchases) = 9 023 and 60 150 × 15/115 = 69 173 (purchases
incl. VAT)
# = 15% × 96 000 (VAT on sales) = 14 400 and 96 000 × 15/
115 = 110 400 (sales incl. VAT)
The company uses the direct method to calculate the cash generated from operations.
Assume that other operating expenses amounted to R8 594.
Calculations
1. Cash receipts from customers (net of VAT) R
Sales 96 000
Decrease in receivables 3 783
Gross decrease (22 650 – 18 300) 4 350
VAT included therein (15/115 × 4 350) (567)
or 114 750 × 100/115 99 783
Example 4.6: Treatment of VAT (continued)

2. Cash payments to suppliers and employees (net of VAT) R
Cost of sales 62 400
Other expenses 8 594
Decrease in inventories (19 300 + 300 – 21 850) (2 250)
Decrease in payables 1 417
Gross (25 870 – 27 500) 1 630
VAT included therein (15/115 × 1 630) (213)
or (70 803 × 100/115) + 8 594 = 70 161 70 161
3. Cash flow from VAT R

Inflow from receivables receipts (15/115 × 114 750^) 14 967
Outflow from payables payments (15/115 × 70 803^) (9 235)
Outflow from control account* (5 357)
Net inflow 375
^ Refer to amounts in the general ledger accounts.
The cash flow generated from operations will be disclosed as follows in the statement of cash
flows:
Sue Ltd
Statement of cash flows for the year ended 31 March 20.22
(Direct method)
R
Cash flows from operating activities
Cash receipts from customers (1) 99 783
Cash payments to suppliers and employees (2) (70 161)
VAT cash inflow (3)* 375
* The cash flow from VAT may also be presented in the tax note to the statement of cash
flows if the indirect method is used.
6.4 Gross figures
In terms of IAS 7.21, information relating to investing and financing activities is

reflected at gross rather than at net amounts.
This reduces the potential loss of important information as a result of disclosing net figures.
Expenditure on new investments is, therefore, shown separately from the proceeds on
disposal of investments, and the repayment of borrowings is shown separately from newly-
obtained borrowings.
The following exceptions to the general rule are, however, permitted by IAS 7.22 and .23:
cash receipts and payments on behalf of customers, when these cash flows reflect the
cash flows of the customer rather than the cash flows of the entity; for example
– the acceptance and repayment of demand deposits of a bank;
– funds held for customers by an investment entity; and
– rental collected on behalf of and paid over to, the owners of properties; and
cash receipts and payments for items of which the turnover is quick, the amounts are
large, and the maturities are short, for example:
– capital amounts in respect of credit card customers; and
– the purchase and disposal of investments and short-term borrowings.
6.5 Foreign currency cash flows

Foreign currency transactions are converted into the reporting entity’s functional currency
(Rand) for disclosure in the statement of cash flows. Only if such transactions result in a
flow of cash, will the cash flow be translated at the exchange rate applicable on the date of
the transaction, and disclosed as such (IAS 7.25). A weighted average rate may also be
used if it approximates the actual rate.
Unrealised gains and losses on foreign exchange transactions do not represent cash
flows and will, therefore, not be reflected in the statement of cash flows. Only the actual
cash flows in the functional currency are, therefore, shown.
There is one exception to this rule: where cash and cash equivalents are held in foreign
currency at the end of a period, or are payable in foreign currency, these items are
translated at the exchange rate ruling on the reporting date. This results in an associated
foreign exchange gain or loss on the reporting date. In order to reconcile the cash and cash
equivalents at the beginning and the end of the current reporting period, this foreign
exchange gain or loss will appear in the statement of cash flows. IAS 7.28 requires that this
difference be reported separately from cash flows from operating activities, investing
activities and financing activities.
Realised foreign exchange gains and losses are viewed as cash flows.
Unrealised exchange differences – in other words, differences arising due to translations on

the reporting date – are simply added back, i.e. exchange losses relating to payables will be
adjusted against payables. Only translation differences relating to cash and cash equivalents
are not added back – they are disclosed separately in the statement of cash flows.
Example 4.7: Foreign currency transaction

Alpha Ltd has entered into a number of foreign currency transactions. Indicate how the
transactions will be treated in the statement of cash flows for the year ended 30 September
20.22:
Transaction 1: Purchased inventories from abroad on 1 September 20.22 for FC5 000. Paid
creditor on 15 October 20.22 for the full amount.
Transaction 2: Obtained a long-term loan from abroad of FC15 000 on 1 September 20.22.
Interest is payable quarterly in arrears at 5% per annum.
Transaction 3: Purchased machinery from abroad for FC10 000 on 15 September 20.22
and took out forward exchange cover on the same day for payment on
30 September 20.22.
Example 4.7: Foreign currency transaction (continued)

Transaction 4: A foreign currency (FC) bank account is used to deposit any receipts in
foreign currency. The account had a balance of FC500 000 on
1 September 20.22. Only one amount was deposited into the account during
the year – a customer deposited FC100 000 on 30 September 20.22. The
balance on 30 September 20.22 thus amounts to FC600 000.
The following exchange rates apply:
Spot rate Forward
rate
20.22 FC1 = R FC1 = R
1 September 2,00
15 September 2,20 2,30
30 September 2,25
Average rate for September 2,18
Transaction 1
The cash flow takes place on 15 October 20.22, when the creditor is paid and the
transaction is then reflected in operating activities. At 30 September 20.22, the creditor (a
monetary liability) is remeasured and an exchange difference is recognised:
R
1 September (FC5 000 × 2,00) 10 000
30 September (FC5 000 × 2,25) 11 250
Exchange loss (1 250)
The exchange currency loss is reflected in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit
or loss and other comprehensive income as unrealised, and is added back to profit for the
year in the statement of cash flows as a non-cash item under the indirect method. No flow
of cash is, therefore, recognised in the statement of cash flows for the year ended
30 September 20.22.
Transaction 2
A cash flow takes place when the loan is obtained on:
1 September 20.22: FC15 000 × 2,00 = R30 000
The cash flow is shown under financing activities as a loan obtained of R30 000. At
30 September 20.22, the loan is remeasured, the interest accrued and an exchange
difference is recognised in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
(profit or loss):
Capital: R
1 September 30 000
30 September (FC15 000 × 2,25) 33 750
Exchange loss (3 750)
Interest:
Interest expense for September (5% × FC15 000 × 1/12 × 2,18 (average rate)) 136
Interest payable 30 September (5% × FC15 000 × 1/12 × 2,25 (closing rate)) 141
Exchange loss 5
30 September = R136
The interest is not yet paid as interest is paid quarterly; therefore, no cash flow is shown in
interest paid under operating activities for the year. The exchange losses (on capital and
interest payable) in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income (profit
or loss) is raised via loans and interest payable. As the unrealised exchange losses are also
non-cash transactions, the amounts are added back against profit for the year in the
statement of cash flows.
Example 4.7: Foreign currency transaction (continued)

A reconciliation disclosing the movement of cash and non-cash changes in the liabilities
arising from financing activities is required (IAS 7.44A–D). This reconciliation includes the
cash inflow related to the newly acquired loan as well as the non-cash flow change related
to the foreign exchange difference.
Transaction 3
Investing activities reflect the acquisition of machinery at the cash flow amount (forward
rate): FC10 000 × 2,30 = R23 000
The exchange difference of R1 000 (FC10 000 x (2.30 – 2.20)) is realised, however, it will
be reclassified from operating activities to investing activities to arrive at the R23 000 cash
amount paid (R22 000 cost at spot rate plus R1 000 exchange loss). The exchange loss
will, therefore, be added back when calculating cash flows from operating activities
Comment:
¾ If the creditor in transaction 3 was paid after the reporting date, the acquisition of
the machinery would not represent a cash flow and will not be reported under investing
activities. The unrealised exchange difference is added back to profit for the year as a non-
cash flow item. IAS 7.44A-D requires a reconciliation disclosing the movement of cash
and non-cash changes in liabilities arising from financing activities. The newly acquired
loan as well as the non-cash flow change related to the foreign exchange difference will
be included in the reconciliation
Transaction 4
The reconciliation between the opening and closing balances of cash and cash equivalents
will be as follows:
R
Opening balance (FC500 000 × 2,00) 1 000 000
Closing balance (FC600 000 × 2,25) 1 350 000
Total movement for the year 350 000
Exchange differences (FC500 000 × (2,25 – 2,00)) 125 000
Change in cash and cash equivalents (FC100 000 × 2,25) 225 000
IAS 7.28 requires the movement in cash and cash equivalents and related exchange
differences to be disclosed separately.
6.6 Leases
When the lessee pays a lease instalment, the payments are divided between capital and
interest portions.
The capital portion is the repayment of a loan that is classified under financing
activities, while the interest is shown with other interest cash flows, probably under
operating activities.
When a lease is initially capitalised there is no flow of cash and, therefore, no entry in the
statement of cash flows (refer to the Chapter on IFRS 16, Leases). The transaction may,
however, be reflected in the notes to the statement of cash flows.
6.7 Segment information
IAS 7.52 encourages the disclosure of cash flows per primary segment in the notes for
operating, investing and financing activities. Such disclosure improves the predictive value
of information to users.
7 Comprehensive example

The following are the draft annual financial statements of Alfa Ltd for the year ended
30 June 20.22:
Alfa Ltd
30 June 20.22
20.22 20.21
R’000 R’000
Revenue 4 830 4 643
Cost of sales (2 898) (3 186)
Gross profit 1 932 1 457
Other income 660 20
– Gain on disposal of land 660 –
– Reduction in allowance for expected credit losses – 20
Distribution costs (390) (125)
Other expenses (480) (360)
– Audit fees (100) (90)
– Depreciation – machinery (220) (210)
– furniture (20) (20)
– Allowance for expected credit losses (100) –
– Loss on disposal of machinery (20) –
– Interest paid (20) (40)

Income tax expense (500) (100)
Other comprehensive income
Revaluation of property 2 000 –

Alfa Ltd
Statement of financial position as at 30 June 20.22
20.22 20.21
R’000 R’000
Assets
Non-current assets
Property, plant and equipment (the detail is usually 4 920 2 000
disclosed in a note)
Land at fair value 4 000 1 240
Machinery 800 660
Cost price 1 600 1 400
Accumulated depreciation (800) (740)
Furniture 120 100
Cost price 200 160
Accumulated depreciation (80) (60)
Current assets 8 680 6 600

Inventories 3 200 2 800
Trade and other receivables 4 400 3 600
Cash on deposit 600 200
Bank 480 –
Total assets 13 600 8 600

Share capital – ordinary shares 3 350 1 500
Retained earnings 690 700
Other components of equity
Revaluation surplus 2 000 –
Total equity 6 040 2 200
Long-term borrowings 2 200 2 000
Current liabilities 5 360 4 400
Trade and other payables 2 800 3 200
Current portion of long-term borrowings 1 200 200
Tax payable: South-African Revenue Service (SARS) 150 100
Shareholders for dividends 1 200 800
Unclaimed dividends 10 –
Bank overdraft – 100
Total liabilities 7 560 6 400
Total equity and liabilities 13 600 8 600

Alfa Ltd
Statement of changes in equity for the year ended 30 June 20.22
Share Revaluation Retained
capital surplus earnings Total
R’000 R’000 R’000 R’000
Balance at 30 June 20.20 1 500 – 640 2 140
Ordinary dividend (832) (832)
Total comprehensive income for the year 892 892
Profit for the year 892 892
Other comprehensive income – –
Balance at 30 June 20.21 1 500 – 700 2 200

Ordinary shares issued 1 850 1 850
Ordinary dividend (1 232) (1 232)
Total comprehensive income for the year 2 000 1 222 3 222
Profit for the year 1 222 1 222
Other comprehensive income 2 000 2 000
Balance at 30 June 20.22 3 350 2 000 690 6 040
Additional information
(1) During the current year, land with a value of R540 000 was sold and a new piece of land
was purchased to expand the operations of the business.
(2) On 31 October 20.21, machinery with a cost price of R400 000 was purchased
to replace existing machinery (original cost price R200 000) which was sold on
1 July 20.21.
(3) Depreciation on machinery and furniture is calculated at 15% per annum and 10% per
annum respectively, using the straight-line basis.
(4) On 1 July 20.21, furniture with a cost price of R40 000 was purchased to replace
existing furniture.
(5) The outstanding balance of the current portion of long-term borrowings on 30 June 20.21
was paid during the year.
(6) Ignore any deferred tax implications.

The statement of cash flows using the indirect method will be as follows:
Alfa Ltd
Statement of cash flows for the year ended 30 June 20.22
(Indirect method)
Note R’000
Cash flows from operating activities (1 550)
Adjusted for:
Gain on disposal of land (660)
Depreciation (220 + 20) 240
Increase in the allowance for expected credit losses 100
Loss on disposal of machinery 20
Interest paid 20
Operating profit before changes in working capital 1 442
Changes in working capital (1 700)
Increase in inventories (3 200 – 2 800)* (400)
Increase in trade and other receivables (4 400 + 100 – 3 600) (900)
Decrease in trade and other payables (2 800 – 3 200)* (400)
Cash generated from operations (258)

Interest paid (20)
Taxation paid (3) (450)
Dividends paid (800 + 1 232– 1 210 (1 200 + 10)) (822)
Cash flows from investing activities (520)
Investments to maintain operating capacity (440)
Replacement of machinery (given) (400)
Replacement of furniture (200 – 160) (40)
Investments to expand operating capacity (1 300)
Additions to land (1 240 – 540 + 2 000 – 4 000) (1 300)
Proceeds on disposal of land (540 (cost) + 660 (gain on disposal)) 1 200
Proceeds on disposal of machinery (– 740 – 220 + 800 + 200 – 20) or (4) 20
Cash flows from financing activities 3 050
Proceeds from long-term borrowings 3 1 400
((2 200 + 1 200) – (2 000 + 200) + 200)
Repayment of long-term borrowings 3 (200)
Proceeds from issue of share capital (3 350 – 1 500) 2 1 850
Net increase in cash and cash equivalents 980

Cash and cash equivalents at beginning of year 1 100
Cash and cash equivalents at end of year 1 1 080

Notes to the financial statements (limited to cash flow items)
1. Cash and cash equivalents
Cash and cash equivalents consist of cash on deposit and bank account balances.
Cash and cash equivalents included in the statement of cash flows, comprise the
following statement of financial position amounts:
20.22 20.21
R’000 R’000
Cash on deposit 600 200
Bank balances 480 (100)
1 080 100
2. Issuing of share capital
20.22
During the year, additional share capital was issued as follows: R’000
1 850 000 ordinary shares (assumption) 1 850
3. Reconciliation of liabilities arising from financing activities
Long-term borrowings
Opening balance (2 000 + 200) 2 200
Cash flows: 1 200
Proceeds from long-term borrowings 1 400
Repayment of loans (200)
Non-cash change -
Closing balance (2 200 + 1 200) 4 400
The statement of cash flows using the direct method will differ from the one using the indirect
method in one respect only, i.e.: “Cash generated from operations” will be reflected as follows:
Alfa Ltd
Statement of cash flows for the year ended 30 June 20.22
(Direct method)
R’000
Cash receipts from customers (1) 3 930
Cash paid to suppliers and employees (2) (4 188)
Cash generated from operations (258)
Calculations:
(1) Cash receipts from customers:
Revenue 4 830
(Increase)/decrease in trade receivables (3 600 – 100 – 4 400) (900)
3 930

(2) Cash paid to suppliers and employees:
Cost of sales (2 898)
Increase/(decrease) in trade payables (3 200 – 2 800) (400)
(Increase)/decrease in inventories (2 800 – 3 200) (400)
Distribution costs (390)
Expenses (480)
Adjustments for non-cash items:
Depreciation (220 + 20) 240
Allowance for expected credit losses 100
Loss on disposal of machinery 20
Adjustment for items discloses separately:
Interest paid 20
4 188
(3) SARS
R’000 R’000
Bank (Balancing amount) 450 Opening balance 100
Closing balance 150 Income tax – Statement of profit or loss 500
600 600
(4) Proceeds on disposal of machinery: R’000

Carrying amount of machine on date of disposal (calculated below) 40
Loss on disposal of machine (given – statement of profit or loss) (20)
Proceeds on disposal of machine – to disclose in statement of cash flows 20
Carrying amount of machine on date of disposal (1 July 20.21) 40
Cost (given) 200
Accumulated depreciation (–740 – 220 + 800) (160)
Comment:
* When the inventories balance increases (decreases) from the prior year, it is an
indication that the company purchased (sold) more inventories in the current year;
therefore, there will be a cash outflow (inflow) in the statement of cash flows.
* Alternatively, when the trade payables balance decreases (increases) from the prior
period, it is an indication that the company settled more of their outstanding debt
(obtained more credit) in the current year from their suppliers. Therefore, there will be a
cash outflow (inflow) in the statement of cash flows.
8 Disclosure
The following are disclosed separately in terms of IAS 7:
Cash flows from operating activities are presented using either the direct method or
the indirect method. In both cases, the disclosure of the following is required:
– the cash flow generated by operations. In terms of the direct method, this is merely the
difference between cash receipts from customers and cash paid to suppliers and
employees. In accordance with the indirect method, this constitutes a reconciliation of
the profit before tax as reflected in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit
or loss and other comprehensive income with the cash generated by operations; and
– interest paid, dividends and taxation, except in cases where interest paid and
dividends are shown as part of investing and financing activities.
Cash flows from investing activities, distinguishing as far as possible between the
main categories, gross cash receipts and gross cash payments except where gross
disclosure is not required.
Cash flows from financing activities, distinguishing as far as possible between the
main categories, gross cash receipts and gross cash payments, except where gross
disclosure is not required.
The following additional disclosure is required:
the policy followed in determining the composition of cash and cash equivalents;
the components of cash and cash equivalents;
a reconciliation between the amounts of cash and cash equivalents in the statement of
cash flows and the corresponding items in the statement of financial position;
information on non-cash financing and investing transactions; and
cash flow and non-cash changes in liabilities arising from financing activities, for example
providing a reconciliation between the opening and closing balances in the statement of
financial position for liabilities arising from financing activities.
The following additional disclosure is recommended in appropriate circumstances:
the amount of the undrawn borrowing facilities available for future operating activities and
to settle capital commitments, with an indication of any limitations on the use of such
facilities;
the cash flow amount resulting from the operating, investing and financing activities of
each reportable segment (IFRS 8, Operating Segments); and
the aggregate amount of cash flows that represent increases in operating capacity,
separately from those cash flows that are required to maintain operating capacity.
9 Short and sweet
The objective of IAS 7 is to prescribe the presentation of the statements of cash

flows.
The objective of the statement of cash flows is to provide useful information about the
historical changes in cash and cash equivalents.
The statement of cash flows represents a summary of the movement of the cash and
bank balances for the period under review.
Cash flows are categorised as follows:
– cash flows from operating activities;
– cash flows from investing activities; and
– cash flows from financing activities.
There is a mathematical relationship between these three categories:
Cash flows from operating activities
+/–
Cash flows from investing activities
+/–
Cash flows from financing activities
=
Net movement in cash and cash equivalents
Operating activities are the principal revenue-producing activities of the entity.
Investing activities relate to the acquisition and disposal of long-term assets and other
investments.
Financing activities result in changes in the size and composition of the borrowings and
contributed equity of the entity.
Non-cash transactions are not included in the statement of cash flows.
Statements of cash flows are presented either according to the indirect method or
according to the direct method.
5
Accounting policies,
changes in accounting estimates, and errors
IAS 8
Contents
3 Background................................................................................................... 110
4 Accounting policies ........................................................................................ 110
4.1 Selection of accounting policies ............................................................ 111
4.2 Consistency of accounting policies ........................................................ 112
4.3 Changes in accounting policies ............................................................. 112
5 Changes in accounting estimates .................................................................... 123
5.1 Disclosure requirements ....................................................................... 124
6 Errors ........................................................................................................... 126
6.1 Prior period errors ............................................................................... 126
6.2 Material prior period errors ................................................................... 127
6.3 Disclosure ........................................................................................... 127
7 Impracticability of retrospective application and retrospective restatement ........ 135
8 Schematic overview ....................................................................................... 138
9 Short and sweet ............................................................................................ 139
Define and explain an accounting policy and prepare the policy note; explain the change
in accounting policy and the accounting treatment thereof, and apply the disclosure
requirements.
Explain what is implied by a change in accounting estimates and how a change in
accounting estimates is accounted for, and apply the disclosure requirements relating to
these items.
Identify errors, retrospectively correct material prior period errors, and apply the
disclosure requirements.
109
Accounting Determined by
Initial decision Application of
policies accounting Standards and accounting
Interpretations. policy should
be consistent
from period to
Accounting policies are only changed if: If no Standard or period and for
required by an accounting Standard or Interpretation exists, all similar
Interpretation; or management should apply transactions.
the change will provide more realiable its judgement.
and more relevant information.
Accounting policy changes Changes in estimates Prior period errors

must be applied in terms of
the transitional provisions of
a new Accounting Standard,
or retrospectively Changes are applied Corrections are made
(including all comparative prospectively, i.e. retrospectively as if the
periods shown and their current reporting period error was never made.
opening balances). and future periods (where Restate comparative periods
appropriate). and opening balances, where
appropriate.
Changes in accounting policy Changes in estimates

should be appropriately should be appropriately
disclosed. disclosed, including the Corrections must be
effect of the change on appropriately disclosed. Note
future reporting periods that only corrections of prior
(where appropriate). period errors are disclosed.
3 Background
IAS 8, Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors, specifically

prescribes the criteria for selecting and changing accounting policies, together with the
accounting treatment and disclosure of such changes. Furthermore, IAS 8 deals with the
accounting treatment of changes in accounting estimates and corrections of prior period
errors, and the disclosure thereof in the entity’s financial statements. The objective of IAS 8
is to enhance the relevance and reliability of an entity’s financial statements, which are
important concepts contained in The Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting
(Conceptual Framework) (refer to chapter 1).
4 Accounting policies
Accounting policies are defined in IAS 8.5 as the specific principles, bases,
conventions, rules and practices adopted by an entity in preparing and presenting financial
statements. These principles, bases, conventions, rules and practices are found in the
Standards and Interpretations of the International Accounting Standards Board
(International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs)).
Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates, and errors 111
IAS 8 addresses the selection, adoption and consistent application of accounting policies as
well as the required and voluntary changes in accounting policies.
4.1 Selection of accounting policies
Management should select and apply an entity’s accounting policies so that the financial
statements comply with all the requirements of each applicable Standard and Interpretation.
For example, IAS 2 Inventories requires that inventories should be measured at the lower of
cost and net realisable value. Therefore, management should ensure that inventories are
indeed measured accordingly.
Accounting policies prescribed by the Standards need not be applied when the effect
of applying them is immaterial. However, it is inappropriate to allow, or leave uncorrected,
immaterial departures from IFRSs to achieve a particular presentation of an entity’s
financial position, financial performance or cash flows (IAS 8.8).
Where there is no specific IFRS that applies to a specific transaction or event, management
should use its judgement to develop and apply accounting policies to ensure that the
financial statements provide information that is (IAS 8.10):
relevant to the decision-making needs of users, and
reliable, in that the financial statements:
– present faithfully the financial position, financial performance and cash flows of the
entity;
– reflect the economic substance of transactions, events and conditions, and not merely
the legal form;
– are neutral, i.e. free from bias;
– are prudent; and
– are complete in all material aspects.
In making this judgement, management must refer to, and consider the applicability of, the
following sources (IAS 8.11) (in descending order):
the requirements and guidance in Standards and Interpretations dealing with similar and
related issues; and
the definitions, recognition criteria and measurement concepts for assets, liabilities, income
and expenses in the Conceptual Framework.
Management may also consider the most recent pronouncements of other
standard-setting bodies that use a similar conceptual framework to develop accounting
standards, other accounting literature and accepted industry practices, to the extent that
these do not conflict with the sources above (IAS 8.12).
The most common choices in selecting an appropriate accounting policy contained in
the IFRSs, are the choice of the cost model or revaluation model for property, plant and
equipment (IAS 16.29), the cost model or the fair value model for investment properties
(IAS 40.30), and the choice of determining the cost of inventory (first-in, first-out (FIFO) or
weighted average cost) (IAS 2.25).
However, the depreciation method applied to an asset (for example, the straight-line
method, the units of production method, etc.) is an accounting estimate (IAS 8.38 and
IAS 16.61). These methods are estimates of the expected pattern of consumption of the
future economic benefits embodied in a depreciable asset, and are not choices of the
measurement model to be applied to the inventory.
4.2 Consistency of accounting policies

IAS 1.45 states that the presentation and classification of items in the financial statements
should be retained from one period to the next unless:
a significant change in the nature of the entity’s operations has taken place, or it was
decided, upon a review of its financial statements, that another presentation or
classification would be more appropriate; or
a Standard or Interpretation requires a change,
and in such circumstances, comparative amounts must be reclassified.
IAS 8.13 requires that accounting policies must be applied consistently for similar
transactions, other events and conditions, unless a Standard or Interpretation specifically
requires or permits categorisation of items for which different policies may be appropriate.
There must be consistent accounting treatment of similar items within each accounting
period, and from one period to the next. Consistency has two aspects: consistency over
time and consistency across similar items.
If a Standard or Interpretation requires or permits categorisation of items, an appropriate
accounting policy is selected and applied consistently to each category. For example,
different accounting policies may be chosen for different categories of property, plant and
equipment in terms of IAS 16, Property, Plant and Equipment. It follows that an entity may
carry its land in accordance with the revaluation model, with its vehicles carried in
accordance with the cost model of IAS 16. However, once the appropriate policy has been
chosen, it is applied consistently to the particular category. Where separate categorisation
of items is not allowed or permitted by a Standard, the same accounting policy must be
applied to all similar items.
4.3 Changes in accounting policies

Changes in accounting policies are not expected to occur often. One of the enhancing
qualitative characteristics of financial statements in the Conceptual Framework is, after all,
comparability, requiring that the financial statements of the same entity for one year can be
compared to the results in subsequent years in order to identify trends. If changes in
accounting policies take place too often, this goal is negated.
A change in accounting policy can take place in terms of IAS 8.14 only if:
it is required by a Standard or an Interpretation; or
the change results in the financial statements providing reliable and more relevant
information about the effects of transactions, other events or conditions on the entity’s
financial position, financial performance or cash flows.
If an entity enters into a new type of transaction or transactions that differ in substance
from those previously entered into, a new accounting policy must be adopted. This does not
constitute a change in accounting policy (IAS 8.16). The initial adoption of a policy to carry
assets at revalued amounts constitutes a change in accounting policy (IAS 8.17) but must be
accounted for in accordance with IAS 16, Property, Plant and Equipment or IAS 38, Intangible
Assets and not in accordance with IAS 8. This implies that the asset is merely revalued in
terms of IAS 16 (with the change in the carrying amount recognised in other comprehensive
income), and the new revaluation policy is not applied retrospectively.
IAS 8 requires that changes in accounting policy must be applied retrospectively

unless the transitional provisions of a Standard prescribe otherwise. In extraordinary
circumstances, where it is not practicable to apply the policy retrospectively, the policy may
be applied prospectively.
The following diagram explains changes in accounting policy:

Change in Accounting Policy
IAS 18.14 to .27
Initial application of a new Voluntary change to

Standard or Interpretation achieve reliable and more
(paragraphs 7 and 14(a)) relevant information
(paragraphs 10, 14(b)
and 19(b))
Apply transitional provisions in

Standard or Interpretation
(paragraph 19(a))
If there are no transitional

provisions
(paragraph 19(b))
Apply retrospectively (as if new

policy had always been applied)
(paragraph 22)
If application is impracticable or
partially impracticable
(paragraph 23)
Cumulative effect of the change

in accounting policy is known, Cumulative effect is not
but the period-specific effect known at the beginning of the
on a comparative period is current period
impracticable to determine (paragraph 25)
(paragraph 24)
Apply the new policy to carrying

amount of assets and liabilities Apply the new policy
as at the beginning of the prospectively from earliest
earliest period practicable for date practicable
retrospective application
4.3.1 Change in accounting policy due to the initial application of a Standard or

Interpretation
If the change in accounting policy is necessary due to the adoption of a new Standard
or Interpretation, the treatment follows the transitional provisions contained in the
respective Standard (IAS 8.19(a)). Where no transitional provisions are given, a
retrospective change in accounting policy shall be effected (IAS 8.19(b)). This entails an
adjustment to the opening balances of each affected component of equity for the earliest
(and each) prior period presented as if the new accounting policy had always been applied
(IAS 8.22). When the amount of the adjustment against opening retained earnings cannot be
reasonably determined, only a prospective change in accounting policy will be affected. The
latter will now be discussed further.
There is an exemption clause in IAS 8 that allows comparative amounts not to be restated if
doing so is not practicable in terms of IAS 8.23 to .27. When it is impracticable to
calculate the period-specific effects of applying the change in policy to comparative
amounts, the entity applies the new accounting policy to the carrying amounts of assets and
liabilities at the beginning of the earliest period presented where retrospective application is
possible (which may be the current period). A corresponding adjustment is made to the
opening balances of each affected component of equity for that period.
If it is impracticable to calculate the cumulative effect of the change in accounting
policy at the beginning of the current period in respect of all prior periods, the entity will
apply the policy prospectively from the earliest date from which it is practicable to
determine the cumulative effect. This implies that in certain instances, the cumulative effect
of changes in accounting policies will only be recognised partially if it is impracticable to
recognise it fully (i.e. it is not possible to calculate it).
4.3.2 Voluntary change in accounting policy
When the management of an entity decides voluntarily to adopt a new accounting

policy in terms of IAS 8.14(b), the change of policy is applied retrospectively. A policy is only
changed voluntarily if it results in reliable and more relevant information about the
transactions, events or conditions reported in the financial statements.
If, however, it is impracticable, the comparative amounts need not be restated

retrospectively. In such instances, the new accounting policy is applied prospectively,
subject to the requirement addressed above in section 4.3.1. The reason for not applying
the policy retrospectively must be stated in the notes to the financial statements.
A voluntary change can lead to misuse. For example, it is possible that certain changes in
accounting policies can be adopted in practice with the particular aim of manipulating the
reported profit amounts. Only by applying professional judgement and ensuring that the
financial statements comply with the qualitative characteristics of financial statements as per
the Conceptual Framework can such manipulation be prevented.
4.3.3 Retrospective application of a change in accounting policy
A retrospective application of a change in accounting policy results in financial

statements that are adjusted to show the new accounting policy being applied to events and
transactions as if the new accounting policy had always been in use. This implies that the
financial statements, including the comparative amounts, must be adjusted to reflect the
new policy.
If the change in accounting policy affects periods prior to the comparative period, a
cumulative adjustment is made to the opening balance of the retained earnings in the
comparative year or the earliest period presented if more than one year’s comparative
amounts are given. Note that IAS 8 allows for partial recognition, subject to the limitations
on retrospective application, as discussed earlier.
4.3.4 Prospective application of a change in accounting policy
A prospective application of a change in accounting policy means that the new policy
is applied to transactions, events and conditions that occur after the date of implementation
of the new policy. Retrospective adjustments are not made, as is in the case of a
retrospective application of the change in accounting policy. The comparative amounts are
not changed, nor are any adjustments made to retained earnings. The new policy is applied
only to new transactions, events and conditions.
Prospective application of changes in accounting policy should only be used when the
amount of the adjustment to the opening balance of the affected assets, liabilities and
equity cannot be determined reliably or if the transitional provisions of a new Standard
specify such treatment.
4.3.5 Disclosure
Disclosures regarding changes in accounting policies need only be presented in the year of
the change, and not in subsequent periods.
IAS 1, Presentation of Financial Statements, requires an entity to include a third
statement of financial position as at the beginning of the preceding period whenever an
entity:
retrospectively applies an accounting policy (refer to section 4.3.1);
makes a retrospective restatement of items in its financial statements (refer to section
6.2); or
when it reclassifies items in its financial statements; and
such adjustments have a material effect on the information in the statement of financial
position at the beginning of the preceding period (IAS 1.40A).
In the above circumstances, an entity is required to present, as a minimum, three
statements of financial position. A statement of financial position must be prepared as at:
the end of the current period;
the end of the preceding period; and
the beginning of the preceding period.
Disclosure in terms of IAS 8 (see below) is specifically required, but the notes related to the
opening statement of financial position as at the beginning of the preceding period are not
required.
The disclosures in respect of a change in accounting policy are the following:

4.3.5.1 Initial adoption of Standard/Interpretation (IAS 8.28)
When a change in accounting policy results from the initial application of a Standard or an
Interpretation, the following must be disclosed:
the title of the Standard or Interpretation;
when applicable, that the change in accounting policy is made in accordance with its
transitional provisions;
the nature of the change in accounting policy;
when applicable, a description of the transitional provisions;
when applicable, the transitional provisions that may have an effect on future periods;
for the current period and each prior period presented, to the extent practicable, the
amount of the adjustment
– for each financial statement line item affected; and
– for basic and diluted earnings per share, if presented;
the amount of the adjustment relating to periods before those presented, to the extent
practicable; and
if retrospective application is impracticable for a particular prior period, or for periods
before those presented, the circumstances that led to the existence of that condition and
a description of how and from when the change in accounting policy has been applied.
4.3.5.2 Voluntary change (IAS 8.29)
With a voluntary change in accounting policy, the following must be disclosed:
the nature of the change in accounting policy;
the reasons why applying the new accounting policy provides reliable and more relevant
information;
for the current period and each prior period presented, to the extent practicable, the
amount of the adjustment
– for basic and diluted earnings per share, if presented.
the amount of the adjustment relating to periods before those presented, to the extent
practicable; and
if retrospective application is impracticable for a particular prior period, or for periods
before those presented, the circumstances that led to the existence of that condition and
a description of how and from when the change in accounting policy has been applied.
4.3.5.3 New Standard/Interpretation not yet applied
When the IASB issues a new or revised Standard or Interpretation, it will specify an effective
future date for it. When an entity has not applied a new Standard or Interpretation that has
already been issued but is not yet effective, the entity must disclose
this fact; and
known or reasonably estimable information relevant to assessing the possible impact
that application of the new Standard or Interpretation will have on the entity’s financial
statements in the period of initial application. The information should include the title of
the Standard or Interpretation, the nature of the proposed changes in policy, the date by
which the application of the Standard or Interpretation is required, the expected
application date of the entity and a discussion of the expected impact of the initial
application or, if not known, a declaration to that effect.
The following is a suggested work method when dealing with current and
retrospective adjustments to the financial statements and the resultant disclosure in the
notes when an entity accounts for a change in accounting policy:
Calculate the current and retrospective cumulative and period-specific effects with due
consideration to the possible impracticability in certain scenarios (refer to section 7
below). The effect will be the difference between what was done (old policy) and what
should now be done (new policy).
Write the relevant journals to account for the current and retrospective application of
the new accounting policy. These journals account for the difference (see above).
Change the actual amounts in the financial statements by applying these journals to
each individual line item affected.
Disclose the effect of the changes to each financial statement line item in the notes to
the financial statements.
Example 5.1: Change in accounting policy

Bokke Ltd, a company incorporated on 1 January 20.26, decided to change its policy for the
valuation of inventories from the first-in, first-out method to the weighted average method.
The following information (before accounting for any change in the policy) was extracted
from the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income and the statement of
changes in equity for the year ended 31 December:
Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income: 20.28 20.27
R R
Revenue 1 600 000 1 300 000
Cost of sales (800 000) (520 000)
Other expenses (520 000) (498 000)
Profit before tax 280 000 282 000
Income tax expense – current (89 000) (102 200)
Total comprehensive income for the year 191 000 179 800
Statement of changes in equity:

Dividends declared and paid (statement of changes in equity) 20 000 10 000
The information regarding the change in accounting policy in respect of inventories is as follows:
Inventories (closing balances) 20.28 20.27 20.26
R R R
Weighted average (new method) 220 000 280 000 240 000
First-in, first-out (old method) 180 000 275 000 260 000
Retained earnings at the beginning of the year, before taking any change in accounting
policy into account, amounted to R24 000 in 20.27 and R193 800 in 20.28.
Ignore any income tax consequences of the change in accounting policy.
Example 5.1: Change in accounting policy (continued)

Calculate the retrospective and current cumulative and period-specific effect of the change
in accounting policy:
In order to understand the following calculation, it is important to understand the link between
inventories and cost of sales (COS). Cost of sales is calculated as follows:
Opening inventories + Purchases – Closing inventories
The total amount of purchases will not change as a result of the change in accounting policy,
but the change in the value of any closing inventory balance will directly influence the
calculation of the cost of sales.
Cumulative Period Cumulative Period Cumulative

specific specific
20.26 20.27 20.27 20.28 20.28
R R R R R
SFP P/L SFP P/L SFP
First-in, first-out (old) (260 000) (275 000) (180 000)
Weighted average
(new) 240 000 280 000 220 000
Difference per SFP (20 000) 5 000 40 000
Increase in P/L 25 0001 35 0002
Comment:
(1) COS = (opening inventories – R20 000) + purchases – (closing inventories + R5 000)
= total decrease in COS of R25 000. When COS decreases, profit for the year increases.
(2) COS = (opening inventories + R5 000) + purchases – (closing inventories + R40 000)
= total decrease in COS of R35 000. When COS decreases, profit for the year increases.
Detailed calculation of the cost of sales (P/L):
20.27 20.27 20.28 20.28

Old policy New policy Old policy New policy
R R R R
Opening inventory 260 000 240 000 275 000 280 000
Purchase 535 000 535 000 705 000 705 000
Closing inventory (275 000) (280 000) (180 000) (220 000)
Cost of sales 520 000 495 000 800 000 765 000
Increase in P/L (Decrease in cost of 25 000 35 000
sales)

Journal entries to account for the change in accounting policy:
The full cumulative and period-specific effects for all comparative periods are available, as is
evident from the calculation above. Therefore, the amounts in the financial statements for
the year ended 31 December 20.27 (comparative period) can be restated for the cumulative
effect of the change in accounting policy on all prior periods, assuming that the comparative
period can be re-opened for purposes of processing these journals. Full retrospective
application is, therefore, practicable.
Dr Cr
R R
Journal 1
1 January 20.27
Retained earnings – opening balance (SCE) 20 000
Restate the opening balance of the earliest period presented for
the cumulative effect of the change in accounting policy (change
in the 20.26 closing inventories balance)
Journal 2
31 December 20.27
Account for the period-specific and cumulative effect of 20.27
Journal 3
31 December 20.28
Account for the period-specific and cumulative effect of 20.28
Comments:
¾ The cumulative effect of jnl 1 and 2 is an increase in the inventory balance of R5 000 at
the end of 20.27, which is in line with the calculations above.
¾ The cumulative effect of jnl 1, 2 and 3 is an increase in the inventory balance of
R40 000 at the end of 20.28, which is in line with the calculations above.
Alternative journal entries to account for the change in accounting policy:
If the comparative period cannot be re-opened in the accounting software for purposes of
processing these adjusting journals, the net effect will be adjusted at the beginning of the
current year as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
1 January 20.28
Retained earnings – opening balance (1 Jan. 20.28) (SCE) 5 000
Account for the cumulative effect of the retrospective application
to the beginning of 20.28
Comments:
¾ The corrections above were made on 1 January 20.28. The cost of sales for 20.28 (i.e.
the current year) will merely be calculated on the corrected opening balances (see jnl 3
above).
Restate the line items in the financial statements for the effect of the change in accounting
policy:
Bokke Ltd
31 December 20.28
20.28 20.27
R R
Revenue 1 600 000 1 300 000
Cost of sales (765 000)3 (495 000)4
Gross profit 835 000 805 000
Other expenses (520 000) (498 000)
Income tax expense7 (89 000) (102 200)
Total comprehensive income for the year 226 000 204 800
Calculations:
(3) R800 000 – R35 000 (jnl 3) = R765 000
(4) R520 000 – R25 000 (jnl 2) = R495 000
(5) R280 000 + R35 000 = R315 000
(6) R282 000 + R25 000 = R307 000
(7) The income tax consequences of the change were ignored in this example
Bokke Ltd
Extract from the statement of financial position as at 31 December 20.28
20.28 20.27
R R
Assets
Current assets
Inventories 220 0008 280 0009
Equity and Liabilities

Equity
Retained earnings 404 800 198 800
Calculations:
(8) R180 000 (old balance) – R20 000 (jnl 1) + R25 000 (jnl 2) + R35 000 (jnl 3) =
R220 000 (cumulative balance)
(9) R275 000 (old balance) – R20 000 (jnl 1) + R25 000 (jnl 2) = R280 000 (cumulative
balance)

Bokke Ltd
Note Retained
earnings
R
Balance at 31 December 20.26 24 000
Change in accounting policy (jnl 1) 2 (20 000)
Restated balance 4 000
Total comprehensive income for the year – restated 204 800
Profit for the year – restated 204 800
Other comprehensive income –
Dividends (10 000)
Other comprehensive income for the year –
Dividends (20 000)
Disclose the effect of the change in accounting policy in the notes:
Bokke Ltd
1.1 Inventories
Inventories are valued at the lower of cost and net realisable value. Cost is determined
according to the weighted average method. This represents a change in accounting
policy (refer to note 2).

2. Change in accounting policy
During the year, the company changed its policy for the valuation of inventory from the
first-in, first-out method to the weighted average method. Due to the inventory turnover,
this will result in a more reliable presentation of information (the reason for the change
should be disclosed). The change in policy has been accounted for retrospectively, and
the comparative amounts have been appropriately restated (IAS 1.41). The effect of the
change is as follows:
20.28 20.27 1 Jan 20.27
R R R
Increase (Decrease) in retained earnings 5 000 (20 000) – **
– opening balance
Decrease in cost of sales (35 000)13 (25 000)11 –
Increase in profit for the year * 35 000 25 000 –
Increase in total comprehensive income * 35 000 25 000 –
Increase (Decrease) inventories 40 000 14 5 000 12 (20 000)10
Increase (Decrease) in current and total
assets * 40 000 5 000 (20 000)
Increase (Decrease) in total equity * 40 000 5 000 (20 000)
Increase (Decrease) in retained earnings – 40 000 5 000 (20 000) **
closing balance
Increase in basic earnings per share xx xx
Increase in diluted earnings per share xx xx
Comments:
(10) Refer to jnl 1. This represents the cumulative effect at the beginning of the earliest
period presented.
(11) Refer to jnl 2. This represents the period-specific effect in 20.27.
(12) This represents the cumulative effect on closing inventories in 20.27, which is the
result of jnl 1 and 2.
(13) Refer to jnl 3. This represents the period-specific effect in 20.28.
(14) This represents the cumulative effect on closing inventories in 20.28, which is the
result of jnl 1, 2 and 3.
¾ According to IAS 8.29(c), an entity must disclose, for the current and each prior period
presented, the amount of the adjustment as a result of the change in an accounting
policy, for each financial statement line item affected and for basic and diluted EPS (if
presented).
¾ Note that disclosure of the adjustment to the current period is made for the change in
accounting policy. This is not done for the retrospective restatement of a prior period
error (refer to section 6.3).
* These line items are not directly affected by the journal entries but will automatically
change as a result thereof.
** Disclosure in terms of IAS 8.29(d).
5 Changes in accounting estimates
As professional judgement is often used in the drafting of financial statements, it is

possible that the exercise of judgement may prove to have been incorrect at a later date. This
does not imply, however, that an error was made. The preparer of the financial statements
merely used the information available at the date of the estimate with reasonable care in order
to come to a conclusion that was proved over time to be incorrect.
Estimation involves judgements by management based on the latest reliable information

that is available when the financial statements are prepared. The use of estimates does not
mean that the item was not presented faithfully. Many items in financial statements cannot
be measured with precision but can only be estimated, as uncertainties are inherent in
business activities.
An example is the estimate of the useful life of a depreciable asset. On the date of
acquisition of a depreciable asset, the expected useful life should be estimated, based on
the facts available at that date. If the estimate proves to be incorrect at a later stage due to
changes in circumstances, new information or more experience, steps are taken to correct
the estimate. The correction of the estimate is called a “change in accounting estimate”,
and it takes place continually. The financial statements are not less accurate as a result of
the changes in estimates.
A change in accounting estimates is an adjustment of either:

the carrying amount of an asset or a liability; or
the amount of the periodic consumption of an asset.
Changes in accounting estimates result from new information or new developments. Therefore,
they are not corrections of prior period errors.
Examples of the adjustment of the carrying amount of an asset or liability are:

the estimates involved in determining the recoverable amount of an asset (e.g. value in
use or net realisable value);
the estimates involved in determining the balance of a provision (e.g. a provision for
environmental restoration);
the expected future taxable profits in determining the balance of a deferred tax asset;
and
an adjustment in the current year for the over- or under-provided taxation of the
previous year.
The carrying amounts of such items are typically determined at the reporting date.
Management would then use the newest information available to estimate the amount to
be recognised.
Changes in estimates that give rise to changes in the carrying amount of an asset,
liability or equity item are recognised by merely adjusting the carrying amount of the related
asset, liability or equity item in the period of the change. This implies that the carrying
amount of the item is calculated by taking the newest estimates into account.
Estimates relating to the periodic consumption of an asset are made for the residual value,
the pattern of consumption of the future economic benefits embodied in the asset (i.e. the
depreciation method) and the useful life of a depreciable asset.
Changes in accounting estimates of the periodic consumption of a depreciable asset

are recognised prospectively by using the newest available estimates for the residual value,
the pattern of economic benefits and the useful life of such an asset to calculate
depreciation for the current year.
IAS 16 requires that the residual value, useful life and depreciation method of items of
property, plant and equipment shall be reviewed at least at each financial year-end
(IAS 16.51,61). If these estimates differ from previous estimates, the changes shall be
accounted for as a change in accounting estimate. The same applies to intangible assets
that are amortised.
Changes in accounting estimates affect only the current period or the current and
future periods. This implies that changes in estimates are recognised prospectively in the
periods affected by the change and not retrospectively by adjusting amounts in a prior
period.
An example of a change in estimate that affects only the current period is a change in an
allowance for expected credit losses (adjustment of the carrying amount of receivables).
Such a change in estimate is merely included in the profit or loss of the current period and,
if material, is disclosed as an item requiring specific disclosure in terms of IAS 8 unless it is
impracticable to do so. Even if the item does not have a material effect on the results of the
current period, but is expected to have a material effect in the future, the item should be
disclosed separately as an item requiring disclosure in the current period in terms of IAS 8
unless estimating it is impracticable.
An example of an item that affects both the current and future periods is a change in the
useful life, residual value, or depreciation method of a depreciable asset. The change in
estimate applicable to the current period is included in the profit or loss. Once again, if the
amount is material in relation to the results of the current period or is expected to have a
material effect on future periods, the item will be disclosed in accordance with the specific
disclosure requirements of IAS 8 unless estimating it is impracticable. In that instance, this
fact is disclosed in the financial statements.
A change of estimate made in the current period need not again be disclosed separately
in future periods.
In the exceptional instance where it is not possible to distinguish whether a transaction,
event or condition is a change in estimate or a change in accounting policy, IAS 8 suggests
that it should be treated as a change in accounting estimate (IAS 8.35).
5.1 Disclosure requirements

The following must be disclosed in respect of material changes in accounting estimates:
the nature of the change;
the amount of the change; and
the effect on future periods (if practicable to estimate) – or else a statement that the
future effect is impracticable to estimate.
Example 5.2: Change in accounting estimate

Palm Ltd bought a new machine at a total cost of R400 000 on 1 January 20.24.
Management decided to base the calculation of depreciation on the following estimates:
Residual value: R50 000
Total useful life: 10 years
Pattern of benefits: Straight line.
Annual depreciation was then recognised as R35 000 ((R400 000 – R50 000)/10).
The carrying amount of the machine on 1 January 20.26 amounted to R330 000
(R400 000 – R35 000 – R35 000).
During 20.26, management reviewed the estimates for calculating depreciation on this
machine. Based on new information that became available during 20.26, the estimates
were changed to the following:
Residual value: R55 000
Total useful life: Seven years (thus five years remaining from 1 January 20.26)
Pattern of benefits: Straight line.
Annual depreciation would now (effectively from the beginning of the current year) be
recognised as R55 000 ((R330 000 – R55 000)/5).
This will be recognised as depreciation (debit) in the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income. This amount will be disclosed in the note accompanying profit
before tax. The amount will also be recognised as accumulated depreciation (credit),
affecting the machine’s carrying amount. The accumulated depreciation will be taken into
account in the statement of financial position in the line item property, plant and equipment
and will be disclosed in the note accompanying this line item.
Comment:
¾ After a change in estimate, depreciation is calculated as follows:
The newest carrying amount (at the beginning of the year in which the estimate changed)
minus the newest residual value is the new depreciable amount. This amount is
depreciated according to the newest depreciation method (that reflects the newest
pattern of consumption), based on the newest rates (newest remaining useful life,
newest diminishing balance rate/percentage).
The effect of the change in accounting estimate for the current year,, to be disclosed,
amounts to R20 000 increase (R55 000 new depreciation – R35 000 previously).
The effect of the change in accounting estimate for the future periods, to be disclosed,
amounts to R25 000 decrease (R245 000 old depreciable amount – R220 000 new
depreciable amount).
OLD: R330 000 carrying amount beginning – R35 000 depreciation 20.26 = R295 000
carrying amount end – R50 000 residual value = R245 000 depreciable amount at the
end of 20.26, representing the depreciation of future periods.
NEW: R330 000 carrying amount beginning – R55 000 new depreciation 20.26 =
R275 000 carrying amount end – R55 000 residual value = R220 000 depreciable
amount at the end of 20.26, representing the depreciation of future periods.
Comment:
The calculation of the new depreciation is based on the carrying amount of the asset as at
the beginning of the current year, taking the new estimates into account. This will ensure
that the change in accounting estimate is recognised prospectively for the current year.
A change in the depreciation method (reflecting the expected pattern of consumption of

the future economic benefits embodied in a depreciable asset) is illustrated in Example 5.4
below (refer to note 5). A change in the carrying amount of a provision is illustrated in
Example 14.11 (refer to chapter 14 dealing with IAS 37 Provisions Contingent Liabilities and
Contingent Assets).
6 Errors
Errors can arise in respect of the recognition, measurement, presentation or

disclosure of elements of financial statements. Financial statements do not comply with
IFRSs if they contain either material errors, or immaterial errors made intentionally to
achieve a particular presentation of an entity’s financial position, financial performance or
cash flows.
Errors discovered in the current period (and relating to the current period) are corrected
before the financial statements are authorised for issue and therefore do not require special
treatment or disclosure. Errors are, however, sometimes not discovered until a subsequent
period and are called prior period errors. These may need special treatment, depending
on the materiality thereof.
6.1 Prior period errors
Prior period errors are omissions from, and misstatements in, the entity’s financial
statements for one or more prior periods arising from a failure to use (or misuse of) reliable
information that was available when the financial statements for those periods were
authorised for issue and could reasonably be expected to have been obtained and taken
into account in the preparation and presentation of those financial statements. Such errors
include the effects of mathematical mistakes, mistakes in applying accounting policies,
oversights or misinterpretations of facts, and fraud.
An example of an error made in the application of an accounting policy is the incorrect

application of the calculation of the recoverable amount of an asset that is possibly impaired
as required by IAS 36, Impairment of Assets. According to IAS 36, the recoverable amount
of an asset is the higher of its value in use and its fair value less costs of disposal. Should
an entity have used the lower of the two amounts when calculating the impairment loss in
a prior period, the resultant impairment loss would have been incorrect, and it would
constitute an error that should be corrected retrospectively in accordance with IAS 8.
It is important to note that a change in an accounting estimate is not a correction of

an error, as a change in estimate results from new information, more experience or a
change in circumstances. In contrast, the correction of an error relates to information that
was available in prior periods. A change in estimate is inherent in accounting and will,
therefore, not result in financial statements that are incorrect or unreliable, as is the case
with errors. For example, a gain or loss recognised on the outcome of a contingency is a
change in estimate (based on new information), and not an error.
6.2 Material prior period errors
Prior period omissions or misstatements of items are material if they could, individually
or collectively, influence the economic decisions of users taken on the basis of the financial
statements. Materiality depends on the size and/or nature of the omission or misstatement
judged in the surrounding circumstances. The size or nature of the item, or a combination of
both, could be the determining factor. An entity should correct material prior period errors
retrospectively in the first set of financial statements authorised for issue after the discovery
of the error.
Guidance on the concept of materiality can also be found in the IASB’s Practice Statement
2: Making Materiality Judgements. The Practice Statement provides an overview of the
general characteristic of materiality, presents a four-step process that may be followed in
making materiality judgements when preparing financial statements, and provide guidance
on how to make materiality judgments in specific circumstances (in particular, when dealing
with prior-period information and errors).
By the retrospective restatement or correction of an error, an entity corrects the

recognition, measurement and disclosure of amounts of the relevant element of the
financial statements as if the prior period error had never occurred.
Retrospective correction of a material prior period error involves (IAS 8.42):

restating the comparative amounts for the prior period(s) presented in which the error
occurred; or
if the error occurred before the earliest prior period presented, restating the opening
balances of assets, liabilities and equity for the earliest prior period presented.
When a retrospective correction of a material prior period error is required, it may happen
that it is impracticable to determine either the period-specific effects (i.e. the effect for a
specific period) or the cumulative effect of the error (IAS 8.43 to .45). Should the
impracticability relate to period-specific effects, the earliest period for which retrospective
restatement is practicable should be determined. The necessary adjustment must then be
made against the opening balance of each affected component of asset, liability or equity for
that specific period, after which restatement will commence from that period onwards. If it is
impracticable to determine the cumulative effect of the error at the beginning of the current
period, comparative information should be restated prospectively from the earliest date
practicable. The cumulative restatement of assets, liabilities and equity arising before that
specific date is then disregarded. Note that the above treatment is identical to the treatment
of a change in accounting policy where retrospective application of such a change is
impracticable.
6.3 Disclosure
Disclosure in respect of the correction of prior period errors will only be presented in the
year in which the correction is made, and not in subsequent periods. The following
information regarding the correction of errors should be disclosed in the financial
statements:
the nature of the prior period error;
for each prior period presented, to the extent practicable, the amount of the
correction
– for basic and diluted earnings per share, if presented;
the amount of the correction at the beginning of the earliest prior period presented (i.e.
the cumulative correction against the opening balance of retained earnings);
if retrospective restatement is impracticable for a particular prior period, the circumstances
that led to the existence of that condition and a description of how and from when the
error has been corrected.
The requirement of IAS 1 to present a third statement of financial position (as discussed
above in section 4.3.5) also applies where a prior period error was restated retrospectively.
The following is a suggested work method when dealing with retrospective

restatements and corrections to the financial statements and the resultant disclosure in the
notes when an entity accounts for a prior period error:
Calculate the retrospective cumulative and period-specific effects with due consideration
to the possible impracticability in certain scenarios (refer to section 7 below). The effect
will be the difference between what was done (incorrectly) and what should have been
done (correctly).
Write the applicable journals to account for the retrospective restatement to correct the
prior period error. These journals account for the difference (see above).
Change the actual amounts in the financial statements by applying these journals to
each individual line item affected.
Disclose the effect of the restatements to each financial statement line item of the
comparative periods in the notes to the financial statements.
Example 5.3: Retrospective correction of a prior period error

Boabab Ltd’s current year-end is 31 December 2023. Boabab Ltd acquired machinery on
1 January 20.21 at a purchase price of R1 000 000. Boabab Ltd incurred installation costs
of R100 000. The machinery was used from 1 January 20.21. Depreciation is based on the
expected useful life of 500 000 units, with no residual value. Actual production was 80 000
during 20.21 and 100 000 units during 20.22. All units produced were sold, and the
company had no inventory items at any reporting date.
In 20.23, the directors realised that the installation costs were incorrectly expensed on
1 January 20.21, and were not capitalised to the cost of the machinery (IAS 16.16,17(d)).
This represents a material prior period error. Ignore any income tax consequences.
Calculate the retrospective correction of the cumulative and period-specific effect of the
correction needed:
PPE PPE Correction
(incorrect) (correct) needed
R R R
Purchase price (1/1/20.21) 1 000 000 1 000 000 –
Installation costs – 100 000 100 000
Total cost 1 000 000 1 100 000 100 000
Depreciation 20.21 (cost × 80 000/500 000) (160 000) (176 000) (16 000)
Carrying amount (31/12/20.21) 840 000 924 000 84 000
Depreciation 20.22 (cost × 100 000/500 000) (200 000) (220 000) (20 000)
Carrying amount (31/12/20.22) 640 000 704 000 64 000
Example 5.3: Retrospective correction of a prior period error (continued)
Comment:
¾ The notes for the financial year ended 31 December 20.23 will present the information
for 20.23 and 20.2 22 (as the comparative year).
¾ The correction to the installation costs (R100 000 on 1 January 20.2 21) and the
depreciation of 20.2 21 (R16 000) represent the amount of the cumulative correction at
the beginning of the earliest prior period presented (i.e. 20.22). The net amount of
R84 000 is the cumulative retrospective correction against the opening balance of
retained earnings for 20.22 to be presented in the note for the prior period error (see
below) (refer to IAS 8.49(c)).
¾ The correction to the depreciation of 20.22 (R20 000) represents the period-specific
retrospective correction of the comparative year (i.e. 20.2
22) for each line item affected
(refer to IAS 8.49(b)(i)).
Journal entries to account for the retrospective correction of the prior period error:
The full cumulative and period-specific effects for all comparative periods are available, as is
evident from the calculation above. Therefore, the amounts in the financial statements for
the year ended 31 December 20.22 (comparative period) can be restated for the cumulative
effect of the retrospective correction of the error on all prior periods, assuming that the
comparative period can be re-opened for purposes of processing these journals. Full
retrospective application is, therefore, practicable.
Dr Cr
R R
Journal 1
1 January 20.22
Machinery (PPE) – cost (SFP) 100 000
the cumulative effect of the retrospective correction of
installation costs not capitalised on 1 January 20.21
Journal 2
1 January 20.22
Accumulated depreciation on machinery (SFP) 16 000
the cumulative effect of the retrospective correction of
depreciation incorrectly calculated in 20.21
Journal 3
31 December 20.22
Accumulated depreciation on machinery (SFP) 20 000
Account for the period-specific retrospective correction of
depreciation incorrectly calculated for 20.22
Comments:
¾ The cumulative effect of jnl 1 and 2 is an increase in the opening balance of retained
earnings on 1 January 20.22 of R84 000, which is in line with the calculations above.
Example 5.3: Retrospective correction of a prior period error (continued)
Alternative journal entries to account for the retrospective correction of the prior period
error:
If the comparative period cannot be re-opened in the accounting software for purposes of
processing these adjusting journals, the net effect will be adjusted at the beginning of the
current year as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
1 January 20.23
Machinery (PPE) – cost (SFP) 100 000
Accumulated depreciation on machinery (SFP)
36 000
(16 000 + 20 000)
Retained earnings – opening balance (SCE)
64 000
(100 000 – 16 000 – 20 000)
Account for the cumulative effect of the retrospective correction
of the prior period error to the beginning of the current year
Comments:
¾ The corrections above were made on 1 January 20.23. The depreciation for 20.23 (i.e.
the current year) will merely be calculated on the corrected opening balances.
2. Prior period error
During the year, the company realised that installation costs of R100 000 were
incorrectly expensed and not capitalised to the cost of the machinery acquired on
1 January 20.21. Accordingly, the depreciation of the machinery was also incorrectly
recognised since then (i.e. 20.21 and 20.22). The error has been retrospectively
corrected, and the comparative amounts have been appropriately restated (IAS 1.41).
The effect of the change is as follows:
20.22
R R
(Increase) in retained earnings – opening balance (84 000) **
Increase in cost of sales; Decrease in profit for the year *;
Decrease in total comprehensive income * 20 000
(Increase) in retained earnings – closing balance, and total equity * (64 000)
Increase in total non-current assets and total assets * 64 000
Increase in machinery – cost 100 000
(Increase) in accumulated depreciation on machinery (36 000)
Increase in basic earnings per share xx

Increase in diluted earnings per share xx
Comments:
¾ In contrast with the disclosure requirements for changes in accounting policies, the
effect on the current year’s line items is not required. Remember that disclosure is made
for the retrospective correction of a prior period error.
* These line items are not directly affected by the journal entries but will automatically
change as a result thereof.
** Disclosure in terms of IAS 8.49(c).
Example 5.4: Comprehensive example – Change in estimate, correction of error and

reclassification
The following information was obtained from the draft statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income, and the draft statement of changes in equity of Londolozi Ltd for
the year ended 31 December 20.26. These financial statements for the year ended
31 December 20.26 have not been issued yet.
Notes 20.26 20.25
R’000 R’000
Revenue 1 2 510 2 030
Cost of sales (1 250) (1 035)
Other expenses 2 (910) (770)
Other income (investment income) 3 85 120
Finance costs (30) (25)
Ordinary dividend paid (statements of changes in equity) 4 70 90

Retained earnings beginning of the year 355 185
1. Revenue consisted of the following:
20.26 20.25
R’000 R’000
Selling of goods 1 400 1 285
Services rendered 870 745
Profit on expropriation of land 110 –
Other sundry income 130 –
2 510 2 030
Comment:
¾ The profit on the expropriation of land of R110 000 and the other sundry income of
R130 000 (in Note 1 above) should not be included in the Revenue line item as these items
would not be classified as “revenue” under IFRS 15 Revenue from Contracts with
Customers. No journal entry is required as these amounts can still be moved to another line
item for presentation purposes. The financial statements for the 20.26 year have not been
issued yet. These items are merely corrected in the current year and presented as part of
“other income” in the final statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
2. The following items are included in other expenses:
20.26 20.25
R’000 R’000
Depreciation – equipment 15 25
Staff cost 150 120
Distribution costs 172 135
Administrative expenses 183 170
Assume that the depreciation and staff costs are correctly classified as “other
expenses”.
During 20.26, the accountant realised that the distribution costs and administrative
expenses should be presented separately in the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income, in accordance with the format in IAS 1, Presentation of
Financial Statements.

reclassification (continued)
Comment:
¾ The distribution costs and administrative expenses should be reclassified (not as
“other expenses” any longer) in the current and comparative years and be presented
separately in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income. Refer to
journal 2 for the correction made to the comparative year (20.25).
3. A dividend of R80 000 received for the 20.26 financial year has yet to be recorded.
4. Ordinary dividends of R55 000 declared have yet to be accounted for in the 20.26
financial year.
Comment:
¾ The dividend received and the dividends declared that were not recognised yet, should
merely still be recognised during the current year. This does not represent a “prior
period error”.
5. The management of the company told you that the accounting estimate in respect of
the depreciation of equipment has changed and was accounted for, due to the previous
pattern of depreciation differing from the actual pattern of economic benefits from
depreciable assets. The reducing-balance method is applied from 20.26 at 20% per
annum, instead of the straight-line method over five years. According to the reducing-
balance method, the depreciation for the 20.26 financial year was calculated as
follows:
R’000
Balance beginning of the year – carrying amount of asset (depreciation 75
based on the previous estimates)
Depreciation for the year (based on the new estimates) (75 000 × 20%) (15)
Balance end of the year 60
The original cost of the equipment was R125 000. The estimated residual value was
insignificant, and this estimate has remained unchanged.
Comment:
¾ The estimates of the expected pattern of economic benefits of the equipment have
changed, and the depreciation for the current year is based on the newest estimates.
This represents a change in an accounting estimate.
6. During the 20.25 financial year, the following error occurred: An investment in shares
purchased at a fair value of R75 000 was incorrectly recognised as an administrative
expense. The investment was classified as at fair value through profit or loss, but the
fair value of the investment remained unchanged until the end of the 20.26 financial
year. This error has not yet been corrected. It is possible to open the accounting system
for the 20.25 financial year for the purposes of correcting this error.
Refer to journal 1 for the correction made to the comparative year (20.25).
7. Ignore the tax effects of any adjustments.

Journal entries to account for the correction of the prior period error and the reclassification
of specific line items:
Dr Cr
R R
Journal 1
31 December 20.25
Investments (SFP) 75 000
Administrative expenses (P/L) 75 000
Correction of prior period error
Journal 2
31 December 20.25
Distribution costs (P/L) 135 000
Administrative expenses (P/L) 170 000
Other expenses (P/L) 305 000
Reclassification of expense items in the comparative year
Comment:
¾ The corrections in the preceding journals were made against the line items of profit or
loss as it was possible to open the accounting system for the 20.25 financial year. If this
was not the case, the corrections in respect of the preceding year would have been
made against the opening balance of retained earnings as at 1 January 20.26.
¾ The journals for the dividend received (Note 3), and the dividend declared (Note 4) will still
be recorded in the current year (20.26). There is, therefore, no correction of an error that
needs to be accounted for.
Restate the line items in the financial statements for the effect of the correction of the error
and the reclassification:
Londolozi Ltd
31 December 20.26
Notes 20.26 20.25
R’000 R’000
Revenue (20.26: 2 510 – 110 – 130) (20.25: 2 030) 2 270 2 030
Cost of sales (1 250) (1 035)
Gross profit 1 020 995
Other income
(20.26: 110 + 130 + 85 + 80 (div)) (20.25: 120) 405 120
Distribution costs (20.25: jnl 2) (172) (135)
Administrative expenses (20.25: 170 jnl 2 – 75 jnl 1) (183) (95)
Other expenses (20.26: 910 – 172 – 183)
(20.25: 770 – 135 jnl 2 – 170 jnl 2) (555) (465)
Finance costs (30) (25)
Assets
Non-current assets
Investments (20.25: xxx + 75 (jnl 1)) xxx xxx

Londolozi Ltd
Notes Retained
earnings
R’000
Balance at 1 January 20.25 185
Total comprehensive income for the year – restated 335
Profit for the year – restated 4 335
Dividends (90)
Balance at 31 December 20.25 – restated (355 + 75 (jnl 1)) 430
Total comprehensive income for the year 410
Profit for the year 410
Dividends (70 + 55) (125)
Balance at 31 December 20.26 715
Disclose the effect of the correction of the prior period error and the reclassification in the
notes:
Londolozi Ltd
The following items are included in profit before tax: 20.26 20.25
Income/(Expenses) R’000 R’000
Staff costs (150) (120)
Profit on expropriation of land 110 –
Depreciation – equipment (15) (25)
A change in the method of writing-off depreciation (from the straight-line method to the
reducing-balance method) resulted in a change in estimate, which decreased depreciation
on equipment for the year by R10 000. The effect on future periods is an increase of R10 000
in the depreciation expense (see calculations).
The prior period error represents a correction of an investment that was incorrectly accounted
for as an administrative expense in 20.25. The comparative amounts have been appropriately
corrected. The effect of this error on the results of 20.25 is as follows:
20.25
R’000
Decrease in administrative expenses (jnl 1) (75)
Increase in profit for the year * 75
Increase in total comprehensive income for the year* 75
Increase in investments (jnl 1) 75

Increase in total assets * 75
Increase in total equity * 75
Increase in retained earnings * 75
Increase in basic earnings per share * xxx

Increase in diluted earnings per share * xxx

Comment:
¾ According to IAS 8.49(b), an entity shall disclose for each prior period presented, the
amount of the correction for each financial statement line item affected as well as the
effect on basic and diluted earnings per share (if presented). Therefore, this prior period
error note has to indicate the effect of the correcting journal entry on all the financial
statement line items and not only those directly affected as a result of the journal entry
written. The line items indicated with a * are those items that are not directly affected by
the journals.
¾ There is no 20.25 opening balance column in this note, as the prior period error only
occurred during the 20.25 year.
5. Reclassification
A portion of other expenses was reclassified as distribution costs and administrative
expenses during the current and comparative financial years. The comparative amounts
have been accordingly restated as follows:
20.25
R’000
Decrease in other expenses (jnl 2) (305)
Increase in distribution costs (jnl 2) 135
Increase in administrative expenses (jnl 2) 170
Calculations:
Change in accounting estimate
Effect of change in estimate on current and future periods
R’000
Depreciation new – depreciation old (25 000 – 15 000) = effect on 10
current year depreciation
Depreciable amount – old basis (125 000/5 × 2) 50

Depreciable amount – new basis (75 000 – 15 000) 60
Increase in depreciation in future periods 10
7 Impracticability of retrospective application and retrospective restatement

The retrospective application for changes in accounting policies or the restatement of
amounts for errors cannot be achieved in all circumstances. In certain instances, it is
impracticable to restate comparatives, as the information of previous periods is unavailable,
not collected, or the information is not available in a format that allows for restatement.
IAS 8 defines “impracticable” as when an entity cannot apply a requirement after
making every reasonable effort to do so. This includes:
the effects of retrospective application (change in accounting policy) or retrospective
restatement (prior period errors) are not determinable;
the retrospective application or retrospective restatement requires assumptions about
what management intent would have been in a prior period; and
the retrospective application or retrospective restatement requires significant estimates
of amounts, and it is not possible to objectively distinguish information about those
estimates that:
– provides evidence of circumstances that existed at the initial date the amounts were
recognised, measured or disclosed; and
– would have been available when the financial statements were authorised for issue
from other information.
Consequently, the determination of estimates such as fair values of assets that are not
based on market values of recognised securities exchanges is probably impracticable to
determine as at a date in the past. It is important to note that when determining the
estimates, the information available on the date of the transaction, event, or condition
should be considered in the measurement, but the benefits of hindsight should not be
considered. For example, the classification of a financial asset may not be changed if, with the
knowledge of hindsight, it was found that management changed the classification in
subsequent years.
Example 5.5: Impracticability of retrospective restatement

Bella Ltd was incorporated on 1 January 20.21. On this date, Bella Ltd purchased an
equipment item at a total cost of R2 250 000. The asset’s estimated residual value is
insignificant. The asset is depreciated on the straight-line method over its estimated useful
life of 15 years. All estimates were reviewed annually, and it was deemed that no change
was necessary for any financial year. At the end of each year, an impairment loss was
recognised on this asset. The asset was every time written down to its fair value. The value
in use of the asset was never calculated, and costs of disposal were never taken into
account. The current financial year end is 31 December 20.26. The error in the calculation
of the recoverable amount and the resultant impairment loss was only discovered in the
current financial year. Ignore any tax implications.
The following information is available:
20.25 20.24
Comparative End of 20.24
year (opening balance of
the comparative
year (20.25))
Carrying amount at beginning of financial year
(based on incorrect recoverable amount) 1 402 500 1 602 000
Less: depreciation for the year
(1 402 500/11); (1 602 000/12) (127 500) (133 500)
Carrying amount before impairment loss 1 275 000 1 468 500
Less: impairment loss (45 000) (66 000)
Recoverable amount at end of financial year
(based on fair value) 1 230 000 1 402 500
CORRECT recoverable amount a 1 245 000 ?b
Fair value less costs of disposal ?
(1 230 000 – 18 000) 1 212 000
Value-in-use 1 245 000 ?
a Based on the higher of fair value less costs of disposal and value in use (IAS 36.6).
b It is not possible to go back to previous years and determine the cash flows, discount
rates and related costs of disposal in order to calculate the correct recoverable amount.
The correct recoverable amount could be calculated for the first time at the end of the
20.25 financial year. Therefore the cumulative effect of the error is only determinable at
the end of the comparative year (20.25). It is, however, not possible to calculate the
correct impairment loss that should be recognised in profit or loss of the 20.25 financial
year, as the cumulative effect of the error is the result of incorrect impairment losses and
resultant depreciation recognised in all previous years. The full cumulative effect of the
error cannot be recognised in one year’s profit or loss. Therefore, full retrospective
restatement is not possible as the prior year’s period-specific effect is not known.
Example 5.5: Impracticability of retrospective restatement (continued)

Journal entry to account for the correction of the prior period error:
Since the period-specific effect of the 20.25 comparative year cannot be determined, the
opening balances of the 20.26 financial year is the earliest period for which retrospective
restatement is practicable (refer to IAS 8.44). The following journal entry will therefore be
applicable:
Dr Cr
1 January 20.26 R R
Property, Plant and Equipment (SFP) 15 000
(R1 245 000 – R1 230 000)
Retained earnings – opening balance (SCE)c 15 000
Correction of error at the beginning of the year
c Previous years’ adjustments should have been made to all previous impairment losses
and all previous depreciation amounts (had the information been available to make
these adjustments). The effect of previous years’ incorrect impairment losses and
depreciation would have accumulated in retained earnings. Since the period-specific
effect could not be determined, the full cumulative effect is adjusted against retained
earnings.
In calculating the depreciation for the 20.26 financial year, the entity will start with the
correct carrying amount of R1 245 000 and depreciate that over the remaining useful life of
10 years. If, at the end of the year, there is an indication of possible impairment, the entity
will test for impairment by calculating the recoverable amount (being the higher of fair value
less costs of disposal and value in use) and compare that to the correct carrying amount at
the end of the year.
Restate the line items in the financial statements for the effect of the correction of the prior
period error:
Bella Ltd
Note Retained
earnings
R
Balance at 31 December 20.25 xxx
Correction of prior period error (jnl 1) 5 15 000
Restated balance xxx + 15 000
Total comprehensive income for the year xxx
Profit for the year xxx
Other comprehensive income xxx
Dividends (xxx)
Balance at 31 December 20.26 xxx
Example 5.5: Impracticability of retrospective restatement (continued)

Disclose the effect of the prior period error in the notes:
Bella Ltd
The carrying amount of Property, Plant and Equipment has been restated for the effect of a
prior period error. The recoverable amount of the item was incorrectly calculated as its fair
value without comparing it to its value in use and using the higher of fair value less costs of
disposal and value in use. The effect of the error could not be retrospectively restated
because the cash flows, discount rates, and related costs of disposal needed to calculate
the correct recoverable amount were not available for prior periods. The cumulative effect
could be calculated for the first time on 31 December 20.25. This effect was accounted for
by adjusting the opening balances of assets and equity in the current financial year by
R15 000.
Comments:
¾ The disclosure requirements for a prior period error (IAS 8.49) require that the amount of
the correction for each financial statement line item affected for each prior period
presented should be disclosed. Due to the impracticability of full retrospective
adjustment in this example, none of the prior period amounts has been adjusted.
Consequently, there are no line items to disclose. The statement of changes in equity for
the year ended 31 December 20.26 (see above), as well as the opening balance in the
Property, Plant and Equipment note, will, however, indicate the amount of the
adjustment as a restatement to the opening retained earnings and the opening carrying
amount of equipment, which will be then be cross-referenced to this note.
¾ If the period-specific effect for the financial year ended 31 December 20.25 could have
been determined, the correcting journal entries would have adjusted the amounts
included in the financial statements for the year ended 31 December 20.25, provided
that the accounting system can be re-opened for purposes of processing these journals.
The prior period error note would then have indicated the effect of the correction on all
applicable line items in the financial statements of the prior period presented.
8 Schematic overview
Period-
specific
journal
(for prior
period)
For retrospective application and retrospective restatement, where practicable and if the
comparative period accounting records can be opened for purposes of adjusting journal
entries, an adjusting journal will be prepared to account for the CUMULATIVE effect of the
retrospective adjustment on all years before the comparative period. This adjusting journal
will adjust the opening balances of the comparative period. An adjusting journal is then
prepared to account for the PERIOD-SPECIFIC effect of the comparative period. As a result
of the accounting process, these two adjusting journals will automatically adjust the closing
balances of the comparative period. It is, therefore, not necessary to prepare another
adjusting journal to adjust those closing balances. The closing balances of the comparative
period will be carried over as the opening balances for the current period. In the current
period, a journal will be prepared to account for the effect of the change in accounting
policy in the current period or to correctly account for the current period amounts of the
item previously accounted for incorrectly. The adjusted opening balances and the journal for
the current period will automatically influence the closing balances of the current period
(closing balance = opening balance ± current year movement). No additional journal is
required to change the closing balances.
The effect of the changes to each line item of the comparative amounts (including the
opening balances) in the financial statements of the current reporting period, should be
disclosed in a note for both changes in accounting policies and corrections of prior period
errors. The effect of the changes to each line item of the current period, in the financial
statements of the current reporting period, should be disclosed in a note for changes in
accounting policies.
For changes in estimates, a journal will be prepared to correctly account for the items in
the current period based on the newest estimates. No adjusting journals will be prepared
for the comparative period. The effect of the change in estimate on the current period and
the effect on all future periods will be disclosed in a note.
9 Short and sweet
The objective of IAS 8 is to prescribe the accounting treatment of changes in

accounting policies, changes in estimates and corrections of prior period errors.
Accounting policies are the specific principles, bases, conventions, rules, and practices
applied in preparing financial statements.
Changes in accounting policies are only permissible if:
– they are required by a Standard or Interpretation (IFRS); or
– they result in relevant and more reliable information.
The change in accounting policy must be applied retrospectively as if the new accounting
policy had always been applied.
A change in estimate is an adjustment of the carrying amount of an asset or liability,
resulting from reassessing the expected future economic benefits and obligations
associated with the asset or liability; or
A change in estimate is an adjustment of the amount of the periodic consumption of an
asset.
Changes in accounting estimates result from new information or new developments and
are not corrections of errors.
A change in estimate must be applied prospectively.
Prior period errors are omissions from, and misstatements in financial statements in
prior periods arising from the failure to use (or misuse of) reliable information that was
available at the time. Examples include mathematical mistakes and mistakes in applying
accounting policies.
All material prior period errors must be corrected retrospectively as if the prior period
error had never occurred.
6
Events after the reporting period
IAS 10
Contents
2 Schematic representation of IAS 10 ................................................................ 142
3 Background................................................................................................... 142
4 Date of authorisation of the issue of financial statements ................................. 144
5 Dividends...................................................................................................... 145
6 Going concern ............................................................................................... 145
7 Illustrations ................................................................................................... 146
7.1 Case A ................................................................................................ 146
7.2 Case B ................................................................................................ 147
7.3 Case C ................................................................................................ 147
7.4 Case D ................................................................................................ 148
7.5 Case E ................................................................................................ 148
8 Disclosure ..................................................................................................... 148
9 Short and sweet ............................................................................................ 151
Distinguish between events after the reporting period that are adjusting events and
those that are non-adjusting events.
Understand the implications of events after the reporting period on the going concern
basis used in the preparation and presentation of the financial statements.
Present and disclose the events after the reporting period for inclusion in the financial
statements of an entity.
141
Objective
Prescribe the accounting treatment of events after the reporting period.
Events after the reporting period

Those favourable or unfavourable events that occur between the end of the reporting period
and the date the financial statements are authorised for issue.
Adjusting events Non-adjusting events

Provide further evidence of conditions Events that are indicative of conditions
that existed at the end of the reporting that arose after the reporting period;
period; Unrelated to conditions that existed at
Irrespective of, whether or not, the fact the end of the reporting period;
was actually known at the end of the Disclose in note if non-disclosure could
reporting period; influence the decisions that users make
Inclusion in the financial statements as on the basis of the financial statements:
adjustments to assets and liabilities and – nature of events;
accompanying income and expense – estimate of the financial effect or a
items. statement that the financial effect
cannot be estimated.
Specific issues
The following specific issues are dealt with in the Standard:
Dividends Going concern

Declared after the reporting period but Events emerge after the reporting
before the date of authorisation; period that indicates that the going
No present obligation on reporting date; concern concept no longer applies;
Disclose in note: Financial statements are no longer
– dividend declared; prepared on a going concern basis.
– dividend per share.
3 Background
IAS 10, Events after the reporting period, is based on the concepts in the Conceptual
Framework (Framework (1989)).
While provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets are applicable when
uncertainty exists about the outcome of specific circumstances, events after the reporting
period deal with situations of certainty.
IAS 10 concerns information that becomes known after the reporting period that
clarifies uncertainties that existed at the end of the reporting period, or that originated after
the reporting period.
Events after the reporting period 143
Events after the reporting period can assist us in the appropriate accounting treatment of
uncertain events that existed at the end of the reporting period, because the events after
the reporting period provide us with hindsight about events that existed at the end of the
reporting period.
The following example is often used to illustrate the situation described above: Suppose
that the financial position of a material debtor of AB Ltd is uncertain at the end of the
reporting period as a result of the debtor’s deteriorating financial position. Because the
uncertainty existed at the end of the reporting period, the principles of impairment in
respect of financial instruments carried at amortised cost should be applied when deciding
on the appropriate accounting treatment. An allowance for expected credit losses (not a
provision in terms of IAS 37, but an allowance for impairment in terms of IFRS 9) for the
amount of the loss that AB Ltd is likely to suffer will probably be created at the end of the
reporting period. Suppose, however, that the debtor is indeed declared insolvent before the
annual financial statements are finalised and it becomes apparent that AB Ltd will lose the
full amount owed by the debtor. This knowledge already allows AB Ltd to write the full
amount off at reporting date. The event after the reporting period, i.e. the insolvency of the
debtor, clarifies the uncertainty that existed at the end of the reporting period and can thus
assist in the decision about the correct accounting treatment. The situation would have
been different if the insolvency only occurred after the financial statements had already
been authorised for issue. Then, unfortunately, the event that clarified the uncertainty that
existed at the end of the reporting period occurred too late to assist in the decision about
the appropriate accounting treatment at the end of the reporting period.
The illustration above can be adjusted to illustrate a different aspect of events after
the reporting period. Suppose that the material debtor is declared insolvent after the
reporting period, but not as a result of a deteriorating financial position that existed at the
end of AB Ltd’s reporting period. A natural disaster destroyed the only asset of the debtor,
which was unfortunately not insured, leaving the debtor unable to pay. The event that
occurred after the reporting period in respect of the debtor was the disaster, but this event
does not clarify any uncertainty at the end of the reporting period – there was no
uncertainty at the end of the reporting period! The consequence of the disaster that befell
the debtor after the reporting period of AB Ltd is usually not recognised for accounting
purposes on the reporting date.
Another example to consider is an investment held by AB Ltd. When the value of the
investment depreciates after the reporting period, the value of this investment is not
adjusted at the end of the reporting period as it is probable that the decline in the value
does not refer to circumstances that existed at the end of the reporting period.
The above variations of the event that occurred after the reporting period illustrate the
two categories of events after the reporting period that are discussed in IAS 10, i.e.
adjusting events and non-adjusting events.
Events after the reporting period are those favourable or unfavourable events that
occur between the end of the reporting period and the date the financial statements are
authorised for issue. Two types of events can be identified, i.e.:
those that provide additional evidence of the conditions that existed at the end of the
reporting period (adjusting events); and
those that are indicative of conditions that arose after the end of the reporting period
(non-adjusting events).
These two categories require different accounting treatments. The alternatives are:
inclusion in the financial statements as adjustments to assets and liabilities and the
accompanying income and expense items; or
no accounting recognition and no disclosure; or
disclosure in the notes.
Adjusting events are those that provide additional information on the conditions that
existed at the reporting date are included as adjustments to the amounts in the financial
statements.
The words “. . . conditions that existed at the end of the reporting period. . .” should be
interpreted carefully.
“Conditions” refers to uncertain circumstances at the end of the reporting period, not
to the existence of, for example, an asset.
Assume that the conditions in the first example above still pertain: the insolvency of a
debtor after the reporting period should be taken into account in the financial statements, if
the financial position of the debtor was already considered doubtful at the end of the
reporting period, irrespective of whether or not the fact was actually known at the
end of the reporting period. If, however (as in the second example above), a
catastrophe affected the debtor after the reporting period, resulting in the debtor being
declared insolvent, the catastrophe does not refer to conditions that prevailed at the end of
the reporting period, and therefore an allowance for expected credit losses for such an
event or a write-off in the financial statements would not be appropriate. If, however, as in
the second example, the lack of an allowance for expected credit losses for such an event
or a write-off in the financial statements affects the decisions the users make on the basis
of those financial statements, or contributes to the going concern concept no longer being
applicable. The event should be treated accordingly, i.e. through disclosure or by adopting
the procedures that are appropriate when an enterprise is no longer a going concern. In the
case of the entity no longer being a going concern, an adjustment is usually required to the
amounts of the assets and liabilities of the entity. These adjustments are, however, made in
terms of rules that differ from those applicable to events after the reporting period.
Events that refer to conditions that arise after the reporting period require no
accounting recognition, except when the going concern concept no longer applies as a result
of the event. Such material events that are not recognised, but whose non-disclosure may
affect the economic decisions of users that are based on these financial statements, should
however, be disclosed in the notes.
4 Date of authorisation of the issue of financial statements
Events after the reporting period deal with situations that occur between the end of
the reporting period and the date at which the financial statements are authorised for issue.
This is the date at which the board of directors approve the financial statements.
In practice, it may be difficult to ascertain the specific date, because approval of the
financial statements often occurs in terms of a process (an internal procedure). It may
therefore happen that management (that may include a number of board members)
approves the financial statements in the first round and then refers them to the audit
committee. After approval by the audit committee, the statements are referred to the full
board that will approve the financial statements and refer these to the supervisory board,
comprising non-executive directors. Thereafter the statements could be lodged with a
regulatory authority, for example the Registrar of Companies or the Financial Services
Board, while they are simultaneously dispatched to the shareholders for the purposes of the
annual general meeting.
In all cases, the date that is used for the purposes of IAS 10, is the date at which the full
board authorises the statements for issue, even if a supervisory board of non-executive
directors subsequently still has to peruse the statements.
The date on which authorisation for issue was given, together with an indication of the
identity of the authorising body, should be disclosed in the financial statements by means of
a note.
This is important information for the users of financial statements, because it gives an
indication of the date until which information was included in the financial statements.
In terms of IAS 10.17, if the owners of the entity have the power to change the financial
statements after they have been issued, this fact should be disclosed. Such a note will
probably rarely appear, because corporations and other entities are usually governed by a
statute and IFRSs which deal with such eventualities.
5 Dividends
Because final dividends are usually declared after the end of the reporting period, but
before the financial statements are authorised for issue, such declaration qualifies as an
event after the reporting period.
The following question arises: Is it an adjusting event or a non-adjusting event? To

qualify as an adjusting event, it has to provide additional information about circumstances
that existed at the end of the reporting period. It could be argued that the “circumstances”
referred to represent the net profit for the period from which the dividend is declared and
that the declaring of final dividends therefore qualifies as an adjusting event.
However, IAS 10.12 states that such a declaration should be regarded as a non-
adjusting event. It is also stated clearly that a liability in respect of such a dividend should
not be recognised in the period to which the financial statements relate, as no current
obligation to pay the dividend existed at the end of the reporting period.
The dividend is nevertheless disclosed, because users of financial statements need the
information to enable them to thoroughly evaluate the financial position and results of the
entity.
6 Going concern
In at least one instance, non-adjusting events after the reporting period can lead to
the adjustment of the financial statements, namely when the going concern concept no
longer applies. The going concern concept is described in the Conceptual Framework (refer to
chapter 1).
However, the rules that apply in these circumstances are not the same as those that pertain
to events after the reporting period. The general principles governing financial reporting will
then apply, namely that (among other things) the financial statements should be a fair
representation of the financial position, financial results and changes in the financial position
of an entity.
Suppose that an event occurs after the reporting period and that, although it does not refer
to circumstances that existed at the end of the reporting period, it nevertheless requires the
adjustment of the values of assets and liabilities, because the entity will no longer be able
to exist as a going concern and will have to be liquidated. This is important information that
should be disclosed to the users of the financial statements, because its omission would
mean that misleading information on the financial position and results of the entity was
being presented.
IAS 10.14 therefore requires that financial statements should not be prepared on the
basis of a going concern if the entity plans to go into liquidation, or cease its commercial
activities, or if there is no realistic alternative but to close down the entity. Events after the
reporting period that could reinforce such a conclusion could be the deteriorating financial
position of the entity after the reporting period.
Redrafting financial statements that are not prepared in accordance with the going
concern concept normally requires the valuation of assets at liquidation values and the
recognition of possible liquidation costs.
When financial statements are prepared in accordance with liquidation principles, specific
additional disclosures in terms of IAS 1.25 are required. Refer to chapter 2 for an
explanation of this matter.
7 Illustrations
In the schematic exposition below, position (1) represents the first day of the financial year
of Alpha Ltd, i.e. 1 January 20.28; position (2) represents the last day of the financial year
(reporting date), i.e. 31 December 20.28, and position (3) the date of the authorisation of
the financial statements for issue, i.e. 31 March 20.29. The dotted lines A to E represent
conditions that should probably be accounted for, where the beginning of the dotted line
represents the commencement of the condition and the end of the dotted line represents
the final achievement of clarity on all uncertainty, and confirmation that the condition
should have been accounted for at its commencement, if no uncertainties had existed.
(1) (2) (3)
E
Assume that each of the dotted lines A to E refers to a material debtor who is experiencing
financial problems. Whereas it is uncertain at the outset whether the debt will be recovered
(start of the dotted line), it becomes certain that the debtor is insolvent and that the
account should therefore be written off (end of the dotted line).
7.1 Case A
Case A does not present a problem. Because the uncertainty about the possible recovery of the
debt is resolved before the end of the reporting period, the write-off can take place in 20.28.
7.2 Case B
Case B is an uncertain situation or condition that exists at the end of the reporting period
(31 December 20.28) and the outcome of the situation will only become known at a later
date. In this example, uncertainty exists about the collectability of the debt prior to the end
of the reporting period. The final confirmation of the irrecoverability of the debt is only
received after the end of the reporting period. This information can be used to report the
irrecoverability of the debt at 31 December 20.28, notwithstanding the fact that the final
confirmation of irrecoverability was only received after this date, because the condition of
uncertainty existed at 31 December 20.28. In terms of the Framework’s criteria for recognition
of items in the financial statements, this treatment is correct, because the item meets the
requirements of an element in the financial statements (an asset decreased and an expense
was created); it is probable that the economic benefit associated with the item will be lost,
and the item can be measured reliably. The allowance for expected credit losses should
therefore be reviewed and updated with the new expected credit losses. The expected
credit loss model is described in IFRS 9, Financial Instruments (refer to chapter 17).
In terms of the revised Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting (2018), items
are only recognised when their recognition provides users of financial statements with
information about the items that is both relevant and can be faithfully represented, in
addition to that item meeting the definition of an element.
Case B may, however, also be an event after the reporting period. If the possible
irrecoverability of the debt was not known on 31 December 20.28, but only became known
once the threatening insolvency had become known (end of the dotted line), Alpha Ltd
could still have made the entry before 31 December 20.28 as additional information was
obtained concerning the circumstances that already existed at the end of the reporting
period.
Events after the reporting period therefore take place after the reporting date; they
either provide additional proof of uncertain circumstances that already existed at the end of
the reporting period (as in Case B), although the uncertain events need not have been
known at the end of the reporting period, or they refer to circumstances that only arose after
the reporting period (as in Case C – refer 7.3).
7.3 Case C
Case C is classified as an event that occurred after the reporting period, because it did
indeed take place after the end of the reporting period and the condition did not exist at the
end of the reporting date. But it differs from Case B, because the uncertain events arose
only after the reporting period, whereas in Case B, the events arose before the end of the
reporting period. Alpha Ltd’s debtor now encountered problems only after the reporting
period. It is, therefore, apparent that there are two categories of events: those presenting
additional information on uncertain conditions that existed at the end of the reporting period
(Case B) and those that only arose after the reporting period (Case C). Events such as those
in Case C should not be recognised in the current financial year, because they do not refer
to conditions that existed at the end of the reporting period. The circumstances should,
however, be disclosed to users in a note, if the non-disclosure will influence the decisions
that users make on the basis of the financial statements, or if the going concern concept is
no longer applicable.
7.4 Case D
As Case D does not refer to conditions that existed prior to the end of the reporting period,
it is not recognised in the current financial year. As with Case C, disclosure in a note should
be considered, but greater circumspection is required than with Case C, because the
confirmed event in Case C took place prior to the authorisation of the financial statements.
7.5 Case E
Case E refers to conditions that already existed prior to the end of the reporting period.
There is no fundamental difference between this case and Case B. The only difference is
that, in Case B, the event that took place after the reporting period enables us to account
correctly for the circumstances. In Case E, however, this benefit is not available.
8 Disclosure
The following shall be disclosed:
The date when the financial statements were authorised for issue and who gave that
authorisation.
Adjusting events: Update disclosure about conditions at the end of the reporting
period. If an entity receives information after the reporting period about conditions that
existed at the end of the reporting period, it shall update disclosures that relate to those
conditions, in the light of the new information.
Non-adjusting events after the reporting period that are material shall be disclosed.
Non-disclosure could influence the economic decisions that users make on the basis of
the financial statements. Accordingly, an entity shall disclose the following for each
material category:
(a) the nature of the event; and
(b) an estimate of its financial effect, or a statement that such an estimate cannot be
made.
The following examples of non-adjusting events, listed in IAS 10.22, are so important
that the events will normally lead to disclosure:
a large business amalgamation or, conversely, the sale of a subsidiary after the reporting
period;
discontinuation of operations, sale of assets or liabilities as a result of operations that are
being discontinued, conclusion of binding agreements on the sale of such assets, or the
payment of such liabilities;
substantial purchase or sale of assets, or expropriation of major assets by the
government;
destruction of a major plant after the reporting period;
plans for restructuring;
large ordinary share transactions and potential share transactions after the reporting
period, except for capitalisation and bonus issues, and share splits or reverse share
splits;
abnormal changes in the value of assets or exchange rates after the reporting period;
changes in tax rates or tax legislation that were promulgated after the reporting period
and that will have a major impact on the figures for tax and deferred tax reflected in the
financial statements;
conclusion of material commitments or contingent liabilities, for instance the provision of
material warranties; and
litigation as a result of events that occurred after the reporting period.
Dividends: The following should be disclosed in the notes to the financial statements:
the amount of dividends proposed or declared before the financial statements were
authorised for issue but not recognised as a distribution to equity holders during the
period; and
the related amount per share.
Example 6.1: Comprehensive example: Events after the reporting period

In all the examples mentioned below, the end of the reporting period of Beta Ltd is
31 December 20.28, and the annual financial statements are authorised for issue on
31 March 20.29.
(i) Inventories destroyed
On 15 February 20.29, half of the inventories of Beta Ltd were destroyed by a fire, which
resulted in a loss of R250 000 to the company. Of the inventories destroyed, R120 000 was
on hand on 31 December 20.28. Because the event does not refer to a condition that
existed at the end of the reporting period, it will not be recognised during the financial year
ended 31 December 20.28. If, however, the loss of R250 000 has been so material that its
non-disclosure would influence the decisions of the users of the financial statements,
disclosure could be required. If the company was no longer a going concern as a result of
the loss, the loss should be taken into account, but not in accordance with the rules
governing events after the reporting period.
Extract from the notes for the year ended 31 December 20.28
37. Events after the reporting period
On 15 February 20.29, half of the inventories of the entity were destroyed by a fire. The
amount of the loss of inventories is estimated at R250 000.
(ii) Insolvency of debtor
On 5 January 20.29, one of Beta Ltd’s significant debtors was liquidated. On 31 December 20.28,
the carrying amount of debtors in the financial records of Beta Ltd included an amount of
R600 000 relating to this debtor. Beta Ltd will only be entitled to a liquidation dividend of
R100 000. Closer investigation revealed that the debtor had been experiencing financial
difficulties for quite some time, but this was covered up by means of inappropriate
accounting practices. The conditions that led to the weakened financial position of the
debtor already existed on 31 December 20.28, although Beta Ltd only came to know of it
five days later. This event should, therefore, be recognised in the financial statements for
the year ended 31 December 20.28 as an adjusting event after the reporting period.
Extract from the financial statements of Beta Ltd for the year ended 31 December 20.28
Extract from the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
for the year ended 31 December 20.28
Other expenses (xxx + (600 000 – 100 000)) XXX
Profit before tax (xxx – 500 000) XXX
Current assets XXX
Trade debtors (xxx – 500 000) XXX
Total assets XXX
Example 6.1: Comprehensive example: Events after the reporting period (continued)
(iii) Decrease in market value of investment
On 31 December 20.28, Beta Ltd has an investment of R10 million in a listed company. On
15 January 20.29, the market value of the investment was R6 million. On 15 March 20.29,
the market value showed no sign of recovery. As the event does not refer to a condition that
existed at the end of the reporting period, it is categorised as a non-adjusting event. The loss
of R4 million appears to be material and should, therefore, be disclosed as follows in the
financial statements:
37. Events after the reporting period
The market value of the investment of R10 million in a listed company declined to R6 million
during January 20.29. The investment has not yet shown any sign of recovery, and the
company could consequently suffer a loss of R4 million.
(iv) Dividends declared
Before the end of the reporting period (31 December 20.28) the board of directors of
Beta Ltd proposed an ordinary dividend of R100 000, subject to approval at the annual
general meeting. The annual general meeting was held on 25 March 20.29 and the
proposed dividends were declared at that meeting. The financial statements were
authorised for issue on 31 March 20.29.
As no obligating event had taken place by 31 December 20.28, there is no obligation and
recognition of a liability at the end of the reporting period – the obligating event is the
approval by the shareholders at the annual general meeting. The disclosure is as follows:
38. Dividends declared after the reporting period
An ordinary dividend of R100 000 related to 20.28, was proposed before the reporting date
and declared after the reporting date at the annual general meeting held on
25 March 20.29. The related dividend per share is Rxx,xx.
9 Short and sweet
The objective of IAS 10 is to prescribe the accounting treatment of events that occur
after the end of the reporting period.
These favourable and unfavourable events occur between the end of the reporting
period and the date of authorisation of the financial statements for issue.
The end of the reporting period (reporting date) is the financial year-end of the entity.
Authorisation date is the date at which the full board of directors approves the financial
statements for issue.
Two types of events are identified:
– adjusting events; and
– non-adjusting events.
Adjusting events provide further evidence of conditions that existed at the end of the
reporting period.
Non-adjusting events are indicative of conditions that arose after the reporting period.
Adjusting events adjust the financial statements.
Non-adjusting events require no accounting recognition, but are disclosed in the notes,
when material.
Dividends declared after the reporting period are classified as non-adjusting events and
are only disclosed in a note to the financial statements.
EXCEPTION: Events that emerge after the reporting period, and indicate that the going
concern concept no longer applies, necessitate the redrafting of the financial
statements.
7
Income taxes
IAS 12
Contents
3 Background................................................................................................... 154
4 Recognition and measurement of current tax .................................................. 156
4.1 Current income tax on companies ......................................................... 156
4.2 Capital gains tax on companies............................................................. 165
5 Nature of deferred tax ................................................................................... 166
6 Temporary differences ................................................................................... 171
6.1 Tax base ............................................................................................. 173
6.2 Taxable temporary differences.............................................................. 177
6.3 Deductible temporary differences.......................................................... 182
7 Unused tax losses, unused tax credits and deferred tax assets .......................... 189
8 Recognition and measurement of deferred tax ................................................. 193
9 Dividend tax.................................................................................................. 197
10 Presentation and disclosure ............................................................................ 198
10.1 Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income and notes ..... 199
10.2 Statement of financial position and notes .............................................. 200
11 Short and sweet ............................................................................................ 204
Understand how current tax is calculated and recognised.
Understand why the accounting profit before tax differs from taxable income.
Calculate over- and under-provisions of current tax and prepare the disclosure in the
notes to the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
Understand why deferred tax is recognised as a result of temporary differences.
Account for the effect of temporary differences when calculating deferred tax according
to the reporting date balance approach.
Understand and correctly account for the effect of tax rate adjustments when
determining deferred tax.
153
Apply the principles for the recognition and measurement of current tax and deferred
tax.
Present and disclose income taxes in the financial statements of an entity.
Objective
To ensure that the appropriate amount of tax is disclosed in the financial statements of an
entity.
To prescribe the recognition, measurement and disclosure of income taxes.
Line item in the statement of profit or loss and other

comprehensive income
Total of the taxes incurred by the entity on its profits:
Current tax
Capital gains tax
Deferred tax
Current tax (including capital gains Deferred tax

tax) Deferred tax is recognised for
Current tax temporary differences.
= taxable income × tax rate. Temporary differences are differences
Taxable income is calculated according between the carrying amount of an
to the Income Tax Act. asset or liability and its tax base.
The difference between taxable income Current year adjustment = movement
and profit before tax relates to non- in the balance of deferred tax.
taxable, non-deductible and temporary To account for deferred tax, a reporting
differences. date balance approach is followed.
Current tax is an estimate that is A deferred tax liability represents
subject to change once the final tax income tax payable in the future when
assessment is received. the carrying amount of assets and
Corrections to this estimate are shown liabilities are recovered/settled.
as under- or over-provisions in the tax A deferred tax asset represents
expense of the current period. amounts deductible in determining
80% of capital gains are included in the taxable income in the future when the
taxable income of the company. carrying amount of assets and liabilities
are recovered/settled.
The deferred tax balance is adjusted for
a change in tax rate.
3 Background
Any transaction of an entity should be appropriately recognised in its accounting records,
and specific information should be disclosed in its financial statements in order for the users
of the financial statements to understand the effect of such transactions. In the same way,
an appropriate amount of tax should be recognised, and information be disclosed, as
almost all transactions would also have tax consequences.
IAS 12, Income Taxes is applicable to:
South African taxes that are levied on taxable profits;
foreign taxes levied on taxable profits obtained from foreign sources; and
withholding taxes payable by an entity on distributions to shareholders (IAS 12.2).
Income taxes 155
The objective of IAS 12 is to ensure that the appropriate amount of tax is disclosed in
the financial statements of an entity. As such, the Standard prescribes the accounting
treatment for income taxes.
The tax expense (/income) in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive
income comprises both current tax and deferred tax (IAS 12.6). IAS 12, therefore,
prescribes the accounting treatment of both current and deferred tax. Current tax will be
discussed in the next section, while deferred tax will be explained in the sections following
later.
The principal issue in accounting for income taxes is how to account for the current and
future tax consequences of items in the financial statements. The accounting profit is
determined by applying IFRSs, while the taxable income is determined by
applying the Income Tax Act. The purpose of this text is not to explain all aspects of the
Income Tax Act, but rather to explain the accounting treatment of taxation in the
financial statements. The taxable income is normally calculated by adjusting the accounting
profit for the reporting period with certain items that are treated differently for tax purposes
(refer to the illustration in the ‘overview of current tax’ in section 4.1 below). The current
tax expense (/payable) is then based on the taxable income for the applicable year. This
approach is illustrated in the examples that will follow.
The amount of tax that is payable by an entity in a specified accounting period is often
out of proportion to the reported profit for the period. The reason for this difference is that
the basis used for establishing the accounting profit (IFRSs) often differs from the rules used
to determine the taxable profits (Income Tax Act).
These differences mainly arise from the following circumstances:

The carrying amount of assets in the accounting records differs from the tax base of the
assets, or amounts are expensed for accounting purposes in a particular period and
deducted for tax purposes in a different period.
The carrying amount of assets is not deductible for income tax purposes, and accounting
expenses are not deductible for income tax purposes.
The carrying amount of liabilities in the accounting records differs from the tax base
thereof.
The carrying amount of liabilities in the accounting records is not deductible for tax
purposes.
Income that is not taxable, or income that is recognised for accounting purposes in a
specific accounting period and taxed for tax purposes in another.
Tax losses that are set off against taxable income in later years, thereby disturbing the
relationship between the accounting profit and the taxable income.
Adjustments relating to the correction of errors and/or changes in accounting policies
that are either taken into account in different periods for tax and accounting purposes or
are excluded because they are neither taxable nor deductible.
The abovementioned items are commonly known as non-taxable, non-deductible and
temporary differences. They are discussed in more detail later in this chapter. The non-
taxable and non-deductible differences are never accounted for in the financial statements
or are never taken into account in determining the taxable income (for example, dividends
received that are not taxable or fines paid that are generally not deductible for tax purposes).
These differences are merely explained in the financial statements (normally in the tax (rate)
reconciliation in the note for the income tax expense). Deferred tax is recognised on the
other (temporary) differences. The accounting treatment of current tax is discussed below,
while a detailed discussion of deferred tax will follow later.
These differences can be summarised as follows:

Differences between accounting profit and taxable income
Non-taxable and non-deductible differences Temporary differences
Explained in tax reconciliation in notes Deferred tax recognised
4 Recognition and measurement of current tax

4.1 Current income tax on companies
Current income tax is the amount of income tax payable (/recoverable) in respect of
the taxable profit (/tax loss) of a company for a tax period (IAS 12.5). The taxable income of
an entity is determined by applying the Income Tax Act. As announced in the 2022 Budget
Speech, the corporate income tax rate will be reduced to 27% for years of assessment ending
on or after 31 March 2023 (28% before that). The normal income tax rate for companies
used in this text is 27%.
Unpaid current tax for the current period and preceding periods is recognised as a current
liability. A current asset is recognised where the tax for the current and previous periods is
paid in advance (IAS 12.12).
Overview of current tax:
Current tax
Amount of income tax payable on taxable profit for a period based on tax law
Measurement: Recognition: Dr Cr
R R R
Accounting profit xx Current tax expense xx
Add back: Liability: SARS xx
Accounting items xx Tax expense usually in
(e.g., depreciation) P/L, but recognises tax
Include tax treatment xx consequence where the
(e.g., tax allowance) item was recognised
(P/L, OCI, Equity)
Taxable profit xx
Current tax @ 27% xx
Current tax liabilities or assets for the current and preceding periods must be assessed at
the amount that is expected to be paid to or recovered from the South African Revenue
Services (SARS) using the tax rates and tax laws that have been enacted or substantively
enacted at the reporting date (IAS 12.46).
Income taxes 157
The taxable income is normally calculated by adjusting the accounting profit for the
reporting period with certain items that are treated differently for tax purposes. The current tax
expense (payable) is then based on the taxable income for the applicable year, in accordance
with the Income Tax Act.
There may be various non-taxable and non-deductible differences that are never accounted
for in the financial statements or are never taken into account in determining the taxable
income (e.g. dividends that are not taxable, donations that are not deductible, etc.). As a
result of these differences, the income tax expense may not be in line with (27%) the
accounting profit.
Consequently, the non-taxable, non-deductible differences and other non-temporary

differences are explained in the financial statements (normally in the tax reconciliation in
the note for the income tax expense).
Deferred tax is recognised on the other (temporary) differences between the

accounting and tax treatments of items, as is indicated in the sections following later.
The amount of current tax remains an accounting estimate, which may change once
the tax return is finally received. At the end of its financial period, an entity must submit its
income tax return to SARS. After reviewing the tax return, SARS issues a tax assessment
indicating the final taxable amount of the entity and the tax payable by the entity. This
amount may differ from the estimate of the entity due to, for example, certain amounts
claimed as a deduction by the entity, which may perhaps not be allowed by SARS.
The correction of the accounting estimate takes place in the period in which the tax
return is received and is shown as an under- or overprovision of current tax in the tax
expense of the current year. This correction of the current income tax expense of a
preceding year must, in terms of IAS 12.80(b), be disclosed separately.
For accounting purposes, the current income tax in respect of a transaction or event is
treated in the same manner as the relevant transaction or event (IAS 12.58). This implies,
for example, that current tax will be charged directly to profit or loss in cases in which the
underlying transaction or event is accounted for in profit or loss (which would arguably be
the case in most instances). Similarly, the current tax will be charged directly to other
comprehensive income in cases in which the underlying transaction or event is accounted
for in other comprehensive income. A similar treatment applies to deferred tax.
The examples and summary below highlight the following important aspects in respect of
current tax:
calculation of taxable income;
calculation of current tax payable;
the process of paying companies tax;
provisional tax payments; and
under- and over-provisions of current tax.
Example 7.1: Taxable income

The profit before tax of TX Ltd is R300 000. This amount was calculated after taking the
following items into account:
R
Depreciation on property, plant and equipment (PPE) 60 000
Dividends received (not taxable) 12 000
Profit on the sale of an asset 10 500
Loss on the sale of an asset 15 000
Speeding fine (not deductible for tax purposes) 1 350
The following information is also available:
R
Tax allowance on PPE 90 000
Recoupment on the sale of an asset 18 000
Scrapping allowance on the sale of an asset 12 000
The accounting and tax treatment of these items above are not the same. The following
table illustrates these differences:
Accounting Tax
R R
Gross amount (balancing) 353 850 353 850
Depreciation / Tax allowance on PPE (60 000) (90 000)
Dividend received 12 000 –
Profit / tax recoupment on the sale of an asset 10 500 18 000
Loss / scrapping allowance on the sale of an asset (15 000) (12 000)
Speeding fine (1 350) –
Profit before tax (given) / Taxable income 300 000 269 850
It was mentioned above that the taxable income is normally calculated by adjusting the
accounting profit for the reporting period with certain items that are treated differently for tax
purposes. This is done as follows:
Calculate taxable income and current tax payable:
Less: Non-taxable items (exempt income) (12 000)
Dividends received (12 000)
Plus: Non-deductible items 1 350
Speeding fines (not s 11(a)) 1 350
Temporary differences (19 500)
Depreciation on PPE 60 000
Tax allowance on PPE (90 000)
Profit on the sale of an asset (10 500)
Recoupment on the sale of an asset 18 000
Loss on the sale of an asset 15 000
Scrapping allowance on the sale of an asset (12 000)
Taxable income 269 850

Current tax payable = R269 850 × 27% = R72 860
Income taxes 159
Example 7.1: Taxable income (continued)

Journal entry:
Dr Cr
R R
Income tax expense (P/L) 72 860
Current tax payable/SARS (SFP) (current liability) 72 860
Recognition of current tax payable
Comments:
¾ The dividend received and the speeding fine is described as non-taxable and non-
deductible differences. The effect of the non-taxable and non-deductible differences are
explained in the tax reconciliation in the notes in the financial statements, as illustrated
in example 7.4 below.
¾ The other differences above are described as temporary differences, for example: the
total amount for the depreciation on the PPE will be the same as the total tax allowance
on the PPE, but different amounts may be deducted in different periods. The differences
are temporary and will even out over time. Deferred tax will be recognised on the
temporary differences above, as will be explained later. It was already included in this
example for the sake of completeness.
Penalties and interest paid in respect of tax payments are not included in the tax expense of
an entity. These items do not fall under the scope of IAS 12 as it does not represent a tax
levied on the taxable profit. These items would probably be presented as “other expenses” in
the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
Companies are provisional taxpayers and are required to make provisional tax
payments in terms of the Income Tax Act. Provisional payments are merely advance
payments of the company’s estimated liability for normal tax for a particular year of
assessment.
SUMMARY OF PROVISIONAL TAX PAYMENTS
Assume that the company’s reporting date is 30 June 20.27. The following provisional
payments will be made:
Payment Payable Date Amount

First provisional tax Six months after 31 December 20.26 Based on estimated
payment, termed commencement of taxable income for the
“1st 20.27”. the tax year. year, not less than the
“base amount”. 50% of
total payable.
Second provisional tax At the end of the 30 June 20.27 Based on estimated
payment, termed reporting period. taxable income for the
“2nd 20.27”. year. Total payable less
first payment.
Third provisional tax Usually six months 31 December 20.27 Final payment to settle
payment, termed after the end of full outstanding current
“3rd 20.27”. the tax year. tax liability.
Example 7.2: Provisional tax payments

Tax Ltd estimates its taxable income for the year, at the time of the first provisional
payment, as R120 000. At the time of the payment of the second provisional payment,
new information came to light, and the adjusted estimate of taxable income for the year
amounted to R150 000. The current tax rate is 27%.
First provisional payment = R16 200 (R120 000 × 27% × 50%)
Second provisional payment = R24 300
(R150 000 × 27%) – R16 200 (first provisional payment)
Total provisional payments made = R40 500 (R16 200 + R24 300)
The journal entry to account for both provisional payments is as follows:
Dr Current tax payable/SARS (SFP) (current liability)
Cr Bank (SFP)
Recognition of provisional tax paid
Comment:
¾ The current tax payable/SARS account is debited with these payments as they are
considered to be advance payments of the company’s tax liability.
Example 7.3: The process of paying companies tax

The different stages involved in calculating companies tax, together with the applicable
accounting entries, are illustrated below:
First provisional payment (assume 1st payment is R30 000)
J1 Dr Cr
R R
Bank (SFP) 30 000
Recognition of first provisional payment
Second provisional payment (assume 2nd payment is R20 000)
J2 Dr Cr
R R
Bank (SFP) 20 000
Recognition of second provisional payment
Recording final tax liability
The taxable income is calculated at the same time as the annual financial statements are
finalised. The current tax payable is calculated as follows, assuming that the taxable income
for the year amounted to R200 000 and the tax rate is 27%:
Current tax (R200 000 × 27%) = R54 000
The liability is recorded as follows:
Dr Cr
J3 R R
Recognition of current tax payable
Income taxes 161
Example 7.3: The process of paying companies tax (continued)

At this point in time (reporting date), the current tax payable account will appear as follows:
Current tax payable/SARS
R R
J1 Bank (1st provisional payment) 30 000 J3 Income tax expense 54 000
J2 Bank (2nd provisional payment) 20 000
Balance c/o 4 000*
54 000 54 000
Balance b/d 4 000
* This balance is disclosed as a separate line item under current liabilities in the statement of
financial position as “Current tax payable”.
It is clear from the abovementioned general ledger account that the company only made
provisional tax payments to SARS to the amount of R50 000. The company’s total tax liability is,
however, R54 000. A further payment (third payment) of R4 000 must still be made and is
therefore still outstanding at the reporting date.
Final (third) tax payment
This is the actual tax payable according to the tax assessment issued by SARS, less the first and
second provisional payments. This third payment is due within six months after the end of the
year of assessment/financial year.
In this example, SARS will issue the following tax assessment:

R
Total tax payable 54 000
Less: Provisional tax payments
1st payment (30 000)
2nd payment (20 000)
Total amount outstanding 4 000
The third payment will be recorded as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
Bank (SFP) 4 000
Recognition of final tax payment
After this payment, the balance on the current tax payable account is Rnil.
Example 7.4: Comprehensive example – current tax

On 31 March 20.23, the financial manager of Didi Ltd estimated that an amount of R18 000
was owed to SARS in respect of the 20.23 year of assessment. Unfortunately, the SARS did not
allow a specific amount as a deduction, and on 15 May 20.23, SARS issued the following
assessment:
R
Total tax payable in respect of 20.23 125 250
Less: Provisional tax payments (1st and 2nd payments) during 20.23 105 000
Amount outstanding in respect of 20.23 20 250
The amount of R20 250 was paid on 1 June 20.23. As the financial manager estimated the
outstanding tax at the end of 20.23 at R18 000, there will be an under-provision to the
amount of R2 250 in the 20.23 financial statements.
R
Tax payable on 31 March 20.23 according to the financial manager 18 000
Tax payable according to tax assessment – 20.23 20 250
The amount under-provided by the financial manager for 20.23 2 250
The following provisional payments were made in respect of the current year ended
31 March 20.24 (the following year):
R
30 September 20.23 45 000
31 March 20.24 50 000
Didi Ltd’s profit before tax for the year ended 31 March 20.24 amounted to R345 000. This
amount is calculated after taking into account a donation made to the amount of R15 000.
Assume that this donation is not deductible for tax purposes. The normal income tax rate is
27%.
The only temporary difference relates to an item of plant. Depreciation for the year ended
31 March 20.24 amounted to R4 250, while a tax allowance of R10 000 was claimed. Deferred
tax for the current year increased by R1 552 (credit). The balance on the deferred tax account
on 1 April 20.23 was R10 125 (credit) (carrying amount of R107 500 and tax base of
R70 000).
R
Calculating current tax for 20.24:
Plus: Donation (non-deductible expense) 15 000
360 000
Temporary difference:
Depreciation 4 250
Tax allowance (10 000)
Current tax (R354 250 × 27%) 95 648
Income taxes 163
Example 7.3: The process of paying companies tax (continued)

General ledger accounts:
Current tax payable/SARS
1/6/.23 Bank (final 20.23) (1) 20 250 1/4/.23 Balance b/d (1) 18 000
28/9/.23 Bank (1st 20.24) (3) 45 000 15/5/.23 Income tax expense (1) 2 250
29/3/.24 Bank (2nd 20.24) (3) 50 000 (Under-provision
20.23)
31/3/.24 Balance c/o (4) 648 31/3/.24 Income tax expense (2) 95 648
115 898 115 898
Balance b/d 648
Income tax expense
31/3/.24 SARS (20.24) (2) 95 648 31/3/.24 Profit or loss 99 450
15/5/.23 SARS (Under- (1) 2 250
provision – 20.23)
31/3/.24 Deferred tax (5) 1 552
99 450 99 450
Bank
1/6/.23 SARS (3rd 20.23) 20 250
28/9/.23 SARS (1st 20.24) (3) 45 000
29/3/.24 SARS (2nd 20.24) (3) 50 000
115 250
Deferred tax
31/3/.24 Balance c/o 11 677 1/4/.23 Balance b/d 10 125
31/3/.24 Income tax expense (5) 1 552
11 677 11 677
1/4/.24 Balance b/d 11 677
Explanatory notes:
(1) The amount outstanding according to the assessment for 20.23 is more than the
recognised balance of R18 000 at reporting date; therefore, there is an under-provision
of R2 250 in respect of 20.23.
(2) Total current tax recognised for 20.24.
(3) Provisional tax payments for 20.24.
(4) Balance payable at the end of 20.24.
(5) Increase in the balance of deferred tax.
Example 7.4: Comprehensive example – current tax (continued)

Disclosure:
Didi Ltd
31 March 20.24
Note R
Income tax expense 10 (99 450)
Didi Ltd
Statement of financial position as at 31 March 20.24
R
Deferred tax 11 677
Current liabilities
Current tax payable/SARS 648
Didi Ltd
Notes for the year ended 31 March 20.24
10. Income tax expense R
Major components of tax expense:
Current tax 95 648
Under-provision in respect of the previous year 2 250
Deferred tax 1 552
Tax expense 99 450
The tax reconciliation# is as follows:
Accounting profit 345 000
Tax at the standard rate of 27% (R345 000 × 27%) 93 150
Under-provision in respect of the previous year 2 250
Donation not deductible (R15 000 × 27%) 4 050
Tax expense 99 450
Effective tax rate (R99 450 / R345 000 × 100) 28,83%
20. Deferred tax liability
Analysis of temporary differences:
Capital allowances on the plant (R10 125 + R1 552) 11 677
Deferred tax liability 11 677
Income taxes 165
Example 7.4: Comprehensive example – current tax (continued)

Comments:
¾ Deferred tax will be recognised on the temporary difference above, as will be explained
later. This resulted in the tax expense still being 27% of the accounting profit, and no
reconciliation is needed in respect of these temporary differences. It was already
included in this example for the sake of completeness.
¾ The tax reconciliation# could also be done by reconciling the applicable tax rate to the
effective tax rate (as percentages).
¾ The under-provision (as a change in an accounting estimate) relates to the previous
year but was only recognised as part of the income tax expense of the current year.
This caused the tax expense of the current year to be no longer in line (27%) with the
accounting profit of the current year. IAS 12.81(c) requires that the relationship
between the tax expense and the accounting profit be explained (reconciled). It is
expected that the tax expense of the current year should be 27% of the accounting
profit. However, due to the inclusion of the under-provision that relates to the previous
year, this relationship is distorted, and it is explained (reconciled) as such.
¾ The donation was expensed in determining the accounting profit, but it was not
allowed as a tax deduction. Consequently, the current tax expense will not be 27% of
the accounting profit, and such a difference is explained by reconciling the actual tax
expense to the expected tax expense.
4.2 Capital gains tax on companies
Capital gains tax (part of current tax) is payable on capital gains after 1 October 2001.
The capital gain is calculated as the difference between the proceeds on the disposal of an
asset and the “base cost” of the asset as defined in the Income Tax Act. The inclusion rate
of capital profits is currently 80% for companies. This means that the total gain on the
disposal of an asset may partly be taxable and partly exempt. If the portion is a loss, it may
be set off against other capital gains during that financial year. If the sum of all the capital
gains and losses for the financial year results in a capital gain, 80% thereof must be
included in the company’s taxable income and subjected to tax at a rate of 27%. The effect
is thus an effective tax of 21,6%.
If the sum of all capital gains and losses for the financial year results in a capital loss, that
loss must be carried forward to the following year of assessment.
Example 7.5: Capital gains tax

Green Ltd’s profit before tax for the year ended 28 February 20.26 amounted to R810 000.
This amount is calculated after taking into account a profit on the disposal of the land of
R10 000. During the current year, Green Ltd sold a piece of land (cost of R500 000) for
R510 000. The inclusion rate for capital gains is 80%. The normal income tax rate for
companies is 27%.
R
Calculating current tax:
Minus: Accounting profit on the sale of land (10 000)
Plus: Inclusion of capital gain at 80% (10 000 × 80%) 8 000
Current tax (R808 000 × 27%) 218 160
Example 7.5: Capital gains tax (continued)

Disclosure:
Green Ltd
Notes for the year ended 28 February 20.26
Current tax 218 160
Tax expense 218 160
The tax reconciliation is as follows:
Portion of capital gains on disposal of land not taxed
((R10 000 × 20%) × 27%) (540)
Tax expense 218 160
Effective tax rate (R218 160 / R810 000 × 100) 26,93%
Comment:
¾ The whole amount of the profit on the disposal of land was included in the accounting
profit, but only 80% of the capital gain was included in the taxable income. The income
tax expense is then not exactly 27% of the accounting profit, as 20% of the gain was
not taxed. This difference is explained in the tax reconciliation.
5 Nature of deferred tax
In terms of the Conceptual Framework, any asset will lead to future economic
benefits flowing to the entity (and a liability will require the outflow of resources embodying
economic benefits). In most cases, those economic benefits will also have a tax
consequence (i.e. economic benefits received may be taxed, and amounts paid may be
deducted for tax purposes). Deferred tax is recognised to reflect these tax consequences.
Income taxes 167
Overview of deferred tax:
Deferred tax
Recovery or settlement of carrying amount of assets and liabilities will make future tax payments
larger or smaller than they would have been if they had no tax consequence
= recognised deferred tax, with limited exceptions
Carrying Temporary
– Tax base =
amount difference
Some temporary
differences are exempt,
Taxable: Deductible: Deferred tax asset
and no deferred tax is
Deferred tax (to the extent probable that it could be
recognised
liability utilised)
(show in tax
reconciliation in the note)
Measurement: Recognition:
Tax rate expected to apply when Movement in deferred tax
temporary differences reverse; balance usually in P/L, but Detailed disclosure
Based on the manner in which the recognises tax consequence
carrying amount is expected to be where the item was recognised
recovered or settled. (P/L, OCI, Equity)
As mentioned earlier, there may be various differences between the treatment of items for
accounting and tax purposes. For example, an asset may be depreciated evenly over five
years for accounting purposes, while it may be claimed as capital allowances over four years
on a 40/20/20/20 basis for tax purposes. Furthermore, some cash receipts/expenditures
may be recognised as income/expense in one year for accounting purposes, while it is
taxable/deductible in a different period. These differences are accounted for by recognising
deferred tax.
Deferred tax arises as a result of differences between the carrying amounts of assets and
liabilities presented in the statement of financial position determined in accordance with the
International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs), and their carrying amounts (tax bases)
determined in accordance with the Income Tax Act (such differences are referred to as
temporary difference – see the section below). Deferred tax is regarded as an
obligation/asset that will be payable/recoverable at a future date when an entity recovers or
settles its assets and liabilities at their carrying amounts.
A deferred tax liability is the amount of income tax payable in future periods in
respect of taxable temporary differences (IAS 12.5).
A deferred tax asset is the amount of income tax that will be recoverable in future periods in
respect of:
deductible temporary differences;
the carry-forward of unused tax losses; and
the carry-forward of unused tax credits (IAS 12.5).
To account for deferred tax, a reporting date balance approach is followed. The
deferred tax balance is recalculated at the end of each reporting period based on the
temporary differences as at the reporting date. Remember that temporary differences are
differences between the carrying amount (as in the statement of financial position) of an
asset or liability, and its tax base. This recalculated balance is compared to the balance at
the end of the previous reporting period. The increase/decrease is normally recognised and
presented in profit or loss as part of the income tax expense line item. However, the
movement would be recognised and presented in other comprehensive items if the
temporary difference relates to items recognised in other comprehensive income.
It is inherent in the recognition of an asset or liability that an entity expects to recover or
settle the carrying amount of that asset or liability (refer to the concept of the “future
economic benefits” in the definitions of assets or liabilities in the Conceptual Framework for
Financial Reporting). If it is probable that recovery or settlement of that carrying amount
will make future tax payments larger (smaller) than they would be if such recovery or
settlement were to have no tax consequences, IAS 12 requires an entity to recognise a
deferred tax liability (deferred tax asset), with certain limited exceptions.
The concept of deferred tax can simplistically be explained as follows (refer to IAS 12.16
and .25):
Example 7.6: Basic explanation of the concept of deferred tax

A company bought an item of plant for R120 000 at the beginning of the year. Assume
depreciation for the year amounted to R20 000, and the tax allowance amounted to
R40 000. At the end of the year, the carrying amount is R100 000 (R120 000 – R20 000),
and the tax base is R80 000 (R120 000 – R40 000).
Following the definition of an asset (see the Conceptual Framework), the company expects
to receive future economic benefits of R100 000 from this asset. When it receives these
benefits, the company will receive tax allowances of R80 000 in total. This implies that the
company will have a taxable profit of R20 000 (R100 000 – R80 000), on which R5 400
(R20 000 × 27%) tax would be payable. Thus the net future economic benefits for the
company are only R94 600 (R100 000 – R5 400). The company cannot then recognise an
asset at R100 000 (the plant) from which net economic benefits of R94 600 are expected
to flow to the company itself.
To achieve the correct effect in the statement of financial position, the company would
recognise a deferred tax liability of R5 400 to reflect the future tax consequences from
recovering the plant at its carrying amount of R100 000. This will result in an asset (plant) of
R100 000 and a (deferred tax) liability of R5 400. The net amount of equity (assets less
liabilities) (R94 600) reflects the future expected benefits of R94 600, as calculated above.
The company also recognised a liability for accrued leave of R5 000 at the end of the year,
which will be settled in cash during the next year. Assume the payment of the accrued leave
will be deductible for tax purposes when paid in cash during the next year.
Following the definition of a liability (see the Conceptual Framework), the settlement of the
liability will result in an outflow from the company of resources embodying economic
benefits. When it settles the leave liability, the company will receive a tax deduction of
R5 000. This implies that the company will save R1 350 (R5 000 × 27%) on the tax
payment. Thus the net outflow of resources embodying economic benefits is only R3 650
(R5 000 – R1 350). The company cannot then recognise a liability at R5 000, which will only
result in an outflow of net economic benefits of R3 650.
To achieve the correct effect in the statement of financial position, the company would
recognise a deferred tax asset of R1 350 to reflect the future tax consequences from
settling its obligation at its carrying amount of R5 000. This will result in a liability (accrued
leave) of R5 000 and an asset (deferred tax) of R1 350. The net amount of equity (R3 650)
reflects the expected future net outflow of R3 650, as calculated above.
Income taxes 169
Example 7.6: Basic explanation of the concept of deferred tax (continued)

Comments:
¾ The fundamental principle of IAS 12 is that an entity must recognise a deferred tax liability
or asset whenever recovery or settlement of the carrying amount of an asset or liability
would make future tax payments larger or smaller than they would be if such recovery or
settlement were to have no tax consequences.
¾ The recovery of the carrying amount of the plant will make future tax payments larger (by
R5 400) than they would be if such recovery were to have no tax consequences. Therefore,
a deferred tax liability is recognised.
¾ The settlement of the carrying amount of the liability for the accrued leave will make future
tax payments smaller (by R1 350) than they would be if such settlement were to have no
tax consequences. Therefore, a deferred tax asset is recognised.
The accrual concept (see the Conceptual Framework) requires that the effects of a
transaction should be recognised in the periods in which it occurs, even if the resulting cash
flow (and also tax effect) occurs in a different period. Therefore, the tax effect of a
transaction should be recognised in the same period, even if the transaction is only taxed/
deducted in a different period for tax purposes. As such, the income tax expense consists of
current tax and deferred tax.
Example 7.7: Deferred tax as part of the income tax expense

A company’s profit before tax for two years amounted to R100 000 during each year.
During year 1, the company recognised an expense and a provision for warranties of
R10 000. This amount was paid in cash in year 2, and SARS only allowed the deduction in
year 2.
Calculation of current tax: Year 1 Year 2
R R
Accounting profit 100 000 100 000
Temporary differences 10 000 (10 000)
Reversal of accounting expense for warranties 10 000 –
Tax deduction for warranties paid – (10 000)
Taxable income 110 000 90 000

Current tax (at 27%) 29 700 24 300
It is clear that the actual current tax is not 27% of the accounting profit (R27 000) due to
the different treatment of the warranty expenses under IFRSs and the Income Tax Act.
Under the concept of deferred tax, as explained in the example above, a deferred tax asset
of R2 700 will be recognised at the end of year 1 (the payment for the warranties is
deductible in year 2, and the company would pay R2 700 less tax in year 2). The deferred
tax asset will again be reversed during year 2 as the temporary difference does not exist
anymore at the end of year 2.
Example 7.7: Deferred tax as part of the income tax expense (continued)
The deferred tax balances will be determined as follows:
Carrying Tax Temporary Deferred tax Movement
amount base difference balance @ in P/L @
27% 27%
Dr/(Cr) Dr/(Cr)
R R R R R
Year 1:
Provision for warranties (10 000) – (10 000) 2 700 (2 700)
Year 2:
Provision for warranties – – – – 2 700
Comment:
¾ A detailed explanation of the tax bases and temporary differences follows in 6.1, and a
detailed discussion of deferred tax assets follows in 6.3 below.
¾ The table above illustrates the approach to calculating the deferred tax on the temporary
differences (the difference between the carrying amount in the statement of financial
position and the tax bases of items). This approach is also referred to as the reporting
date balance approach.
¾ The deferred tax balance at the end of each year is calculated, and the movement from
the opening balance is recognised – see the journals below. This approach is discussed
below in more detail.
The journal entries for the recognition of the deferred tax over the two years will be as
follows:
Dr Cr
Year 1 R R
Deferred tax asset (SFP) 2 700
Income tax expense – deferred tax (P/L) 2 700
Recognition of deferred tax asset on warranty provision
Dr Cr
Year 2 R R
Income tax expense – deferred tax (P/L) 2 700
Reversal of deferred tax asset
The company’s profit or loss will then be as follows:
Year 1 Year 2
R R
(Rxx) = dr (Rxx) = dr
Income tax expense (27 000) (27 000)
Current tax (29 700) (24 300)
Deferred tax 2 700 (2 700)
Profit after tax 73 000 73 000

Income taxes 171
Example 7.7: Deferred tax as part of the income tax expense (continued)
Comment:
¾ The recognition of deferred tax results in the tax expense being in line (27%) with the
accounting profit. The tax effect of the transaction is recognised in the period in which the
transaction occurs (the expense and provision for the warranties are recognised in
Year 1), even if the tax realises in a different period (i.e. claimed as a deduction in
Year 2).
¾ The recognition of deferred tax is only a book entry and does not influence the current tax
payable to SARS.
To calculate and recognise deferred tax, an entity basically needs to determine the
following:
the carrying amount of the asset or liability;
the tax base thereof;
the difference between the carrying amount and the tax base and whether this
temporary difference is
taxable (a deferred tax liability is recognised),
deductible (a deferred tax asset is recognised if it is recoverable); or
exempt (no deferred tax is recognised) (see example 7.18);
the applicable measurement of the deferred tax balance; and
the movement between the newly calculated deferred tax balance and the balance at
the end of the preceding period.
The resultant deferred tax movement is accounted for in the same way as the transaction or
event was recognised. For example, if the transaction was recognised within profit or loss,
the tax consequence is also recognised within profit or loss, and if the transaction was
recognised within other comprehensive income, the tax consequence is also recognised
within other comprehensive income. All these concepts are discussed in detail below.
6 Temporary differences
In terms of IAS 12, the recognition of deferred tax, either as a deferred tax liability or
as a deferred tax asset, is based on temporary differences.
Temporary differences are differences between the carrying amount of an asset or

liability in the statement of financial position and its tax base (IAS 12.5). At the end of
each reporting period, these differences are used to determine the deferred tax liability or
asset in the statement of financial position.
In the section on current tax above, some differences between the treatment of items for
accounting and tax purposes were evident. Some of those differences relate to items that
are never taxable or deductible (such as dividends received or fines). The effect of such
differences was that the tax expense was not equal to 27% of the accounting profit, and
they were disclosed in the tax reconciliation.
As the word suggests, temporary differences, however, relate to differences that are
only of a temporary nature. For example, an item of plant may be depreciated differently
(different amounts per period and over different periods) for accounting and tax purposes.
However, the nature of the difference is only temporary, as the whole amount of the cost of
the plant will be depreciated over time, and the same total amount will be allowed as a tax
allowance (albeit in different periods). Other items may only be taxed/deductible in a
different period to the accounting treatment, but the same amount will be taken into
account. Deferred tax is recognised on such temporary differences.
The recognition of deferred tax can be explained schematically as follows:
Carrying amount of asset/ Tax base of

LESS = Temporary difference
liability asset/liability
Deferred tax balance

MULTIPLIED
Temporary difference Tax rate = (asset/liability) in statement
BY
of financial position
Deferred tax balance Deferred tax Movement in deferred tax

(asset/liability) of Year 2 balance in the statement of profit
LESS (asset/liability) = or loss and other
of Year 1 comprehensive income,
or equity
This movement is
recognised through a
journal entry.
Temporary differences are divided into two categories, namely taxable temporary
differences and deductible temporary differences..
The fundamental principle that underlies the determination of all temporary differences is that
an entity must recognise a deferred tax liability or asset whenever recovery or settlement of
the carrying amount of an asset or liability would make future tax payments larger or smaller
than they would be if such recovery or settlement were to have no tax consequences (this
concept was illustrated in Example 7.6 above).
Temporary differences can be explained schematically as follows:
TEMPORARY DIFFERENCE
TAXABLE DEDUCTIBLE
temporary difference temporary difference
Recognise deferred tax liability (income tax Recognise deferred tax asset (income tax
payable in future periods) recoverable in future periods)
Assets: Carrying amount > Tax base Assets: Carrying amount < Tax base
Liabilities: Carrying amount < Tax base Liabilities: Carrying amount > Tax base
Some taxable or deductible temporary differences are exempt,

and a deferred tax liability or asset is not recognised.
The section commences with a discussion and examples of the identification of the tax base
of assets and liabilities, followed by a discussion of taxable temporary differences and
Income taxes 173
deductible temporary differences. A number of temporary differences between the carrying
amounts and tax bases of various assets and liabilities will first be discussed and illustrated
individually in the following examples, after which all the taxable temporary differences
from these examples will be summarised in example 7.17 with the deductible temporary
differences summarised in example 7.19. Thereafter, the current and deferred tax treatment
for all these temporary differences will be presented in a comprehensive example (7.20) in
order to illustrate the full tax effect of these temporary differences.
6.1 Tax base

As already mentioned, temporary differences are differences that arise between the tax base
and the carrying amount of assets and liabilities in the statement of financial position.
Therefore, it is important to be able to determine the tax base of both assets and liabilities.
The tax base of an asset or a liability is the amount attributed to that asset or liability for
tax purposes (IAS 12.5).
The tax base can be explained schematically as follows:
TAX BASE
ASSET LIABILITY
Amount deductible for tax purposes against Carrying amount less amount deductible for
future economic benefits (when the carrying tax purposes in future periods.
amount of the asset is recovered). Revenue received in advance: Carrying
If economic benefits are not taxable: tax base amount less the amount of revenue not
= carrying amount. taxable in future periods.
6.1.1 Assets
The tax base of an asset is dependent on whether the future economic benefits arising from
the recovery of the carrying amount of the asset are taxable, or not.
If the future economic benefits are taxable, the tax base is the amount that will be
deductible for tax purposes.
Where the economic benefits are not taxable, the tax base of the asset is equal to its
carrying amount, for example, trade receivables where the sales have already been
taxed (IAS 12.7).
The tax base of an asset can be explained schematically as follows:

Is the future taxable income associated with the asset taxable?
Yes No
(e.g. Property, plant and equipment) (e.g. Trade receivables)
Tax base Tax base

= amount that will be deductible for tax = carrying amount
purposes in the future
Temporary difference arises There is no temporary difference and

and deferred tax is recognised deferred tax is not recognised
(as the future recovery of the carrying amount of
the asset will have no tax consequences)
Example 7.8: Tax base of property, plant and equipment

At the end of the reporting period, a company has a plant with a cost of R200 000 and
accumulated depreciation of R40 000. For tax purposes, the South African Revenue Service
(SARS) has allowed a tax allowance of R50 000 on the plant.
Carrying amount Tax base Temporary difference
R R R
Plant * 160 000 150 000 10 000
* (R200 000 – R40 000); (R200 000 – R50 000)
Comments:
¾ The profit generated by the plant as it is used (carrying amount recovered) will be taxable
in the future, and if the plant is sold at a profit, the profit will also be taxable to the extent
that it represents a recoupment of the tax allowances, and capital gains tax is also
applicable.
¾ The remaining tax base of the plant is deductible as a tax allowance and/or a scrapping
allowance against taxable income in future periods.
Example 7.9: Tax base of dividends receivable

A company recognises a debit account “Dividends receivable” in the statement of financial
position for dividends of R60 000 receivable from a listed investment. Dividends are not
taxable.
R R R
Dividends receivable 60 000 60 000 –
Comment:
¾ When the dividend receivable is recovered (i.e. received in cash), the amount is not
taxable. Therefore, the tax base of the asset equals the carrying amount. Thus no
temporary difference arises.
¾ No deferred tax will be recognised. As mentioned earlier, the fundamental principle is that
deferred tax is only recognised if the recovery of the carrying amount of the asset (dividends
receivable) will make future tax payments larger than they would be if such recovery were to
have no tax consequences. The receipt of the dividend will have no tax effect in future.
Income taxes 175
Example 7.10: Tax base of trade receivables

A company’s trade receivables balance at the end of the reporting period amounted to
R86 000.
R R R
Trade receivables 86 000 86 000 –
Comment:
¾ When the carrying amount of the receivables is recovered (i.e. received in cash), the
amount will not be taxable since it was already taxed when the revenue was recognised
(sales). As the future economic benefits are not taxable, the tax base equals the carrying
amount.
Example 7.11: Tax base of capitalised development costs

A company capitalised development costs of R320 000 during the year. An amount of
R50 000 was recognised as an amortisation expense. Assume SARS will allow the
capitalised cost to be written off over a period of four years as a tax allowance. The
temporary difference is calculated as follows at the end of the reporting period:
R R R
Development costs * 270 000 240 000 30 000
* (R320 000 – R50 000); (R320 000 – (R320 000 × 25%))
Comments:
¾ The development costs will generate taxable economic benefits as the carrying amount
is recovered.
¾ The balance of R240 000 of the tax base will be deductible for tax purposes over the
remaining three years.
Some items are not recognised as assets in the statement of financial position, because
they have already been written off as expenses. However, these items may still have a tax
base that results in a temporary difference (IAS 12.9).
Example 7.12: Tax base of items not recognised as an asset

During the year, a company paid for research costs of R10 000 in cash and immediately
recognised it as an expense in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive
income in terms of IAS 38. Assume SARS allows such research costs to be deducted over
three years on a 50/30/20 basis.
R R R
Costs incurred (*) – 5 000 (5 000)
(*) (R10 000 – (R10 000 × 50%))
Comment:
¾ The temporary difference arose from the fact that the total expense is not immediately
deductible for tax purposes. The tax base is the amount that is deductible against future
taxable income, namely (30% + 20%) × R10 000.
6.1.2 Liabilities and revenue received in advance

The tax base of a liability is
the carrying amount (for accounting purposes), less any amount that will be deductible
in future periods for tax purposes in respect of that liability (IAS 12.8).
The tax base of revenue received in advance is
its carrying amount, less any amount of the revenue that will not be taxable (thus
revenue already taxed or revenue that will never be taxed) in future periods (IAS 12.8).
Example 7.13: Tax base of a long-term loan and interest accrued

A company received a 12% long-term loan of R800 000 at the beginning of the year. At the
end of the reporting period, no capital has been repaid, and no interest has been paid.
R R R
Loan (Capital) (800 000) (800 000) –
Interest expense accrued (96 000) (96 000) –
Comments:
¾ The repayment of the loan does not have tax implications. Therefore, nothing is to be
deducted from the carrying amount to determine its tax base. In terms of the definition,
the carrying amount and the tax base are therefore the same (carrying amount of
R800 000 less amount deductible in future, i.e. Rnil).
¾ Interest is deductible for tax purposes as it is actually incurred (accrued) during the
current reporting period. Thus there will be no future tax deduction (carrying amount of
R96 000 less amount of Rnil deductible in future). The interest is expensed (accounting)
and deducted (tax) in the same period, and there is no temporary difference.
Example 7.14: Tax base of liabilities

A company recognised the following items at the reporting date:
Water and electricity accrual R1 250
Leave pay accrual R4 500
The expenditure for the water and electricity is deductible for tax purposes during the
current year as it was actually incurred. The company has an unconditional obligation to pay
for the consumption of such items (even though the cash payment may only occur in the
following period).
The leave pay accrual was created for the first time in the current year, and SARS only allows
the expense when it is paid in cash to employees.
R R R
Water and electricity accrual (1 250) (1 250) –
Leave pay accrual (4 500) – (4 500)
Comments:
¾ The water and electricity expense has already been allowed as a deduction for income
tax purposes in the current year because the service has already been provided to the
company. It is in the tax year in which the liability for the expenditure is incurred, and not
in the tax year in which it is actually paid, that the expenditure is actually incurred for the
purposes of s 11(a) of the Income Tax Act. Consequently, no further amounts will be
deductible for tax purposes in future periods, and the tax base is therefore equal to the
carrying amount (carrying amount of R1 250 less amount of Rnil deductible in future).
¾ The leave pay accrual is only deductible for tax purposes once it has been paid. The tax
base is, therefore, R4 500 – R4 500 = Rnil, or the carrying amount less the amount that
will be deductible for income tax purposes in future.
Income taxes 177
Example 7.15: Tax base of revenue received in advance

At year-end, a company created a current liability of R380 for subscriptions received in
advance. The subscriptions received are immediately taxed as the company has received
them in cash.
R R R
Subscriptions received in advance (380) – (380)
Comment:
¾ The tax base of the subscriptions received in advance is R380 – R380 = Rnil, or the
carrying amount of the liability less any amount of the revenue that will not be taxable in
future periods (i.e. the full amount in this instance).
Example 7.16: Tax base of allowance for credit losses on trade receivables
A company’s trade receivables balance at the end of the reporting period amounted to
R74 000 after an allowance for credit losses of R12 000 (an amount equal to the lifetime
expected credit losses). Assume SARS allows a deduction of 40% on credit losses
(section 11(j)).
R R R
Trade receivables 74 000 81 200 (7 200)
Gross amount 86 000 86 000 –
Allowance for credit losses * (12 000) (4 800) (7 200)
* (R12 000 × 40%) = 4 800
Comments:
¾ When the carrying amount of the receivables is recovered (i.e. received in cash), the
amount will not be taxable since it was already taxed when the revenue was recognised.
As the future economic benefits are not taxable, the tax base equals the carrying
amount.
¾ The carrying amount of the allowance for credit losses is R12 000. The tax base of the
allowance is R4 800 (carrying amount of R12 000 less the amount of R7 200 deductible
in future). The temporary difference is, therefore, 60% of the allowance, which is
deductible against future taxable income if the full allowance realises and the full
amount is actually written off as bad debts.
6.2 Taxable temporary differences
Taxable temporary differences are those temporary differences that will result in
taxable amounts in the determination of the taxable profit (/tax loss) of future periods when
the carrying amount of the asset or liability is recovered or settled (IAS 12.5).
A deferred tax liability is recognised in respect of all taxable temporary differences.

There are, however, a few exceptions to this principle (IAS 12.15).
Taxable temporary differences arise in respect of assets when the carrying amount is
greater than the tax base.
An inherent aspect of the recognition of an asset is that the carrying amount will be
recovered in the form of economic benefits that will flow to the entity in future periods.
Where the carrying amount of the asset exceeds the tax base, the amount of taxable
economic benefits exceeds the amount that is deductible for tax purposes. The difference is
a taxable temporary difference, and the obligation to pay the resulting income tax in future
periods is a deferred tax liability (refer to the temporary difference on the plant in
example 7.6). As the entity recovers the carrying amount of the asset, the taxable
temporary difference reverses, and the entity recognises the taxable income, which will
result in the payment of income tax (IAS 12.16).
Example 7.17: Taxable temporary difference

Taxable temporary differences will give rise to the recognition of a deferred tax liability in the
statement of financial position at year-end. Using the temporary differences illustrated in
Examples 7.8 to 7.11 and a normal income tax rate of 27%, the recognition of a deferred tax
liability will be as follows:
Carrying Tax Temporary Deferred tax Movement
amount base differences balance – to P/L
SFP @ 27% @ 27%
Dr/(Cr) Dr/(Cr)
R R R R R
7.8 Plant 160 000 150 000 10 000 (2 700) 2 700
7.9 Dividends receivable 60 000 60 000 – – –
7.10 Trade receivables 86 000 86 000 – – –
7.11 Development costs 270 000 240 000 30 000 (8 100) 8 100
(10 800) 10 800
Assume that the opening balance of deferred tax was Rnil. The movement in the balance for
deferred tax in respect of only the temporary differences above, of R10 800 (from Rnil), will
be recognised as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
Deferred tax liability (SFP) 10 800
Recognition of deferred tax on taxable temporary differences
Comments:
¾ Taxable temporary differences arise in respect of assets when the carrying amount is
greater than the tax base.
¾ The entity will recognise a deferred tax liability of R10 800.
¾ The movement in the deferred tax balance is recognised against the income tax
expense in profit or loss, as the depreciation on the plant and the amortisation on the
development costs were also recognised in profit or loss as expenses.
In exceptional circumstances, taxable temporary differences arise in liabilities and

revenue received in advance where the tax base is larger than the carrying
amount.
Some taxable temporary differences are exempt from the recognition of deferred tax.
Income taxes 179
IAS 12.15 also identifies circumstances in which a temporary difference may exist, but the
deferred tax liability is not recognised. These exceptions include deferred tax liabilities that
arise from taxable temporary differences on
the initial recognition of goodwill (refer to comment below); or
the initial recognition of an asset or a liability in a transaction which
– is not a business combination and;
– at the time of the transaction, affects neither accounting profit nor taxable profit
(tax loss).
Comment:
¾ Goodwill is not an allowable deduction for tax purposes, and consequently, the tax base
of the goodwill is Rnil. Although this gives rise to a temporary difference between the
carrying amount of goodwill and its tax base, this temporary difference is not recognised
in terms of IAS 12.15 because of the interdependent nature of the relationship between
the determination of goodwill and the calculation of any deferred tax thereon. Any
deferred tax recognised will reduce the identifiable net assets of the subsidiary at
acquisition, which in turn will increase the amount of goodwill.
¾ It is important to note that it is only temporary differences that arise on the initial
recognition of assets or liabilities that are exempt from the recognition of deferred tax
(refer to the next example for the temporary differences that arose on the initial
recognition of the land and the administrative buildings for which no tax allowances can
be claimed). Temporary differences arising from subsequent remeasurement of assets
or liabilities (for example, revaluation of property, plant and equipment) are not exempt.
¾ Furthermore, temporary differences arising from a business combination (except for the
temporary difference on goodwill as indicated above) are not exempt, and deferred tax
shall be recognised on all such temporary differences.
Example 7.18: Exemption from recognising a deferred tax liability

Tango Ltd is a manufacturing entity. Details of the property of Tango Ltd for the year ended
31 December 20.29 are as follows:
Building Date brought into Building use
Land at cost at cost use
R R
Stand 502, Brenton 100 000 270 000 1 January 20.25 Administrative
Stand 503, Brenton 110 000 330 000 1 January 20.25 Manufacturing
Stand 112,
Sedgefield 50 000 180 000 1 January 20.25 Commercial
Stand 844, Seaside 120 000 420 000 1 January 20.29 Residential
380 000 1 200 000
1. Land is not depreciated.

2. Tango Ltd depreciates buildings on a straight-line basis over 30 years. There are no
residual values.
Example 7.18: Exemption from recognising a deferred tax liability (continued)

3. The tax allowances are as follows:
The South African Revenue Service does not allow a deduction on land or on this
administrative building. Tango Ltd can claim a 5% allowance on the cost of the
manufacturing building.
Tango Ltd can claim a 5% allowance on the cost of the commercial building in terms of
section 13quin of the Income Tax Act, as the building is mainly used for the purpose of
producing taxable income.
Tango Ltd can claim a 5% allowance on the cost of the apartment block (residential
units) as it qualifies in terms of section 13sex for the allowance.
4. The deferred tax liability at 31 December 20.28 was R9 180.
5. The normal income tax rate is 27%, and the carrying amount of all buildings will be
recovered through use (i.e. there is no expected sale of the buildings and no resultant
capital gains tax considerations).
The deferred tax balance at 31 December 20.29 will be determined as follows:
Carrying Tax Tempora Deferred tax Movement in P/L
amount base ry balance @ 27% @ 27%
differenc Dr/(Cr) Dr/(Cr)
e
R R R R R
Opening balance (9 180)
Land 380 000 – 380 000 Exempt
Administration Exempt
building 225 000 – 225 000
Manufacturing
building 275 000 247 500 27 500 (7 425)
Commercial building 150 000 135 000 15 000 (4 050)
Residential building 406 000 399 000 7 000 (1 890)
(13 365) 4 185
R R
Deferred tax (SFP) 4 185
Recognition of movement in deferred tax for the current
year
Income taxes 181

Comments:
¾ The tax base of the land is Rnil as SARS does not allow a deduction on land. However,
the deferred tax has not been recognised because the temporary difference arises from
the initial recognition of an asset which is not a business combination and which, at the
time of the transaction, affected neither the accounting profit nor the taxable profit
(IAS 12.15). The temporary difference is exempt from the recognition of deferred tax.
(The same result for the deferred tax on land would be achieved if the tax base is
measured at the cost of land, i.e. R380 000. IAS 12.51B assumes that the carrying
amount of non-depreciable assets (measured using the revaluation model in IAS 16) will
be recovered through sale. The cost of the land would be deductible against the
proceeds when the land is sold. In this example, the land was not revalued.)
¾ The carrying amount of the administration building is R225 000 (R270 000 – R45 000
(R270 000/30 × 5)), and the tax base = Rnil as no amount is deductible in future.
However, the deferred tax has not been recognised because the temporary difference
arises from the initial recognition of an asset which is not a business combination and
which, at the time of the transaction, affected neither the accounting profit nor the
taxable profit (IAS 12.15). The temporary difference is exempt from the recognition of
deferred tax. No deferred tax will be recognised.
¾ The carrying amount of the manufacturing building is R275 000 (R330 000 – R55 000
(R330 000/30 × 5)). The tax base is R247 500 (R330 000 – R82 500 (R330 000 × 5%
× 5)).
¾ The carrying amount of the commercial building is R150 000 (R180 000 – R30 000
(R180 000/30 × 5)). The tax base is R135 000 (R180 000 – R45 000 (R180 000 × 5%
× 5)).
¾ In the first year, the entity depreciates the residential building by R14 000
(R420 000/30). The tax base of the building is calculated as R399 000
(R420 000 – R21 000 (R420 000 × 5%)).
The final accounting profit of Tango Ltd for the year ended 31 December 20.29 amounted to
R2 000 000 after all items were correctly accounted for.
Calculation of current tax for the year ended
31 December 20.29 by starting with the accounting profit:
Gross
Tax at 27%
amount
R R
Accounting profit 2 000 000 540 000
Non-taxable items and additional deductions:
Depreciation: Administrative building (270 000/30) 9 000 2 430
2 009 000 542 430
Temporary differences*::
Depreciation and tax allowance on buildings: (15 500) (4 185)
Depreciation on manufacturing building (330 000/30) 11 000
Tax allowance on manufacturing building (330 000 × 5%) (16 500)
Depreciation on commercial building (180 000/30) 6 000
Tax allowance on commercial building (180 000 × 5%) (9 000)
Depreciation on residential building (420 000/30) 14 000
Tax allowance on residential building (420 000 × 5%) (21 000)
Taxable income and current tax payable 1 993 500 538 245

The tax expense will be disclosed as follows in the notes:
Notes
Major components of tax expense
Current tax expense 538 245
Deferred tax expense (see journal above) 4 185
Tax expense 542 430
Accounting profit 2 000 000
Tax at the standard tax rate of 27% (R2 000 000 × 27%) 540 000
Non-deductible depreciation on the administrative building 2 430
(R9 000 × 27%)
Tax expense 542 430
Effective tax rate (R542 430/R2 000 000 × 100) 27,12%
Comment
¾ There is no tax allowance granted on the administrative building in this example.
However, the accounting depreciation is indeed deducted in determining the accounting
profit. Remember that the temporary difference on the administrative building was
exempt from the recognition of deferred tax, as explained above. This difference caused
the total tax expense to be out of proportion (27%) to the accounting profit. The effect of
this difference is explained to the users of financial statements in the reconciliation
between the expected tax expense (R540 000) on the accounting profit and the actual tax
expense (R542 430).
6.3 Deductible temporary differences
Deductible temporary differences are those temporary differences that will result in
amounts that are deductible in the determination of the taxable profit (/tax loss) of future
periods when the carrying amount of the asset or liability is recovered or settled (IAS 12.5).
Deductible temporary differences are usually related to recognised liabilities but are not
limited to only liabilities. An inherent aspect of the recognition of a liability is that the
carrying amount will lead to an outflow of economic benefits from the entity in future
periods. Where the carrying amount of the liability is settled, that amount paid may possibly
be deductible for tax purposes, resulting in the entity paying less tax.
A deferred tax asset is recognised for all deductible temporary differences to the extent
that it is probable that future taxable profits will be available against which the deductible
temporary differences can be utilised (IAS 12.24). IAS 12.28 indicates that it is probable
that future taxable profits will be available for utilisation against a deductible temporary
difference when:
sufficient taxable temporary differences relating to the same tax authority and the same
taxable entity are expected to reverse in the same period as the deductible temporary
differences; or
sufficient taxable temporary differences relating to the same tax authority and the same
taxable entity reverse in the periods in which a tax loss arising from the deferred tax
asset can be carried forward.
Income taxes 183
Where there are insufficient taxable temporary differences, the deferred tax asset is only
recognised to the extent that (IAS 12.29):
it is probable that the entity will have sufficient taxable profits in the same periods in
which the reversal of the deductible temporary differences occurs; or
there are tax planning opportunities available to the entity that will create taxable profit
in the appropriate periods.
As with any other assets, deferred tax assets can only be recognised if they will have
future economic benefits (refer to the definition of assets in the Conceptual Framework). The
amount recognised for any deferred tax asset is therefore limited to the future economic
benefits expected.
Deferred tax assets can also arise from the carrying forward of both unused tax losses and
unused tax credits. These types of deferred tax assets are described in the section “Unused
tax losses and unused tax credits” below.
Deductible temporary differences arise in respect of liabilities and revenue received in
advance when the carrying amount is larger than the tax base. When these
economic resources flow from the entity, part (or all) of the amount may be deductible in
the determination of taxable income in periods that follow the periods in which the liability
is recognised. In such instances, a temporary difference arises between the carrying
amount of the liability and the tax base. A deferred tax asset arises in respect of the
income tax that will be recoverable in future periods when the liability or part thereof is
allowed as a deduction in the determination of the taxable profit.
Example 7.19: Deductible temporary differences

Deductible temporary differences will give rise to the recognition of a deferred tax asset in
the statement of financial position at the end of the reporting period. Using the temporary
differences illustrated in Examples 7.12 to 7.16 and a normal income tax rate of 27%, the
deferred tax asset to be recognised will be calculated as follows:
Carrying Tax base Temporary Deferred tax Movement
amount differences balance – to P/L
SFP @ 27% @ 27%
Dr/(Cr) Dr/(Cr)
R R R R R
7.12 Costs incurred – 5 000 (5 000) 1 350 (1 350)
7.13 Loan (capital) (800 000) (800 000) – – –
7.13 Interest expense
accrued (96 000) (96 000) – – –
7.14 Water and electricity
accrual (1 250) (1 250) – – –
7.14 Leave pay accrual (4 500) – (4 500) 1 215 (1 215)
7.15 Subscriptions
received in advance (380) – (380) 103 (103)
7.16 Trade receivables
and allowance for
credit losses 74 000 81 200 (7 200) 1 944 (1 944)
4 612 (4 612)
Example 7.19: Deductible temporary differences (continued)

Assume that the opening balance of deferred tax was Rnil. The movement in the balance for
deferred tax in respect of only the deductible differences above, of R4 612 (from Rnil) will be
recognised as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
Recognition of deferred tax on taxable temporary differences
Comments
¾ Deductible temporary differences arise in respect of assets and expenses when the tax
base is larger than the carrying amount.
¾ Deductible temporary differences also arise in respect of liabilities and revenue received
in advance when the carrying amount is larger than the tax base.
¾ A deferred tax asset of R4 612 should be created if the debit balance will be recovered in
future by means of sufficient taxable profits being earned against which the benefit of
the deductible temporary differences can be utilised.
Example 7.20: Comprehensive example of temporary differences

Refer to all the temporary differences in examples 7.8 to 7.16. The taxable temporary
differences were summarised in example 7.17, and the deductible temporary differences
were summarised in example 7.19. The taxable temporary differences resulted in a deferred
tax liability of R10 800, while the deductible temporary differences resulted in a deferred tax
asset of R4 612. The balance of the deferred tax account will thus be a net liability of
R6 188 (10 800 – 4 612). Assume that the opening balance of deferred tax was Rnil. The
net movement in the balance for deferred tax of R6 188 (from Rnil) (instead of the individual
journals indicated in examples 7.17 and 7.19 above) will be recognised as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
Deferred tax liability (SFP) 6 188
Recognition of deferred tax on net taxable temporary differences
Income taxes 185
Example 7.20: Comprehensive example of temporary differences (continued)

Assume the company’s profit before tax for the current year amounted to R800 000, after
taking all the items from example 7.8 to 7.16 into account. The company’s current tax will
be calculated as follows:
R
Calculating current tax:
Non-taxable/exempt items (60 000)
Accounting dividend income (7.9) (60 000)
Dividends are exempt for tax purposes (7.9) –
Temporary differences: (22 920)
Accounting depreciation on the plant (7.8) 40 000
Tax allowance on the plant (7.8) (50 000)
Accounting amortisation of development costs (7.11) 50 000
Tax allowance for development costs (7.11) (80 000)
Accounting expense for research costs (7.12) 10 000
Tax deduction for research costs (7.12) (5 000)
Accounting expense for accrued leave (7.14) 4 500
Tax deduction for accrued leave in the current year (7.14) –
Accounting income for subscriptions received in advance (7.15) –
Taxable income for subscriptions received in advance (7.15) 380
Accounting expense for credit losses (7.16) 12 000
Tax allowance for credit losses (7.16) (4 800)
Current tax (R717 080 × 27%) 193 612
Disclosure of the income tax expense and the deferred tax liability in the notes will be as follows:
Current tax 193 612
Deferred tax: 6 188
Capital allowances on plant 2 700
Development costs 8 100
Research costs (1 350)
Leave pay accrual (1 215)
Subscriptions received in advance (103)
Allowance for credit losses (1 944)
Tax expense 199 800

Dividends exempt (R60 000 × 27%) (16 200)
Tax expense 199 800
Effective tax rate (R199 800/R800 000 × 100) 24,98%
Example 7.20: Comprehensive example of temporary differences (continued)

20. Deferred tax liability R
Capital allowances on plant 2 700
Development costs 8 100
Leave pay accrual (1 215)
Subscriptions received in advance (103)
Allowance for credit losses (1 944)
Comments:
¾ All these differences are temporary differences, except for the dividend income, as it is not
taxable (and therefore explained as such in the tax reconciliation). Deferred tax was
recognised in respect of all the other temporary differences.
¾ The categories of temporary differences that resulted in the deferred tax liability must be
disclosed (see the note for the deferred tax liability). See section 10 of this chapter for the
detailed disclosure requirements. Furthermore, the deferred tax expense in respect of all
originating or reversing temporary differences should also be disclosed (see the note for the
income tax expense where all the temporary differences are listed).
¾ In this example, the amounts for the balance in the deferred tax liability and the movement
recognised in the tax expense are the same as the opening balance for deferred tax was
Rnil. The deferred tax liability (or asset) is calculated at each reporting date, and the
change in the balance from the preceding year to the current year is reported in the
profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
(refer to the discussion in section 8 below). In cases where an opening balance of
deferred tax exists, the movement in each type of temporary difference would be
disclosed in the tax expense note. The cumulative balance of each type of temporary
difference on the reporting date would be disclosed in the deferred tax note (to the
statement of financial position).
Some deductible temporary differences are exempt from the recognition of deferred
tax.
IAS 12.24 identifies circumstances in which a deferred tax asset may not be recognised.
These exemptions include deferred tax assets which arise from
the temporary difference on the initial recognition of an asset or liability in a transaction
which:
– is not a business combination; and
– at the time of the transaction, affects neither accounting profit nor taxable profit (tax
loss).
Such exemptions only relate to limited cases; therefore, it is not discussed in detail in this text.
Income taxes 187
Summary of temporary differences

Calculation
Temporary Statement of
Item (CA = carrying amount;
difference financial position
TB = tax base)
CA > TB Deferred tax
Taxable
e.g. depreciation < tax allowance liability
Assets
TB > CA Deferred tax
Deductible
e.g. depreciation > tax allowance asset
CA > TB
Deferred tax
Liabilities and e.g. Leave pay accrual allowed Deductible
asset
revenue received by SARS once paid
in advance TB > CA Deferred tax
Taxable
e.g. s 24 allowance liability
Example 7.21: Comprehensive example – deferred tax on originating and reversing

temporary differences
Alpha Ltd owns a machine that is depreciated at 25% per annum on the straight-line basis.
For tax purposes, a 40/20/20/20 allowance is applied. The reporting date of the company is
31 December. The normal income tax rate is 27%. The profits before tax for each of the past
four years, after taking depreciation into account, were as follows:
20.21 R80 000
20.22 R100 000
20.23 R110 000
20.24 R130 000
Details of the machine are as follows: Accounting Tax
R R
1 January 20.21 Cost 10 000 10 000
31 December 20.21 Depreciation/tax allowance (2 500) (4 000)
7 500 6 000
5 000 4 000
2 500 2 000
– –
Tax calculation
20.21 20.22 20.23 20.24
R R R R
Accounting profit 80 000 100 000 110 000 130 000
Depreciation 2 500 2 500 2 500 2 500
Tax allowance (4 000) (2 000) (2 000) (2 000)
Taxable income 78 500 100 500 110 500 130 500
Current tax at 27% 21 195 27 135 29 835 35 235

temporary differences (continued)
Deferred tax calculation
amount difference balance in to P/L
SFP @ 27% @ 27%
Dr/(Cr) Dr/(Cr)
R R R R R
20.21 7 500 6 000 1 500 (405) 405
20.22 5 000 4 000 1 000 (270) (135)
20.23 2 500 2 000 500 (135) (135)
20.24 – – – – (135)
Journal entries
Dr Cr
R R
20.21 Income tax expense (P/L) 405
Deferred tax (SFP) 405
Recognition of movement in deferred tax for the current year
20.22 Deferred tax (SFP) 135
Income tax expense (P/L) 135
The above information will be disclosed as follows in the financial statements:
Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
Notes 20.21 20.22 20.23 20.24
R R R R
Profit before tax 80 000 100 000 110 000 130 000
Income tax expense 2 (21 600) (27 000) (29 700) (35 100)
Profit for the year 58 400 73 000 80 300 94 900
Statement of financial position
20.21 20.22 20.23 20.24
R R R R
Deferred tax 405 270 135 –
Current liabilities
Tax owing * 21 195 27 135 29 835 35 235
Income taxes 189

temporary differences (continued)
Comments:
¾ * This would be the balance after the deduction of any provisional tax paid. Assume, for the
purposes of this illustration, that no provisional tax was paid.
¾ The tax expenses in years 20.21, 20.22 and 20.23 and 20.24 are in line (27%) with the
profit before tax amount to which they relate. It should be clear from this example that the
recognition (in profit or loss) of the movement in the deferred tax balances results in the tax
expense being in line (27%) with the profit before tax. Accordingly, a tax reconciliation is
unnecessary as the expected tax expense is indeed 27% of the accounting profit.
¾ The deferred tax liability (or asset) is calculated at each reporting date, and the change in
the balance from the preceding year to the current year is reported in the profit or loss
section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income. This is done as
the item that created the temporary difference (annual depreciation differs from tax
allowance) was recognised in profit or loss.
Notes 20.21 20.22 20.23 20.24
R R R R
2. Income tax expense
Current tax expense 21 195 27 135 29 835 35 235
Deferred tax expense 405 (135) (135) (135)
Tax expense 21 600 27 000 29 700 35 100
7 Unused tax losses, unused tax credits and deferred tax assets
A deferred tax asset represents the income tax amounts that are recoverable in future
periods in respect of:
deductible temporary differences (see 6.3 above);
the carry-forward of unused tax losses; and
the carry-forward of unused tax credits.
Tax losses are, in substance, a unique type of deductible temporary difference, and the
accounting treatment is basically the same as what was discussed in the section above.
In terms of IAS 12.34, a deferred tax asset is recognised for the carry-forward of unused
tax losses and credits to the extent that it is probable that there will be taxable profits in future
against which the unused tax losses and credits may be utilised. The same applies to all net
deductible temporary differences.
The requirements in respect of the creation of deferred tax assets resulting from deductible
temporary differences also apply to unused tax losses and tax credits. However, where
unused tax losses arise as a result of recent operating losses, it may indicate that future
taxable profits may not be available in the future against which to utilise these tax losses
(IAS 12.35). Other indications that future taxable profits may not be available are an entity’s
history of unused or expired tax losses and credits, as well as management’s expectation of
future operating losses.
One should bear in mind that any asset (in terms of the Conceptual Framework)
embodies future economic benefits. A deferred tax asset should only be created to the
extent that it will be utilised in future by means of taxable temporary differences, or when
acceptable evidence exists to indicate that sufficient taxable income will be available against
which to utilise these tax losses. In essence, the realisation of future taxable income is
largely dependent on the future profitability of the entity. All the criteria for the recognition
of a deferred tax asset developed in IAS 12 are aimed at establishing whether the entity will
be profitable in future, or not.
If it is probable that the entity will not be profitable in future, the asset is treated as a
contingent gain, which is not recognised until it is realised.
It is apparent that a certain measure of professional judgement should be exercised in

recognising deferred tax assets, especially in instances in which the amount of the taxable
temporary differences is smaller than the amount of the deductible temporary differences.
The probability that sufficient taxable income will be available to utilise the deferred tax
asset in future periods should be assessed.
IAS 12.36 proposes the following criteria for assessing the probability that sufficient
taxable profits will be generated in future in order that unused tax losses and credits may be
utilised:
The entity has sufficient taxable temporary differences relating to the same tax authority
and the same taxable entity to provide taxable amounts against which the unused tax
losses or credits may be utilised.
It is probable that the entity will have taxable profits before the unused tax losses or
credits expire.
The unused tax losses result from identifiable causes which are unlikely to recur.
The entity has tax planning opportunities available that will create taxable profits in the
period in which the unused tax losses or credits may be utilised.
Deferred tax assets and liabilities are calculated separately. All deferred tax liabilities are
recognised, but deferred tax assets are only recognised to the extent that it is probable that
taxable income will be available in future, i.e. when the unused tax losses and credits are
utilised.
Income taxes 191
Example 7.22: Assessed tax losses

Sierra Ltd suffered some operating losses during the current year, but the future profitability
seems reasonably certain. Sierra Ltd has an accounting loss of R20 000 for the year ending
20.29, and its assessed tax loss also amounted to R20 000. SARS allows the assessed tax
loss to be deducted against any future taxable income. There are no other temporary
differences. The deferred tax balance at the end of the 20.28 year was Rnil. The normal
income tax rate is 27%.
Sierra Ltd has no current tax payable for the year ending 20.29 as it has an assessed tax
loss. There seems to be probable future taxable income against which the assessed tax loss
can be utilised, and Sierra Ltd may recognise a deferred tax asset of R5 400 (R20 000 ×
27%).
SFP @ 27% @ 27%
Dr/(Cr) Dr/(Cr)
R R R R R
Assessed tax loss – (20 000) (20 000) 5 400 (5 400)
Journal entries
Dr Cr
R R
20.29 Deferred tax (SFP) 5 400
Comments:
¾ The accounting treatment would be the same for any other deductible temporary difference.
In instances where the deferred tax asset cannot be utilised fully, IAS 12 permits the
partial recognition of the deferred tax asset, which is limited to the amount of expected
future taxable profits. As the recognition of this asset is dependent on the future
recognition of taxable income, the recognised and unrecognised deferred tax assets are
reassessed at each reporting date (IAS 12.37). Should circumstances change, and it
becomes probable that taxable profit will be available in future, the unrecognised portion of
the deferred tax asset is recognised accordingly. An example of such changed
circumstances is when the composition of the management of an entity changes, thereby
changing its expectations regarding future taxable profit.
The extent to which deferred tax assets are not recognised in the statement of financial
position should be disclosed in a note to the statement of financial position (IAS 12.81(e)).
The utilisation of previously unrecognised deferred tax assets in the current year should also
be disclosed separately as a component of the tax expense (IAS 12.80(e), (f)).
Example 7.23: Unrecognised deferred tax asset

Beta Ltd had a deductible temporary difference of R120 000 in respect of a provision at the
end of its financial year. The carrying amount of the provision amounted to R120 000, and
the tax base to Rnil. Beta Ltd had a possible deferred tax asset of R32 400 (R120 000 ×
27%), provided that sufficient future taxable income will be available when the deductible
temporary difference reverses.
However, management is of the opinion that there will be sufficient future taxable income
available to utilise only R30 000 of the deductible temporary difference. Therefore, Beta Ltd
only recognises a deferred tax asset of R8 100 (R30 000 × 27%).
The accounting profit for the year amounted to R500 000, and the current tax payable was
R167 400 ((R500 000 + R120 000) × 27%).
Assume that the deferred tax balance in the previous year was Rnil, that there is no
assessed tax loss carried forward, and that the normal income tax rate is 27%.
Beta Ltd will pass the following journal entry:
Dr Cr
R R
Deferred tax asset (SFP) (R30 000 × 27%) 8 100
Recognition of partial deferred tax asset for deductible temporary
differences
The unrecognised asset is therefore: (R90 000 × 27% = R24 300)
This unrecognised deferred tax asset is disclosed in the notes (see notes below).
The detailed calculation in respect of the deferred tax can be done as follows:
amount differences balance – to P/L
SFP @ 27% @ 27%
Dr/(Cr) Dr/(Cr)
R R R R R
Provision (120 000) – (120 000) 32 400 (32 400)
Unrecognised deferred tax
asset 90 000 (24 300) 24 300
Deferred tax asset
recognised (30 000) 8 100 (8 100)
The tax notes will be disclosed as follows:
R
Current tax (given) 167 400
Deferred tax (see journals above) (8 100)
(Originating)/reversing of deductible temporary difference on the provision
(120 000 × 27%) (32 400)
Effect of unrecognised deferred tax asset (movement for the year)
(90 000 × 27%) 24 300
Tax expense 159 300

Income taxes 193
Example 7.23: Unrecognised deferred tax asset (continued)

Tax reconciliation
R
Accounting profit (/loss) 500 000
Tax at standard rate of 27% 135 000
Effect of the unrecognised portion of the deferred tax asset 24 300
Tax expense 159 300
Effective tax rate 31,86%
(R159 300/R500 000 × 100) = 31,86% effective tax rate
3. Deferred tax
R
Provisions (120 000 × 27%) 32 400
Unrecognised deferred tax asset (90 000 × 27%) (24 300)
Deferred tax asset recognised 8 100
The company has signed contracts in terms of which taxable income will probably be
realised to justify the recognition of the deferred tax asset. The company has deductible
temporary differences of R90 000 in respect of a provision for which no deferred tax asset
was recognised, as sufficient future taxable income to utilise the full deductible temporary
differences was not deemed probable (IAS 12.81(e)).
Comment:
¾ The amount and the nature of the evidence supporting the recognition of deferred tax
assets should be disclosed.
¾ The effect of the unrecognised deferred tax assets should be disclosed. Its effect on the
tax expense in profit or loss and the tax reconciliation should also be disclosed.
8 Recognition and measurement of deferred tax
The general guideline for the recognition of deferred tax is that it should be treated in
the same manner as the accounting treatment of the underlying transaction or event
(IAS 12.57). The movement in the deferred tax balances is recognised as an income or
expense (included in profit or loss) if the transaction or event is recognised in profit or loss.
In the preceding examples, the deferred tax effect was recognised against profit or loss (i.e.
the movement in the deferred tax balance was recognised as a debit or credit entry to the
income tax expense). In those examples, the items (e.g. property, plant and equipment and
provisions) that gave rise to the deferred tax also relate to items recognised within profit or
loss (e.g. depreciation, expenses for provision raised, etc.). The movement in the deferred
tax balance must be recognised in other comprehensive income if the tax is related to an
item which is recognised in other comprehensive income either in the same or in another
period (IAS 12.61A). An example of this is the revaluation of property, plant and equipment.
The deferred tax relating to the correction of a prior period error, which is corrected within
equity, is recognised in equity.
The measurement of the deferred tax shall reflect the tax consequences of the manner
in which the carrying amount of the asset or liability will be recovered or settled.
When deferred tax liabilities and assets are measured, the tax consequences of the
manner in which the entity expects to recover or settle the carrying amount of its assets
and liabilities must be considered (IAS 12.51). Entities typically recover the carrying amount
of their assets through using or selling them. The manner in which assets are recovered
and liabilities settled may influence the tax rate as well as the tax base of items
(IAS 12.51A). If a non-depreciable asset is revalued under IAS 16, Property, Plant and
Equipment, then IAS 12.51B requires that the deferred tax liability or asset that arises from
such a revaluation is measured based on the tax consequences that will follow from
recovering the carrying amount of that asset through sale (i.e. capital gains tax).
Example 7.24: Deferred tax on revalued land

Sigma Ltd acquired land at a cost of R800 000 on 1 July 20.20. The entity’s year-end is
31 December. The land was revalued to R950 000 on 31 December 20.22. Assume a
normal income tax rate of 27% and the capital gains tax inclusion rate is 80%.
Deferred
tax
Carrying Temporary
Tax base balance –
amount difference
SFP
Dr/(Cr)
R R R R
Land at cost (non-depreciable asset) 800 000 800 000 – –
Revaluation surplus (OCI) 150 000 – 150 000 (32 400)
Land at revaluation 950 000 800 000 150 000 (32 400)
R R
31 December 20.22
Land (SFP) 150 000
Revaluation surplus (OCI) 150 000
Revaluation of land
31 December 20.22
Revaluation surplus: Tax effect (OCI) 32 400
Deferred tax liability (SFP) (150 000 × 80% × 27%) 32 400
Recognition of deferred tax on revaluation of land
Income taxes 195
Example 7.24: Deferred tax on revalued land (continued)

Comment
¾ Land is a non-depreciable asset revalued under IAS 16, and the deferred tax liability is
recognised on the basis that the carrying amount of land will be recovered through sale.
Therefore, the deferred tax is measured with reference to the capital gains tax
consequences that will arise upon the disposal of the land.
¾ The tax base of the land is the amount deductible in future. When the land is recovered
through sale (deemed), the (base) cost would be deductible against the proceeds from the
disposal. Therefore, the tax base is equal to the cost of R800 000.
¾ The deferred tax on the revaluation of land is recognised against other comprehensive
income as the item to which it relates (the revaluation led to the temporary difference) was
recognised in other comprehensive income.
¾ Non-depreciable assets, e.g., land, will not lead to the recognition of deferred tax under the
cost model. The temporary difference that arises on initial recognition is exempt in terms
of IAS 12.15, as the difference arises from the initial recognition of an asset in a
transaction which, at the time of the transaction, does not affect either the accounting
profit or the taxable profit. Refer to example 7.18.
¾ If the non-depreciable asset is revalued in terms of IAS 16, the revaluation no longer
relates to the initial recognition of the asset as it is a subsequent remeasurement and is,
therefore, no longer an exempt temporary difference.
IAS 12.47 requires deferred tax assets and liabilities to be measured at the tax rates
that are expected to apply in the period when the asset is realised or the liability settled.
The measurement of the deferred tax balance is based on tax rates and tax laws that have
been enacted or substantively enacted at the reporting date. An accounting estimate is
therefore made to measure the amount of deferred tax by referring to the information at
the reporting date. It follows that when the tax rate changes, the deferred tax balance will be
adjusted accordingly. The adjustment will be a change in the accounting estimate that will form
part of the income tax expense in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive
income of the current year, if the item that led to the temporary difference was also
recognised in profit or loss.
When a new tax rate has already been announced by the tax authorities at the reporting
date, the announced rate should be used in measuring the deferred tax assets and
liabilities.
Example 7.25: Change in the tax rate

Gamma Ltd had the following temporary differences for the years ended
31 December 20.22 and 20.23:
20.23 20.22
Property, plant and equipment R R
Carrying amount 150 000 200 000
Tax base (80 000) (120 000)
Taxable temporary difference 70 000 80 000
Normal income tax rate 27% 28%

The new normal income tax rate of 27% was announced at the beginning of 20.23.
Example 7.25: Change in the tax rate (continued)

Deferred tax liability
R
31 December 20.22 (R80 000 × 28%) 22 400
31 December 20.23 (R70 000 × 27%) (18 900)
Net change in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income 3 500

SFP @ @ 27%
28%/27%
Dr/(Cr) Dr/(Cr)
R R R R R
PPE – 20.22 200 000 120 000 80 000 (22 400)
Change in the tax rate 800 (800)
(21 600)
Depreciation/allowances (50 000) (40 000) (10 000) 2 700 (2 700)
PPE – 20.23 150 000 80 000 70 000 (18 900) (3 500)
Journal entry Dr Cr
Because IAS 12.80(c) and (d) require the separate disclosure of the deferred tax expense or
income attributable to the creation or reversal of temporary differences, as well as disclosure
of the amount applicable to changes in the tax rate or changes in legislation, the following
calculation is required:
R
Movement in temporary differences for the year (R10 000 × 27%) (2 700)
Tax rate change (R80 000 × 1%) OR (R22 400 × 1/28) (800)
(3 500)
The note for the income tax expense will be presented as follows (assume that the
accounting profit for 20.23 amounted to R300 000):
Notes
20.23
R
Current tax expense
[(R300 000 + R50 000 depreciation – R40 000 tax allowance) × 27%] 83 700
Deferred tax expense (3 500)
Reversing temporary difference on property, plant and equipment (2 700)
(R10 000 × 27%)
Effect of rate change (R80 000 × 1%) OR (R22 400 × 1/28) (800)
Tax expense 80 200

Income taxes 197
Example 7.25: Change in the tax rate (continued)

20.23
R
Tax at the standard tax rate of 27% (R300 000 × 27%) 81 000
Effect of decrease in the tax rate (800)
Tax expense 80 200
Effective tax rate (R80 200/R300 000 × 100) 26,73%
The applicable normal income tax rate changed during the current year to
27% (20.22: 28%) (IAS 12.81(d)).
Comments:
¾ IAS 12 refers to tax rates enacted or substantively enacted at the reporting date that
must be used in the measurement of deferred tax. If the new tax rate is announced prior
to the reporting date, the new rate may provide a more accurate estimate of the tax rates
that will apply in the periods when the assets realise or the liabilities are settled.
¾ Judgement may be needed to decide whether the opening or closing balances of the
deferred tax balance should be adjusted to reflect the new tax rate (substantively
enacted at the year-end). The decision may be influenced by when the new rate was
announced (at the beginning or end of the entity’s financial year) and whether the new
rate also applies to the current year or only to future periods. The entity should disclose
its accounting policy and judgement in this regard.
9 Dividend tax
Dividend tax is a tax imposed on shareholders at a rate of 20% on receipt of

dividends.
The dividend tax is categorised as a withholding tax, as the tax is withheld and paid (on
behalf of the shareholder) to SARS by the company paying the dividend and not the person
liable for the tax (who is the benefitting owner of the dividend). Dividend tax is not a tax
expense for the company declaring the dividend.
Example 7.26: Dividend tax

Delta Ltd declared a cash dividend of R100 000 on 30 November 20.29. The dividend and
the dividend tax were paid in cash on 12 December 20.29.
Journal entries
Dr Cr
R R
30 November 20.29
Dividend declared (SCE) 100 000
Current liability: Shareholders for dividends (SFP) 80 000
Current liability: SARS – Dividend tax payable (SFP) 20 000
Recognition of dividend declared
12 December 20.29
Current liability: Shareholders for dividends (SFP) 80 000
Current liability: SARS – Dividend tax payable (SFP) 20 000
Bank (SFP) 100 000
Payment of dividends to shareholders and dividend tax paid to SARS
A dividend will be exempt from dividend tax (section 64F(1)) if the recipient is a resident
company. As such, South African companies receiving a dividend from an investment in
another South African company will not be liable for the dividend tax on the dividend
received. The full dividend will merely be recognised in profit or loss, without any tax
consequences, as the dividend received is also exempt (section 10(1)(k)) for the purpose
of income taxes. The effect of the exempt dividend received will be explained in the tax
reconciliation as indicated in Example 7.20.
10 Presentation and disclosure
An entity may only offset current tax assets and liabilities if:
it has a legally enforceable right to offset the recognised amounts; and
the entity intends to either settle on a net basis or to realise the asset and settle the liability
simultaneously (IAS 12.71).
The entity will, as a taxpayer, usually have the right of offset if the taxes are levied by the
same tax authority and the tax authority permits the entity to make or receive a single net
payment (IAS 12.72). This implies, amongst others, that an entity may not offset the
current tax liability for the local tax against the current tax asset from foreign tax in the
statement of financial position.
Deferred tax assets and liabilities shall only be offset if the entity (IAS 12.74)
has a legally enforceable right to offset current tax assets against current tax liabilities;
and
the deferred tax assets and liabilities relate to income taxes levied by the same tax
authority on either:
– the same taxable entity; or
– different taxable entities which intend to either settle current tax liabilities and assets
on a net basis, or to realise the assets and settle the liabilities simultaneously, in each
future period in which significant amounts of deferred tax liabilities or assets are
expected to be settled or recovered.
Income taxes 199
These conditions for offsetting allow an entity to offset deferred tax assets and deferred tax
liabilities without requiring detailed scheduling of the timing of the reversal of each
temporary difference. However, where the entity has a net deferred tax asset after
offsetting, the requirements for the recognition of a deferred tax asset must be met, i.e.
there must be sufficient taxable profit in future periods in which the asset will be utilised (as
was discussed in section 7 above).
Capital losses (refer to section 4.2) may only be deducted against capital gains (and not
taxable income of a revenue nature) to reduce any capital gains tax payable. Consequently,
a deferred tax asset on capital losses may not be offset against a deferred tax liability on
temporary differences relating to items of a revenue nature for tax purposes.
In the consolidated financial statements, a deferred asset of a subsidiary would probably
not be offset against a deferred tax liability of another subsidiary (as it may be difficult to
meet both conditions above).
10.1 Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income and notes
IAS 12 requires that the tax expense and any tax income related to profit or loss from
ordinary activities be presented in the profit or loss section in the statement of profit or loss
and other comprehensive income (IAS 12.77). The following major components should
also be disclosed separately in the notes to the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income (IAS 12.79 and .80):
the current tax expense (income);
any adjustment recognised in the reporting period for the current tax of prior periods;
the amount of the deferred tax expense or income relating to the originating and
reversal of temporary differences;
the amount of the deferred tax expense or income relating to changes in the tax rate or
the imposition of new taxes;
the amount of the benefit arising from a previously unrecognised tax loss, tax credit or
temporary difference of a prior period that is applied to reduce a current and/or deferred
tax expense;
the deferred tax expense arising from the write-down and reversal of a previous
write-down of a deferred tax asset where the asset is adjusted as a result of a change in
the probability that sufficient taxable profits will realise in future periods; and
the amount of tax expense or income relating to those changes in accounting policies
and errors that are included in profit or loss in accordance with IAS 8, because they
cannot be accounted for retrospectively.
The following additional information is required in addition to the statement of profit or loss
and other comprehensive income (IAS 12.81):
a reconciliation of the relationship between tax expense (or income) and accounting
profit in either a numerical reconciliation between tax expense (or income) and the
product of the accounting profit multiplied by the applicable tax rate, or a numerical
reconciliation between the applicable tax rate and the average effective tax rate;
an explanation of changes in the applicable tax rate(s) compared to the rate for the
previous accounting periods;
the amount of deferred tax income or expense recognised in the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income for each type of temporary difference,
unused tax loss and unused tax credit, if it is not apparent from the changes in the
amounts recognised in the statement of financial position;
for discontinued operations, the tax expense related to
– the gain or loss on discontinuance; and
– the profit or loss from the ordinary activities of the discontinued operation, together
with the comparatives amounts (Refer to IFRS 5); and
the tax effect of all the items presented in other comprehensive income
(IAS 12.81(ab)) must, in terms of IAS 1, be presented either in a note or on the face of
the other comprehensive income section of the statement of profit or loss and other
10.2 Statement of financial position and notes

The following must be disclosed (IAS 12.81):
the aggregate current and deferred tax relating to items that are charged or credited to
equity in terms of IAS 12.62A;
the amount and, where applicable, the expiry date of deductible temporary differences,
unused tax losses and unused tax credits for which no deferred tax asset is
recognised in the statement of financial position;
the amount of the deferred tax assets and liabilities recognised in the statement of
financial position for each type of temporary difference, unused tax loss, and unused
tax credit for each period presented;
the amount of income tax consequences of dividends declared or paid before the
financial statements were authorised for issue, but not recognised as a liability; and
the amount and the nature of the evidence supporting the recognition of deferred
tax assets, where utilisation of the deferred tax asset is dependent on future taxable
profits in excess of profits arising from the reversal of existing taxable temporary
differences and where the entity has suffered a loss in either the current or preceding
period (IAS 12.82).
Example 7.27: Comprehensive example – current and deferred tax

The trial balance of Delta Ltd for the year ended 31 December 20.27 is as follows:
Credits Notes R R
Ordinary share capital 200 000
Retained earnings (1 January 20.27) 2 387 710
Long-term loan 500 000
Bank overdraft 40 000
Trade payables 246 000
Revenue 10 500 000
Dividends received 1 15 000
Deferred tax (1 January 20.27) 2 61 290
Debits
Donations 3 15 000
Research costs 4 35 000
Interest paid 75 000
Operating expenses (including depreciation) 2 040 000
Land at cost 2 470 000
Buildings at carrying amount 5 1 600 000
Plant and machinery at carrying amount 6 630 000
Prepaid insurance premium 7 25 000
Trade receivables 8 380 000
SARS (provisional payments made) 9 650 000
Dividends paid (30 June 20.27) 30 000
13 950 000 13 950 000
Income taxes 201
Example 7.27: Comprehensive example – current and deferred tax (continued)

1 Dividends received are exempt from income tax and are thus not taxable.
2 The deferred tax balance on 1 January 20.27 arose as a result of a taxable temporary
difference on plant and machinery of R248 000 and a deductible temporary difference
on the allowance for credit losses of R21 000.
3 Assume that the donations are not deductible for income taxes purposes.
4. Assume the SARS allows such research costs of a capital nature as a deduction at 25%
per annum.
5. The SARS permits no allowance on this administration building, while Delta Ltd
depreciates the building at R125 000 per annum.
6. The tax base (cost less accumulated tax allowance) of the plant and machinery on
31 December 20.27 is R364 000. Depreciation on plant and machinery for the current
year is R170 000, and the tax allowance is R188 000.
7 Assume that the prepaid insurance premium is deductible for tax purposes during the
current year, in which it was actually paid.
8. Trade receivables in the trial balance comprise the following:
R
Receivables 430 000
Allowance for credit losses (an amount equal to the lifetime expected
credit losses) (50 000)
380 000
Assume SARS permits an allowance of 40% on the allowance for credit losses
(section 11(j)). The allowance for credit losses for 20.26 was R35 000.
9. The current tax and deferred tax for the current year should still be recognised. The
normal income tax rate is 27%. Delta Ltd’s tax payable based on the tax return for
20.26 was R5 000 less than the amount recognised as a liability. Delta Ltd paid
R650 000 as provisional tax during the current year.
The income tax notes to the financial statements of Delta Ltd for the year ended
31 December 20.27 may be compiled as follows from the information provided:
Calculations
1. Profit before tax (Accounting) R
Revenue 10 500 000
Cost of sales (6 000 000)
4 500 000
Other income: Dividends received 15 000
4 515 000
Expenses:
Operating expenses (2 040 000)
Donations (15 000)
Interest paid (75 000)

2. Current tax R
Non-deductible/non-taxable items 125 000
Dividends received (15 000)
Donations 15 000
Depreciation – administration building 125 000
Temporary differences (7 750 × 27% = 2 092*) (7 750)
Depreciation – plant and machinery 170 000
Tax allowances – plant and machinery (188 000)
Research costs – Accounting expense 35 000
Research costs – Tax deduction (35 000 u 25%) (8 750)
Accounting expense: Allowance for credit losses (50 000 – 35 000) 15 000
Tax:
Doubtful debts (allowance for credit losses): 20.26 (35 000 × 40%) 14 000
Doubtful debts (allowance for credit losses): 20.27 (50 000 × 40%) (20 000)
Prepaid insurance premium (25 000)
Taxable income 2 467 250

Current tax at 27% 666 158
* R2 092 = Movement on the deferred tax account for the current year (refer to deferred tax
calculation below).
3. Deferred tax Deferred Deferred tax
Carrying Tax Temporary
tax @ 27% movement in
amount base difference
Dr/(Cr) P/L @ 27%
1 January 20.27 R R R R R
Plant and machinery 248 000 (66 960)
Allowance for credit losses (21 000) 5 670
(61 290)
31 December 20.27
Long-term loan (500 000) (500 000) – –
Bank overdraft (40 000) (40 000) – –
Trade payables (246 000) (246 000) – –
Land 2 470 000 – 2 470 000 Exempt
Buildings 1 600 000 – 1 600 000 Exempt
Plant and machinery 630 000 364 000 266 000 (71 820) 2 092
Prepaid insurance
premium 25 000 – 25 000 (6 750)
Trade receivables
Gross 430 000 430 000 –
Allowance for credit
losses (50 000) (20 000) (30 000) 8 100
Research costs* – 26 250 (26 250) 7 088
(63 382)
* R35 000 – R8 750
Income taxes 203

R R
Taxation payable to SARS (SFP) (Current liability) 666 158
Recognition of current tax payable for the year
Income tax expense (P/L) (63 382 – 61 290) 2 092
Recognition of movement in the deferred tax balance
Delta Ltd
Major components of tax expense R
Current tax expense 661 158
– Current year 666 158
– Overprovision 20.26 (5 000)
Deferred tax expense 2 092
Allowances on plant and machinery (71 820 – 66 960) 4 860
Prepaid insurance premium (6 750 – 0) 6 750
Allowance for credit losses (5 670 – 8 100) (2 430)
Research cost (0 – 7 088) (7 088)
Tax expense 663 250
Tax reconciliation
R R
Accounting profit 2 350 000 2 350 000
Tax rate 27% 27%

Tax at standard rate 634 500
Tax effect of:
Donations (R15 000 × 27%); (R4 050/R2 350 000 × 100) 4 050 0,17
Buildings – depreciation 33 750 1,43
(R125 000 × 27%); (R33 750/R2 350 000 × 100)
Overprovision of current tax (R5 000/R2 350 000) × 100)) (5 000) (0,21)
Non-taxable income: Dividends received (4 050) (0,17)
(R15 000 × 27%); (R4 050/R2 350 000 × 100)
Income tax expense (R663 250/R2 350 000) 663 250 28,22
6. Deferred tax
Analysis of temporary differences R
Accelerated capital allowances for tax purposes (R266 000 × 27%) 71 820
Prepaid expense (R25 000 × 27%) 6 750
Allowance for credit losses (R30 000 × 27%) (8 100)
Research costs (R26 250 × 27%) (7 088)
11 Short and sweet
The objective of IAS 12 is to prescribe the recognition, measurement and disclosure

of income taxes.
IAS 12 ensures that the appropriate amount of tax is disclosed in the financial
statements of an entity.
Current tax is payable on taxable income at the applicable tax rate.
Taxable income is calculated according to the Income Tax Act.
Profit before tax is calculated according to IFRSs.
Differences between taxable income and profit before tax:
– non-taxable/non-deductible differences: include in tax reconciliation; and
– temporary differences: recognise deferred tax.
Deferred tax is recognised on temporary differences (with some exemptions)..
Temporary differences are differences between the carrying amount of an asset or
liability and its tax base.
The tax base of an asset or liability is the amount attributed to that asset or liability for
tax purposes.
A deferred tax liability is recognised for all taxable temporary differences (with a few
exceptions).
A deferred tax asset is recognised for all deductible temporary differences (with a few
exceptions). A deferred tax asset is only recognised to the extent that it is probable that
future taxable profits will be available against which the differences can be utilised.
Deferred tax is measured at the tax rates that are expected to apply in the period when
the asset is realised or the liability settled.
The deferred tax liability (or asset) is calculated at each reporting date, and the change in
the balance from the preceding year to the current year is recognised (through a journal
entry).in the tax expense in profit or loss (where the items that lead to the temporary
difference were recognised in profit or loss).
The movement in the deferred tax balances is recognised as an income or expense
(included in profit or loss) if the transaction or event is recognised in profit or loss.
8
Property, plant and equipment
IAS 16
Contents
1 Evaluation criteria .................................................................................. 206
2 Schematic representation of IAS 16 ......................................................... 206
3 Nature of PPE ........................................................................................ 207
4 Background ........................................................................................... 208
5 Recognition ........................................................................................... 209
5.1 Components ................................................................................. 209
5.2 Spare parts and servicing equipment .............................................. 210
5.3 Safety and environmental costs ...................................................... 210
5.4 Replacement of components at regular intervals .............................. 211
5.5 Major inspections .......................................................................... 213
6 Measurement ......................................................................................... 215
6.1 Initial cost .................................................................................... 215
6.2 Dismantling, removal and restoration costs ..................................... 217
6.3 Deferred settlement ...................................................................... 218
6.4 Exchange of PPE items .................................................................. 219
6.5 Subsequent measurement ............................................................. 221
7 Depreciation .......................................................................................... 222
7.1 Allocation of cost .......................................................................... 222
7.2 Useful life ..................................................................................... 222
7.3 Useful life of land and buildings...................................................... 224
7.4 Residual value .............................................................................. 224
7.5 Depreciation methods ................................................................... 225
7.6 Accounting treatment .................................................................... 228
8 Revaluation ........................................................................................... 228
8.1 Fair value ..................................................................................... 228
8.2 Non-depreciable assets: subsequent revaluations and devaluations ... 228
8.3 Non-depreciable assets: realisation of revaluation surplus................. 230
9 Impairments and compensation for losses ................................................ 230
10 Derecognition ........................................................................................ 232
11 Disclosure.............................................................................................. 233
12 Comprehensive example of cost model .................................................... 237
13 Short and sweet ..................................................................................... 240
205
Calculate the following amounts:
– cost price of assets purchased, exchanged or constructed;
– depreciation;
– depreciable amount;
– residual value;
– carrying amount; and
– revaluation surplus/deficit and revalued amount.
Account for all the above-mentioned items.
Present and disclose property, plant and equipment in the annual financial statements.
Objective
To prescribe the accounting treatment for property, plant and equipment (PPE);
In particular addressing the timing of recognition of the assets, determining the
carrying amount and the related depreciation.
Recognition
Items of PPE are recognised as assets on a component basis when it is probable that:
the future economic benefits associated with the assets will flow to the entity, and
the cost of the asset can be measured reliably.
Initial measurement
Items of PPE are initially recognised at cost.
Cost includes all those costs incurred to bring the item of PPE to location and
working condition for intended use.
If payment is deferred, interest at a market-related rate must be recognised.
If an asset is acquired in exchange for another,
Recoverability the cost
of carrying of the new asset will be at
amount
fair value
Theofcarrying
the asset given should
amount up unless:
be tested for impairment in terms of IAS 36.
– the transaction lacks commercial substance, or
– the fair value of neither the asset received nor given up can be reliably
measured,
in which case the cost of the new asset is measured at the carrying amount of the
asset given up.
Subsequent measurement
Items of PPE are subsequently measured using one of two models:
The cost model: cost less accumulated depreciation and accumulated impairment
losses; or
The revaluation model: revalued amount less accumulated depreciation and
accumulated impairment losses since the last revaluation.
continued
Property, plant and equipment 207
Revaluation Depreciation
An increase in value is credited to equity Depreciation commences when the asset is
via other comprehensive income in the available for use and continues until
statement of profit or loss and other derecognised, even if idle.
comprehensive income as a revaluation Depreciable amount = cost less the residual
surplus. Unless it represents a reversal of a value.
previous decrease for the same asset The method must reflect the pattern in which
recognised as an expense, in which case it the asset’s benefits are consumed.
is recognised as income in profit or loss. Methods include:
A decrease in value is recognised as an – straight line;
expense in profit or loss, unless it – reducing balance;
represents a reversal of a previous increase – sum of digits; or
of the same asset, in which case it is – production unit.
debited to revaluation surplus via other Depreciation is recognised in the profit or
comprehensive income. loss section of the statement of profit or
A revaluation surplus is realised to retained loss and other comprehensive income
earnings either when the asset is disposed unless it is included in the carrying amount
of or over its remaining useful life directly of another asset, for example manufactured
in the statement of changes in equity. inventories.
Derecognition
The asset is removed from the statement of financial position on disposal or when
withdrawn from use and there are no expected future benefits from its disposal.
The gain or loss on derecognition is recognised in the profit or loss section of the
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
3 Nature of PPE
Property, plant and equipment (PPE) items are tangible assets, sometimes also called
fixed assets, which are held for use in the production of goods, the supply of services, for
rental to others, or for administrative purposes. They are expected to be used during more
than one financial period. The intention is clearly to use these assets to generate revenue
rather than to sell them.
The term asset is defined in the 2018 Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting as a
present economic resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events (refer to
chapter 2). An economic resource is a right that has the potential to produce economic
benefits. Control encompasses both a power and a benefits element: an enity must have
the present ability to direct how a resource is used, and be able to obtain the economic
benefits that may flow from that resource.
Past event refers to the date of acquisition or the date of completion when the asset is
ready for its intended use. The economic benefits that may flow to the entity refers to the
revenue from the goods sold or services rendered, as well as cost savings and other
benefits resulting from the use of the asset.
A class of property, plant and equipment is a grouping of assets of a similar nature and
use in an entity’s operations. IAS 16 paragraph 37 lists the following examples of separate
classes:
land;
land and buildings;
machinery;
ships;
aircraft;
motor vehicles;
furniture and fixtures;
office equipment.
Land and buildings are normally purchased as a unit but recorded separately because
of their difference in nature, i.e.:
Land normally does not have a limited life and is, therefore, not depreciated.
Buildings, by contrast, have a limited life and are, therefore, depreciated.
Plant typically refers to the machinery and production line of a manufacturing concern. This
asset has a limited life and is depreciated, often using depreciation methods such as the
unit of production method.
4 Background
PPE is normally a large proportion of the assets of an entity in the statement of financial
position. IAS 16 deals with tangible long-term assets.
IAS 16 excludes from its scope:
biological assets related to agricultural activity other than bearer plants;
mineral rights and mineral reserves such as oil, natural gas and similar non-regenerative
resources (IAS 41, Agriculture);
property, plant and equipment classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5, Non-
current Assets Held for Sale and Discontinued Operations; and
investment property (IAS 40, Investment Property).
IAS 16 includes in its scope:
Bearer plants in agricultural activities;
PPE used in maintaining biological assets and mineral resources;
PPE acquired through lease agreements; and
investment property carried in terms of the cost model.
IAS 16 allows two alternative accounting treatments for PPE, without indicating any
preference. After initial recognition of an item of PPE at cost, the asset may either be shown:
at cost less accumulated depreciation and accumulated impairment losses (tthe cost
model); or
at a revalued amount, being the fair value of the asset on the date of revaluation less
accumulated depreciation and accumulated impairment losses since the last revaluation
(tthe revaluation model).
An entity adopts one of the models as its accounting policy and applies the policy to a
specific class of PPE.
IFRS 13 provides guidance on how fair value should be measured. IFRS 13 falls
outside the scope of this chapter.
5 Recognition
An item of PPE is recognised as an asset if it is probable that economic benefits

associated with the item will flow to the entity and the cost can be measured reliably (refer
to the Conceptual Framework).
5.1 Components
IAS 16 uses the general recognition principle contained in the Conceptual Framework for
both initial and subsequent recognition of an item of property, plant and equipment. The
identification of components forms the basis for the recognition and derecognition of PPE.
An entity must, where appropriate, identify the significant components of an item of

PPE on initial recognition. IAS 16 does not prescribe what constitutes a unit or a part of PPE
for the purposes of recognition and measurement. A measure of judgement is, therefore,
always required in identifying such parts.
Example 8.1: Identification of components

A company with a 31 December year-end has one asset, a helicopter. The helicopter was
acquired on 1 January 20.21 at a cost of R1 000 000. The following components and
respective useful lives were identified and estimated on initial recognition:
Engine of the helicopter:
R300 000 (the engine can only be used for 30 000 flight hours before replacement)
Remainder of the helicopter:
R700 000 (the helicopter, excluding the engine, is estimated to be available for use for
10 years)
During 20.21, 7 800 flight hours were undertaken.
Depreciation for the year ended 31 December 20.21, per significant component, is
calculated as follows:
Depreciation on the engine: R300 000 × (7 800/30 000) = R78 000
Depreciation on the remainder of the helicopter: R700 000 × 1/10 = R70 000
The total depreciation on the helicopter for the year ended 31 December 20.21 is R148 000
(78 000 + 70 000).
Assume that on initial recognition, the remainder of the helicopter (excluding the engine)
included, inter alia, five electronic components of R1 000 each. The entity estimates that
the components will be replaced every three years.
In such circumstances, it should be established on initial recognition whether the
components are significant enough to be depreciated separately. In practice, cost efficiency
will be a determining factor when the decision is made.
If the components are significant, they will be depreciated over their separate useful lives as
illustrated earlier.
If the components are not significant, they will be treated as part of the remainder of the
helicopter, be depreciated over a useful life of 10 years, and be derecognised when
replaced.
The same recognition rule is applied in determining both the costs that will initially be
capitalised as part of the cost of the PPE item and the costs that are capitalised
subsequently. As far as subsequent costs are concerned, the costs may result from
additions to assets, replacement of a part thereof, or the maintenance or service thereof.
In terms of the general recognition principle as described in IAS 16.7, the normal
day-to-day maintenance cost of an item is, however, recognised as an expense and is not
capitalised to the asset. This expense is described as repairs and maintenance and consists
mainly of the cost of labour, consumables and small spares.
5.2 Spare parts and servicing equipment

The accounting treatments for spare parts and servicing equipment are described in
IAS 16.8 as follows:
Items such as spare parts, stand-by equipment and servicing equipment are recognised in
accordance with this IFRS when they meet the definition of PPE. Otherwise, such items are
classified as inventories.
Example 8.2: Spare parts

During 20.21, Convent Ltd purchased a machine, machine A, for R400 000 and spare parts
for R30 000. These spare parts can be used on any machine, not only machine A. In
addition, a standby machine, which is reserved for use only during machine A’s down-time,
was purchased for R200 000 (assume that the standby machine does not need a major
installation in order to become operable). During 20.21, spare parts to the value of R20 000
were used to repair various machines, including machine A. The spare parts and the standby
machine will be accounted for as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
Spare parts:
Treat as inventories:
Bank or liability (SFP) 30 000
Expensed as used:
Repairs and maintenance/cost of sales (P/L) 20 000
Inventories – spare parts (SFP) 20 000
Machine:
Machinery (SFP) 400 000
Expensed as used:
Depreciation (P/L) xx xxx
Accumulated depreciation (SFP) xx xxx
Standby machine:
Treat as PPE (capitalise)
Comment:
¾ The standby machine will be depreciated from the date that it is available for use as
intended by management, in accordance with the requirements discussed below, even if
the machine is not actually used.
5.3 Safety and environmental costs

Sometimes entities are obliged to acquire certain PPE items for safety or environmental
purposes. Although such assets will not directly give rise to increased future economic
benefits embodied in a specific asset itself, the entity is obliged to acquire such assets for
increased future economic benefits from other assets. Consequently, these assets meet the
general recognition criteria for assets and are therefore capitalised as assets.
The increased carrying amount of the original asset and related environmental assets
must, in terms of IAS 36, be evaluated for impairment. An impairment loss may arise when
the new environmental asset has not contributed to additional positive cash flows, while the
carrying amount may have increased.
If an entity acquires these types of safety or environmental assets voluntarily, the cost
must be expensed, unless:
it increases the economic life of the related asset;
it is a constructive obligation because of industry practices; or
the cost increases the safety or environmental standards of the related asset.
Example 8.3: Safety equipment

In 20.21, Tommy Ltd installed special filters at total cost of R6 000, as required by law, on a
machine in order to prevent damage to the environment. Assume the filters are not
separately identifiable components of the machine. The carrying amount of the machine at
this date was R120 000, and the recoverable amount was R125 000. The recoverable
amount will not increase after the installation of the filters, as no direct future economic
benefits from the filters will flow to Tommy Ltd. The revised carrying amount of the machine
will be calculated as follows:
R
Original carrying amount 120 000
Filters 6 000
Revised carrying amount 126 000
The carrying amount of the machine must be tested for impairment in terms of IAS 36, as
filters were capitalised from which no additional direct future economic benefits will flow.
R
Revised carrying amount 126 000
Recoverable amount 125 000
Impairment loss 1 000
An impairment loss of R1 000 is recognised and allocated to the individual assets of the
cash-generating unit in proportion to their carrying amounts.
R
Machine (120 000/126 000 × 1 000) 952
Filters (6 000/126 000 × 1 000) 48
1 000
Refer to chapter 14 for a discussion on IAS 36.
5.4 Replacement of components at regular intervals

Certain components of PPE items are replaced frequently. Examples of these types of
components are:
the relining of a furnace;
the seats and galleys in an aircraft; and
the interior walls of a building such as an office block.
Note that the main asset (like the furnace, aircraft and building) has a much longer useful
life than the lining, seats, galleys and interior walls respectively.
IAS 16.43 to .44 requires that the initially recognised cost of an item of PPE be
allocated to its significant components, and that each component then be depreciated
separately. The depreciation rates and useful lives used to depreciate the respective
components of the asset may differ from those of the asset as a whole.
The remaining part of the item of PPE, consisting of all the items that are not individually
significant, represents a separate component.
When such a component is replaced, the cost of the replaced component is capitalised
as part of the carrying amount of the item of PPE, provided the recognition criteria are met.
The remaining carrying amount of the replaced component will be derecognised at that
stage.
If it is not possible to determine the carrying amount of the replaced component, (for
instance where the part has not been depreciated separately), the cost of the new
component may be used as an indication of what the original cost of the part would have
been (IAS 16.70). If the component will be used until the end of the useful life of the asset,
it is depreciated over the remaining useful life of the asset, or otherwise over the useful life
of the component. It is therefore possible for a component of an asset to be recognised
only subsequent to initial recognition once the replacement expenditure has been incurred.
Example 8.4: Replacement of components

Beta Ltd operates a furnace which cost R20 000 000, inclusive of R4 000 000 relating to
the cost of lining the furnace. The useful life of the furnace is 20 years. The furnace linings
need to be replaced every five years and this estimate has not changed. The linings were
replaced at a cost of R5 000 000 after 5 years. At the end of their useful lives, the linings
will have no residual value.
The original purchase of the furnace took place on 2 January 20.17, and it was also
available for use as intended by management on that date. The year-end is 31 December.
The following are applicable at 31 December 20.22:

Carrying value of furnace (excluding lining) on 31 December 20.22
R
Original cost including lining 20 000 000
Lining (4 000 000)
Furnace excluding lining 16 000 000
Accumulated depreciation on the furnace (excluding lining) to
31 December 20.21 (16 000 000/20 × 5) (4 000 000)
Depreciation for 20.22 (16 000 000/20) (800 000)
Carrying amount at 31 December 20.22 11 200 000
Carrying amount of the lining as at 31 December 20.22
R
Cost of original lining 4 000 000
Written off from 2 January 20.7 to 31 December 20.21 (4 000 000/5 × 5) (4 000 000)
–
New lining capitalised on 1 January 20.22 5 000 000
Depreciation (5 000 000/5) (1 000 000)
Example 8.4: Replacement of components (continued)

Depreciation for 20.22 R
Furnace 800 000
Lining 1 000 000
Total 1 800 000
Comment:
¾ If, at initial recognition of the furnace, the lining was not identified as a separate
component, but the R5 000 000 incurred to replace the lining now qualifies for recognition
as an asset, then it would be necessary to derecognise the remaining carrying amount of
the lining that was replaced. This carrying amount will therefore be based on the cost of the
new lining, amounting to R5 000 000. Since the total cost of the furnace would be
depreciated over 20 years and the lining component was not identified separately at initial
recognition, it follows that the carrying amount of the replaced lining component at
replacement date should be the following deemed amount:
R
Deemed cost 5 000 000
Deemed accumulated depreciation (5 000 000/20 × 5) (1 250 000)
Deemed carrying amount of old lining at date of derecognition 3 750 000
The carrying amount of the furnace at 1 January 20.22 directly after replacement of the
lining would therefore be as follows:
R
Cost of furnace 20 000 000
Accumulated depreciation of furnace (20 000 000/20 × 5) (5 000 000)
Derecognition of carrying amount of old lining (see above) (3 750 000)
Capitalisation of new lining 5 000 000
16 250 000
5.5 Major inspections

Certain assets need regular major inspections for faults, regardless of whether or not the
parts of the item are replaced – this is done to ensure that operations can continue
effectively. An example of such an asset is an aircraft which, after a specified number of
hours’ flying time, needs a major inspection to ensure continued optimum operation. When
the inspection occurs, the inspection cost is capitalised as a replacement against the
asset, (provided the recognition criteria of the Conceptual Framework are met). The cost
of the inspection is then depreciated over the estimated period until the next
inspection. Any remaining carrying amount of the previous inspection which was not fully
depreciated is derecognised once the new inspection occurs.
On initial recognition, a part of the cost of the asset is allocated to inspection costs (as if
the inspection was performed on the day of initial recognition). This component is then
depreciated over the expected period to the next inspection.
The cost of an inspection need not necessarily be identified when the asset is acquired or
erected. The estimated cost of a future similar inspection may be used as an indication of
the cost of what the current inspection component of the asset at acquisition was, if
required. In this way, the amount that needs to be depreciated separately over the useful
life of the remainder of the asset, can be estimated.
Example 8.5: Inspection costs

Charlie Ltd acquired a machine on 2 January 20.21 that needs a major inspection every two
years. The cost price of the machine is R2 000 000, and it is estimated that the cost of a
major inspection will amount to R200 000. No inspection is done on acquisition but the
separate component is identified. The useful life of the machine is estimated to be eight
years, and the company has a 31 December year-end.
The depreciation and carrying amounts of the machine at 31 December 20.21 and 20.22:
Machine Inspection *Total
component
R R R
Cost (2 000 000 – 200 000) 1 800 000 200 000 2 000 000
Depreciation 20.21:
Machine (1 800 000/8) (225 000) – (225 000)
Inspection (200 000/2) – (100 000) (100 000)
Carrying amount at 31 December 20.21 1 575 000 100 000 1 675 000
Depreciation 20.22 (225 000) (100 000) (325 000)
Carrying amount at 31 December 20.22 1 350 000 – 1 350 000
* Note that the inspection component is not a separate asset, but forms part of the machine.
If the inspection was done after 18 months instead of the originally estimated two years,
and the actual cost of the first physical inspection amounted to R300 000, the disclosure in
the PPE note for the year ended 31 December 20.22 will be as follows:
Charlie Ltd
13. Property, plant and equipment Machinery
20.22
R
Carrying amount at 1 January 20.21 –
Additions 2 000 000
Depreciation 20.21 (see above) (325 000)
Cost 2 000 000
Accumulated depreciation (325 000)
Depreciation 20.22
[(225 000 + (200 000/2 × 6/12) + (300 000/2 × 6/12)] (350 000)
Derecognition of initial inspection cost (refer to the journal below)
[200 000 – (100 000 + 50 000)] (50 000)
Capitalisation of inspection cost incurred 300 000
Cost (2 000 000 – 200 000 + 300 000) 2 100 000
Accumulated depreciation (325 000 + 350 000 – 100 000 – 50 000) (525 000)
Dr Cr
30 June 20.22 R R
Loss on derecognition (P/L) 50 000
Accumulated depreciation (SFP) 150 000
6 Measurement
The general rule in respect of PPE items that qualify for recognition as assets is that
these items are initially measured at cost.
6.1 Initial cost
The cost of PPE is the amount of cash or cash equivalent paid to acquire an asset at
the time of its acquisition or completion of construction. It can also be the fair value of other
forms of payments made to acquire the asset. Capitalisation of costs ceases as soon as the
asset is in the condition and location necessary for it to be capable of operating in the
manner intended by management.
Items to be included in cost are the following:

The purchase price, including import duties and non-refundable purchase taxes, after
the deduction of trade discounts and rebates. VAT paid on qualifying assets by a
registered vendor is refundable and is therefore excluded. VAT forms part of the cost if
the buyer is not registered for VAT or no input VAT can be claimed on the asset.
Any directly attributable costs of bringing the asset to the location and condition
necessary for it to operate in the way management intended. Examples of such directly
attributable costs are:
– the cost of employee benefits arising directly from the construction or acquisition of
the item of PPE;
– the cost of site preparation;
– initial delivery and handling costs;
– installation and assembly costs;
– costs of testing whether the asset is functioning properly (ie assessing whether the
technical and physical performance of the asset is such that it is capable of being
used in the production or supply of goods or services, for rental to others, or for
administrative purposes). However, a clear distinction must be made between testing
costs and initial operating losses (the latter may not be capitalised); and
– professional fees.
The initial estimate of the cost of dismantling, removing and restoring the site
on which the asset is located. A related obligation would arise in this context when the
item is acquired, or as a result of the use of the item for purposes other than the
manufacturing of inventories during that period.
The following items must not be capitalised:
costs of opening a new facility;
costs of introducing a new product or service (including costs of advertising and
promotional activities);
costs of conducting business in a new location, or with a new class of customer
(including costs of staff training);
administration and other general overhead costs;
costs incurred while an item capable of operating in the manner intended by management
has yet to be brought into use or is operated at less than full capacity;
initial operating losses, such as those incurred while demand for the item’s output
grows; and
costs of relocating or reorganising part or all of an entity’s operations.
Operations that relate to the construction or development of a PPE item, but that are not
necessary to bring the item to the condition and location necessary for operation in the
manner intended by management, are dealt with in IAS 16.21. Neither income nor
expenditure that results from such incidental operations is capitalised to the asset; they
are included in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income under the appropriate classifications of income and expenses. If a
building site is, for example, rented out as a parking area before commencement of
construction on the site, the rental income (and related costs) will not be taken into account
in determining the cost of the property, but will be included in relevant line items in the
profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
IAS 16.22 deals with self-constructed assets and states inter alia that internal profits are
eliminated in arriving at costs. Furthermore, abnormal wastage of materials, labour and other
resources do not form part of the cost price of an asset. The principles of IAS 2 regarding
the capitalisation of manufacturing costs must be followed.
Example 8.6: Determining the cost of PPE

Charlie Ltd purchased an imported machine for R2 400 000. Customs and import duties of
R200 000 were levied on the import of this machine. Railage costs of R25 000 were
incurred to transport the machine from Durban to Pretoria. Additional calibration devices,
designed specifically for use with this machine, were installed on the machine to ensure it
worked correctly under local conditions. These devices cost R30 000, and are not
considered to be separate components of the machine. The machine was installed at a cost
of R100 000. An advertising brochure was posted to all customers informing them of the
new machine at a cost of R5 000. The cost of the machine will be calculated as follows:
R
Purchase price paid to supplier 2 400 000
Customs and import duties 200 000
Railage costs 25 000
Calibration devices 30 000
Installation costs 100 000
Advertising –
2 755 000
In addition, the entity manufactured another machine. Labour and production overhead
costs (excluding depreciation) amounted to R200 000, excluding the abnormal portion of
R10 000. This machine was manufactured using the imported machine referred to above for
three months during the current financial period. The imported machine was ready for use as
intended by management on 1 January 20.21. The accounting policy of the company is to
depreciate machinery according to the straight line method. Management estimated that the
imported machine would have a useful life of five years and no current residual value. The
company has a 31 December year-end.
The cost price of the self-constructed machine is calculated as follows:
R
Labour and production overheads 200 000
Abnormal overheads –
Depreciation (2 755 000/5 × 3/12) 137 750
337 750
6.2 Dismantling, removal and restoration costs
IAS 16.16(c) states that the initial estimate of the costs of dismantling and removing
the PPE item and restoring the site on which it is located will form part of the cost of the
asset. However, the entity must have a present legal or constructive obligation (refer to
IAS 37) to dismantle and remove the item in order to include such costs in the cost price of
PPE.
An entity applies IAS 2 to costs resulting from obligations for the dismantling and removing
of an item of PPE (as well as for the restoring of the site on which the asset is situated) if
the costs were incurred during a specific period in which the item of PPE was used to
produce inventories. This implies that these costs will be capitalised to inventories, and not
to the item of PPE. If the item of PPE is not used to produce inventories, the costs may be
capitalised to PPE. The obligations for costs are measured in terms of IAS 37.
Example 8.7: Dismantling and removing costs

R
A Ltd acquired an office building:
Cost of construction as at 1 July 20.21 1 090 000
Expected dismantling and removal costs at end of useful life of asset 120 000
Applicable discount rate after tax (at 28%) 6,48%
Useful life of office building 24 years
The building is erected on rented premises, and the rental agreement requires dismantling
of the building at the end of its useful life. The cost of the asset on 1 July 20.21 will be:
R
Cost of construction 1 090 000
Expected dismantling and removal costs discounted to present value
FV = R120 000; n = 24; i = 6,48/0,72 = 9; PV = ? (See IAS 37) 15 169
Cost price of building 1 105 169
Journal entries for dismantling and removal costs Dr Cr
Year 1 R R
Office building (SFP) 15 169
Provision for dismantling and removal costs (SFP) 15 169
Finance cost (P/L) (15 169 × 9%) 1 365
Year 2
Finance cost (P/L) [(15 169 + 1 365) × 9%] 1 488
Year 3 to 23
Entries similar to year 2 for years 3 to 23
Year 24
Finance cost (P/L) (110 092 × 9%) 9 908
Bank (SFP) 120 000
Example 8.7: Dismantling and removing costs (continued)

Amortisation table
Cap/Interest Balance
R R
Year 1 1 365 16 534
Year 2 1 488 18 022
Year 24 9 908 120 000
If the dismantling costs must be reassessed, the requirements of IFRIC 1 would be

followed. These requirements are, however, beyond the scope of this chapter.
6.3 Deferred settlement

When payment for an item of PPE is deferred beyond normal credit terms, its cost is the
cash price equivalent of the amount actually paid. This treatment is required because the
consideration is payable in cash in the future, resulting in a lower present value than the
actual face value of the consideration. The difference between this amount and the total
amount paid is recognised as a finance cost over the period of credit, unless it is capitalised
in accordance with IAS 23 as borrowing costs.
The total deferred settlement period will represent the abnormal credit term. For
instance, if the normal credit term is 30 days and the entity will only have to pay after six
months, the cash price equivalent of the asset will be calculated as the total amount
payable reduced by interest for the whole six-month period. This is necessary since the
creditor must be initially accounted for at its fair value. Fair value is calculated by
discounting all future cash flows, at a market-related interest rate, back to the transaction
date.
Example 8.8: Abnormal credit terms

On 1 February 20.22, a company purchased an industrial stand at a cost of R15 000 000,
of which R3 000 000 is attributable to the land and R12 000 000 to the factory building.
The factory building has a useful life of 20 years. The transfer of ownership took place on
30 June 20.22. The seller was willing to defer payment of the purchase price until
31 December 20.22, whilst the normal credit term would be two months from date of
transfer. On 31 December 20.22, the company’s incremental borrowing rate is 18%. Any
interest is compounded annually in arrears. On 1 July 20.22, the property became available
for use. The property was not considered to be an investment property.
In this case, it is normal practice for the purchase to take place when ownership is
transferred, but payment is only made six months later. To determine the cost of the asset,
the cash price equivalent has to be determined on 30 June 20.22. The interest cannot be
capitalised in terms of IAS 23 because the property has already been brought into use on
1 July 20.22.
Calculation of cost of the fixed property:
R
Purchase price 15 000 000
Interest (18% × 6/12 = 9%; 9/109 × 15 000 000) (1 238 532)
Cash price equivalent (FV = 15 000 000; n = 1; i = 18/2 = 9; PV = ?) 13 761 468
Example 8.8: Abnormal credit terms (continued)

30 June 20.22 R R
Land (SFP) (3/15 × 13 761 468) 2 752 294
Buildings (SFP) (12/15 × 13 761 48) 11 009 174
Creditors (SFP) 13 761 468
Finance costs (P/L) 1 238 532
Bank (SFP) 15 000 000
Depreciation (P/L) (11 009 174/20 × 6/12) 275 229
(The portion attributable to land, being R2 752 294, is not
depreciable.)
6.4 Exchange of PPE items
When PPE items are acquired in exchange for other assets, whether monetary,
non-monetary or a combination of the two, the cost price of the item acquired is measured
at fair value. When the fair values of both assets (acquired and given up) can be determined
reliably, the fair value of the asset given up will be used (this is therefore the rule), unless
the fair value of the asset acquired is more evident, in which case the fair value of the asset
acquired is used.
A gain or loss is recognised as the difference between the fair value and the carrying
amount of the asset given up, where applicable.
There are, however, two exceptions to the general rule that assets acquired in
exchange transactions must be measured at fair value:
the first exception occurs when the exchange transaction lacks commercial substance;
and
the second occurs when the fair values of both the asset that is acquired and the asset
given up cannot be estimated reliably.
In both these cases, the asset that is acquired is measured at the carrying amount of the
asset given up, and no gain or loss is recognised.
The reference to commercial substance is explained in IAS 16.25. In this regard, it is
necessary to consider the definition of the entity-specific value of an asset. The
entity-specific value is the present value of the cash flows that an entity expects from
the continued use of the asset, plus the present value of its disposal at the end of its useful
life. Note that the entity-specific value of an asset refers to after-tax cash flows, and any tax
allowances on these assets must be included in the calculation.
An entity determines whether an exchange transaction has commercial substance by
considering the extent to which its future cash flows are expected to change as a result of
the transaction. An exchange transaction has commercial substance if:
the configuration (risk, timing and amount) of the cash flows of the asset received
differs from the configuration of the cash flows of the asset transferred; or
the entity-specific value of the portion of the entity’s operations affected by the
transaction changes as a result of the exchange; and
the difference in the above is significant relative to the fair value of the assets
exchanged.
Example 8.9: Exchange of assets

Echo Ltd entered into the following exchange of assets transactions during the year ended
31 December 20.23:
Transaction 1
A motor vehicle with a carrying amount of R120 000 in the records of Echo Ltd and a fair
value of R140 000 was exchanged for a delivery vehicle of Delta Ltd, with a fair value of
R142 000. The fair value of both vehicles can be readily determined, since an active market
for similar used vehicles exists.
Transaction 2
A machine owned by Echo Ltd with a carrying amount of R150 000 is exchanged for another
machine, which is carried at R145 000 in the records of Beta Ltd. The fair values of the two
machines cannot readily be ascertained.
Transaction 3
A computer system with a carrying amount of R220 000 in the books of Echo Ltd is
exchanged for a manufacturing plant with a carrying amount of R225 000 in the records of
Charlie Ltd. The fair value of the computer system is virtually impossible to determine, as
these items are seldom sold, but the following can be estimated reliably:
Probability Fair value
R
Possibility 1 30% 200 000
2 10% 250 000
3 20% 230 000
4 40% 210 000
The fair value of the manufacturing plant is R222 000, and is readily determinable and
more clearly evident since an active market for these used assets exists.
Transaction 4
Echo Ltd exchanges a machine with a carrying amount of R1 700 000 for a similar machine
of the same age and condition. The existing machine that is painted red is exchanged for the
other machine that is painted blue, as the managing director likes blue-coloured machines.
The fair values of the two machines are R1 720 000 and R1 750 000 respectively. Since the
blue machines are more popular, they have a higher fair value.
In each of the abovementioned transactions, determine the amount at which the new asset
(acquired in the exchange) must be measured in the financial records of Echo Ltd.
Transaction 1
The delivery vehicle will be measured at R140 000. Refer to IAS 16.26.
Transaction 2
The machine acquired in the exchange transaction will be measured at R150 000, which is
the carrying amount of the machine given up – refer to IAS 16.24.
Transaction 3
The estimated fair value of the computer system given up is the following:
[(200 000 × 30%) + (250 000 × 10%) + (230 000 × 20%) + (210 000 × 40%)]
= R215 000 (refer to the first part of IAS 16.26).
The fair value of the item that is acquired is R222 000.
Example 8.9: Exchange of assets (continued)

The manufacturing plant must be measured at R222 000 (its fair value) since it is more
readily determinable than the fair value of the asset given up. Refer to the last part of
IAS 16.26.
Transaction 4
This is an example of a transaction without commercial substance, as described in
IAS 16.24. The transaction does not comply with any of the requirements of commercial
substance, as specified in IAS 16.25. Consequently, the acquired blue machine will be
reflected in the records of Echo Ltd at R1 700 000, i.e. the carrying amount of the red
machine given up.
6.5 Subsequent measurement
An entity will, after initial recognition, make a choice between the cost model
(IAS 16.30) and the revaluation model (IAS 16.31).
In terms of the cost model, an item of PPE will, after initial recognition as an asset, be
carried at its cost less any accumulated depreciation and accumulated impairment losses.
In terms of the revaluation model an item of PPE will, after initial recognition, be
carried at the revalued amount, provided its fair value can be measured reliably. The
revalued amount referred to is the fair value on the date of revaluation less any
accumulated depreciation and accumulated impairment losses since the revaluation date.
Revaluations must be done on a regular basis to ensure that the carrying amount of the
asset at the end of the reporting period does not differ substantially from the fair value at
the end of the reporting period. If an item of property, plant and equipment is revalued, the
entire class to which that asset belongs shall be revalued.
Items of PPE are, therefore, disclosed at cost/revalued amount less accumulated
depreciation and impairment losses. The same model must be used for all items of PPE in a
specific category.
Example 8.10: Calculating the carrying amount of an asset

An entity has an item of property, plant and machinery on hand at 31 December 20.21, its
year-end. The accounting information relating to this asset is as follows:
R
cost price 325 000
accumulated depreciation at beginning of year 150 000
depreciation for current financial year 50 000
impairment loss for current financial year 25 000
estimated current residual value 20 000
The carrying amount at which the asset will be reflected in the financial statements will be
calculated as follows: (325 000 – 150 000 – 50 000 – 25 000) = R100 000.
Comment:
¾ Note that the residual value will be taken into account when calculating the depreciable
amount for depreciation purposes.
Irrespective of whether the cost model or the revaluation model is used, aspects such as
depreciation, depreciable and residual amounts, impairment, and useful life are important in
the measurement process. These aspects are now discussed in detail.
7 Depreciation
7.1 Allocation of cost
IAS 16.6 and .50 state that depreciation is the systematic allocation of the
depreciable amount of an asset over its useful life. Depreciable amount refers to the cost of
an asset, or another amount that replaces cost (for example revalued amount), less residual
value. The residual value of an asset is the estimated amount that the entity would currently
obtain from the disposal of the asset, after deducting the estimated costs of disposal, if the
asset were already of the age and in the condition expected at the end of its useful life.
Example 8.11: Calculating the depreciable amount of an asset

An entity has a machine with an historical cost of R50 000. The machine has an estimated
current residual value of R5 000. Assume all amounts are material. The depreciable amount
of that machine will be calculated as follows:
R
Historical cost (or revalued amount) 50 000
Less: Estimated current residual value (5 000)
Depreciable amount 45 000
Comments:
¾ The residual value is estimated at the time of acquiring the asset with reference to residual
values of similar assets or previous experience.
¾ If the residual value is immaterial – ignore for purposes of determining depreciable amount.
¾ If the residual value is material – reduce the historical cost by the amount of the residual
value to determine the depreciable amount.
The aim of depreciation is to allocate the depreciable amount (original cost or revalued
amount less the residual value) of an asset over its useful life (the period during which the
depreciable asset will be used) in relation to income generated by the asset. Consequently,
the depreciable amount is recovered through use and the residual value is recovered
through sale.
In order to decide on the amount of depreciation allocated, three aspects should be
considered, i.e.:
useful life;
expected residual value; and
method of depreciation.
7.2 Useful life

The following factors are considered when determining the useful life of an asset:
the expected use of the asset by the entity determined by referring to the asset’s
expected capacity or physical production;
the expected physical wear and tear, dependent on operating factors such as the
number of shifts and the repairs and maintenance programme, as well as repairs and
maintenance while not in use;
the technical or commercial obsolescence resulting from changes and improvements in
production, or a change in the demand for the product or service output of the asset; and
legal and similar limitations on the use of the asset, such as maturity dates of related
leases.
The useful life of an asset is defined in terms of the asset’s expected utility to the
entity, while the economic life of an asset refers to the total life of an asset while in the
possession of one or more owners.
The asset management policy of an entity may involve the disposal of assets:
after a specified period; or
after the consumption of a certain portion of the economic benefits embodied in the
asset prior to the asset reaching the end of its economic life.
The useful life of the asset may therefore be shorter than its economic life.
The estimate of the useful life of PPE is a matter of judgement based on the experience
of the entity with similar assets. IAS 16.51 requires that the useful life must be reviewed
annually. If, prior to the expiry of the useful life of an asset, it becomes apparent that the
original estimate was incorrect in that the useful life is longer or shorter than originally
estimated, an adjustment to the estimate must be made. This adjustment is not a correction
of an error, as estimates are an integral part of accrual accounting, and may, by their very
nature, be inaccurate. Adjustments to such estimates form part of the normal operating
expense items, and are disclosed separately in terms of IAS 8 if size or nature warrants
such treatment. Changes in accounting estimates are not adjusted retrospectively; they are
only adjusted prospectively in the current year and future periods.
Example 8.12: Change in estimate of useful life

Assume the following details for equipment of A Ltd on 31 December 20.21:
R
Cost (five-year useful life) 450 000
Accumulated depreciation (450 000/5 × 2) (180 000)
Carrying amount 270 000
At the end of 20.22, the remaining useful life of the equipment was estimated at three
years, and it is anticipated that neither this new useful life nor the residual value of the
asset of Rnil will change.
Taking the above into account, the depreciation for 20.21 to 20.23 will be as follows:
20.21: R450 000/5 = R90 000 (no restatement of comparatives).
20.22: R270 000/(3 + 1) = R67 500 (change applied from beginning of the year)
Change in estimate for 20.22: R67 500 (new) – R90 000 (old) = R22 500
decrease in depreciation for the current year
R22 500, as the total future depreciation is now R202 500 (67 500 × 3), whereas
it would have been R180 000 (R90 000 × 2) before the change.
The cumulative effect of the change in estimate is an increase in depreciation of
The cumulative effect of the change in estimate on future years can also be
Carrying amount (old) end 20.22 = R270 000 – R90 000 = R180 000
Carrying amount (new) end 20.22 = R270 000 – R67 500 = R202 500
R202 500 – R180 000 = R22 500
20.23: Depreciation of R67 500 per annum will now be recognised.
7.3 Useful life of land and buildings

Land and buildings are divisible assets that must be treated separately for accounting
purposes, even if they were acquired as a unit. These items are separated because land
usually has an infinite useful life and is, therefore, not depreciated, while buildings have a
finite useful life and are, therefore, depreciable assets. An increase in the value of the land
on which a building was erected does not affect the useful life of the building.
Depreciation may be provided for on land if it is subject to the exploration of minerals or
a decrease in value due to other circumstances. For example, a dumping site that can only be
utilised for a limited number of years will be subject to depreciation. If the cost of land
includes restoration costs, a portion of the cost will have to be depreciated over the period
of expected benefits. The value of land may also be affected adversely by considerations
such as its location. In the latter circumstances, it may be necessary to write the value of
the land down to recognise the decline in value. This would represent an impairment loss.
7.4 Residual value
In terms of IAS 16.6, the residual value of an asset is the estimated amount that the
entity would currently obtain from the disposal of the asset, after deducting the estimated
costs of disposal, if the asset were already of the age and in the condition expected at the
end of its useful life.
Depreciation must be provided for on any asset with a limited useful life, even if the fair
value of such an asset exceeds its carrying amount, provided the residual value does not
exceed the carrying amount. However, if the residual value of an asset is equal to or
exceeds its carrying amount at any time, no depreciation will be provided for on that asset
unless and until the residual value declines below the carrying amount of the asset.
In terms of IAS 16.51, the residual value of any asset must be reviewed annually (at
year-end). The change in the residual value will be accounted for as a normal change in the
accounting estimate, and consequently, depreciation for the current and future years will be
recalculated. In view of this, depreciation amounts may vary on an annual basis. This rule
applies to both the cost model and the revaluation model.
Example 8.13: Reviewing of residual value

Foxtrot Ltd acquired an asset with a useful life of five years on 1 January 20.21 for an
amount of R1 200 000. The estimated current residual value of the asset was R100 000 on
the date of acquisition. The annual review of the asset’s residual value during the past three
years produced the following residual values:
R
31 December 20.21 100 000
31 December 20.22 50 000
31 December 20.23 120 000
Example 8.13: Reviewing of residual value (continued)

The depreciable amount of the asset (taking into account the annual review of the residual
value) for 20.21 to 20.23, and the depreciation amount for 20.21 (current year) and future
years will be the following, assuming the useful life doesn’t change:
Depreciation
Year Calculation Depreciable Current Following
Amount year
R R R
20.21 Depreciable amount (1 200 000 – 100 000) 1 100 000 – –
Depreciation (1 100 000/5) – 220 000 220 000
20.22 Depreciable amount
(1 200 000 – 220 000 – 50 000) 930 000 – –
Depreciation (930 000/4) – 232 500 232 500
20.23 Depreciable amount
(1 200 000 – 220 000 – 232 500 – 120 000) 627 500 – –
Depreciation (627 500/3) – 209 167 209 167
Comments:
¾ Although the residual value was revised at the end of each year, the revised residual
value is taken into account from the beginning of the respective year for the purposes of
calculating depreciation.
¾ In terms of IAS 8, the nature of the change, and the amount and effect on future periods
must be disclosed, if material.
7.5 Depreciation methods
Depreciation is allocated from the date on which the asset is available for use (in the
location and condition necessary for it to be capable of operating in the manner intended by
management), rather than when it is commissioned or brought into use.
It is, therefore, possible that depreciation on an asset could commence before it is

physically brought into use, because it was available for use before the date on which it was
commissioned.
Depreciation on an asset must cease only when the asset is derecognised in terms of
IAS 16, or when it is classified as available for sale in terms of IFRS 5. An asset is only
derecognised when it is disposed of, or when no further economic benefits are expected
from the asset – either from its use or its disposal. Depreciation does not cease when an
asset becomes temporarily idle or even if it is retired from active use, unless the depreciable
amount has been written off in total or the asset will not deliver future economic benefits.
However, if the unit-of-production method (a usage method) is used to determine
depreciation, depreciation may sometimes be zero. In addition, an interruption in the use of
an asset will lead to a lower depreciation charge, as no units will be produced during the
period that it is idle.
Because of the view that depreciation is the allocation of the depreciable amount of an
asset or component over its useful life, it follows that the allocation must reflect the pattern
in which the asset’s future economic benefits are expected to be consumed by the entity.
For example, if the asset will generate more units at the beginning of its useful life than at
the end thereof, a depreciation method must be selected that will result in larger
write-downs at the beginning, and smaller write-downs at the end of its useful life.
Depreciation may be calculated using a variety of methods, such as:

the straight-line method;
the diminishing balance method; or
the units of production method.
7.5.1 Straight-line method

The allocation of depreciation in fixed instalments is usually adopted when the income
produced by the asset (or part of the asset) is a function of time rather than of usage, and
where the repair and maintenance charges as well as the benefits are fairly constant.
7.5.2 Diminishing balance method

This method of depreciation, where the amount allocated declines on an annual basis, is
used when there is uncertainty about the amount of income that will be derived from the
asset. They are also appropriate when the effectiveness of the asset is expected to decline
gradually. It is often argued that the cost related to repairs and maintenance increases as
an asset ages, and that depreciation in declining instalments results in the total debit for the
cost of using the asset remaining fairly constant.
The sum-of-the-digits method is also a diminishing balance method.
7.5.3 Units of production method

The units of production method results in a charge based on the expected use or output of
the assets, called production units. The units of production method probably provides the
best approximation of the consumption of economic benefits contained in an asset. It has
the added advantage of preventing the depreciation of assets while they have not been
brought into use, as the depreciation charge will only arise when the asset is used to
produce units. Because the asset has not yet been used, the production units are nil. It is,
therefore, not an exception to the normal depreciation rules. Depreciation is still calculated
from the date on which the asset is ready for its intended use; the result of the depreciation
calculation is, however, nil.
Example 8.14: Depreciation methods

Alpha Ltd has the following equipment:
Cost of equipment (1 January 20.23) R310 000
Residual value (unchanged over useful life) R10 000
Useful life 5 years
End of the reporting period 31 December
The asset was available for use as intended by management on 1 January 20.23.
Using the allowed depreciation methods, the depreciation charge for Years 1 to 3 will be
Straight-line method: (310 000 – 10 000)/5 = R60 000 annually
Diminishing balance method: Assume a depreciation rate of 25%.
R
Year 1: (310 000 – 10 000) × 25% = 75 000
Year 2: (310 000 – 10 000) × 75% × 25% = 56 250
Year 3: (310 000 – 10 000) × 75% × 75% × 25% = 42 188
Example 8.14: Depreciation methods (continued)

Units of production method: Assume number of units per year = 8 000 (Year 1) + 6 000
(Year 2) + 3 000 (Year 3) + 2 000 (Year 4) + 1 000 (Year 5) = 20 000 units over the useful
life of the asset.
Year 1: (310 000 – 10 000) × 8/20 = 120 000
Year 2: (310 000 – 10 000) × 6/20 = 90 000
Year 3: (310 000 – 10 000) × 3/20 = 45 000
Comments:
¾ If the estimated residual value of the above equipment changes to R15 000, the original
residual value of R10 000 will change to R15 000 in the calculation of depreciation,
resulting in a change in depreciation in both the current and future periods.
¾ The depreciation method used must be reviewed annually, and, in the event that the
expectation varies significantly from the previous estimates, it must be recognised as a
change in accounting estimate in terms of IAS 8.
In all the above cases, amounts used for the useful life, the residual value and the
depreciation method must be reviewed at least annually at each financial year-end. If
expectations differ from previous estimates, the changes shall be accounted for as a change
in accounting estimate. A change in the useful life, the depreciation method or the residual
value will thus result in a change in the depreciation charge for the current year and future
periods. Disclosure of the nature and amount of the change in estimate (if material), as well
as the effect on the current and future periods, is required in terms of IAS 8.39 and .40.
Example 8.15: Change in depreciation methods

A company that operates a bus service determined on 1 January 20.21 that the appropriate
depreciation method for a specific bus is the production unit method.
The bus was acquired for R750 000. The original estimated useful life was 150 000
kilometres. During the first year of use, depreciation of R200 000 was accounted for. The
bus therefore has a carrying amount of R550 000 at the end of the first year of use.
In the second year of use, management decides that, due to safety requirements, the bus can
only be used for a total term of three years, irrespective of the number of kilometres travelled.
The appropriate depreciation method changes therefore to the straight-line method.
Carrying amount at the end of year 1 R550 000
Remaining useful life 2 years
Depreciation per annum on the straight-line method (550 000/2) R275 000
Comment:
¾ The change in the depreciation method is treated and disclosed as a change in estimate
in terms of IAS 8, if material.
The effect of the change in estimate is as follows:
Current year: Increase in depreciation of R75 000 (275 000 – 200 000)
Cumulative future effect: Decrease in depreciation of R75 000.
{[750 000 – (200 000 × 2 years)] – [750 000 – 200 000 – 275 000]}
Example 8.15: Change in depreciation methods (continued)

Profit before tax
Profit before tax is stated after taking the following into account:
Expenses: R
Depreciation 275 000
During the year the depreciation method of the busses was revised from the production unit
method to the straight-line method. This resulted in an increase in depreciation in the
current year of R75 000, and a cumulative decrease in depreciation in the future of R75 000.
7.6 Accounting treatment

Although depreciation is normally recognised as an expense in the profit or loss section of
the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income, it may be capitalised as
part of the cost of another asset. Examples of this treatment can be found in IAS 2
Inventories, (where inventories is manufactured); IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment
(where assets are self-constructed), and IAS 38 Intangible Assets (where intangible assets
may be developed).
8 Revaluation
All property, plant and equipment items are initially measured at cost. On subsequent
measurement, the entity may, however, choose to use either the cost model or the
revaluation model. The revaluation model may, however, only be chosen for subsequent
measurement of an item of PPE if the fair value of the asset can be measured reliably. If the
fair value of the item under review cannot be measured reliably, the asset will be measured
using the cost model.
The frequency of revaluations depends on the change in fair value of the items of PPE.
Revaluations should be made with sufficient regularity to ensure that the carrying amount
does not differ materially from the fair value at the end of the reporting period.
8.1 Fair value
The fair value of items of PPE subsequently measured under the revaluation model should
be determined according to the requirements of IFRS 13. According to IFRS 13, there are
three widely used valuation techniques to determine fair value. The three valuation
techniques are as follows:
the market approach;
the cost approach; and
the income approach.
The fair value of property is usually the market value, if it is assumed that the same type
of business will be continued on the premises. These values are usually obtained from
independent professional valuators.
8.2 Non-depreciable assets: subsequent revaluations and devaluations
If a specific asset’s carrying amount decreases as a result of a revaluation, this decrease
must first be debited against a credit in the revaluation surplus related to that specific asset
through other comprehensive income in the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income. Any excess of the write-down over the existing revaluation credit
must be written off immediately to the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income. With a subsequent increase in the value of the
specific asset, the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income must first be credited, but the amount credited to the profit or loss
section must be limited to the amount of a previous write-down debited to this section.
Thereafter, the remaining amount is credited to the revaluation surplus through other
comprehensive income in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
Deficits of one item cannot be set off against surpluses of another, even if such items are from
the same category.
The revaluation surplus is unrealised, and must, therefore, be viewed and disclosed as
part of equity, usually as a non-distributable reserve, in the statement of changes in equity.
Thereafter, it may only be used to absorb subsequent revaluation deficits or impairment
losses or for capitalisation issues.
Example 8.16: Non-depreciable asset: revaluation movements

Brit Ltd is the owner of a plot. The plot is not depreciated and does not meet the
requirements of investment property. The plot is valued according to the revaluation model.
R
1 January 20.9 Carrying amount 150 000
1 January 20.10 Revalued amount 125 000
1 January 20.10 R R
Revaluation deficit (P/L) 25 000
Land (SFP) 25 000
Recognise the revaluation deficit
1 January 20.21
Land (SFP) 10 000
Revaluation surplus (P/L) 10 000
Recognise the revaluation surplus
1 January 20.22
Land (SFP) 25 000
Revaluation surplus (P/L) 15 000
Recognise the revaluation surplus
1 January 20.23
Revaluation deficit (P/L) 5 000
Land (SFP) 15 000
Recognise the revaluation deficit
The statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income will contain the following:
20.23 20.22 20.21 20.10
(Profit or loss section) R R R R
Other (expenses)/income (5 000) 15 000 10 000 (25 000)
(Other comprehensive income section)
(Loss)/Gain on revaluation (10 000) 10 000 – –
The statement of changes in equity will
contain the following:
Revaluation surplus
Balance at beginning of year 10 000 – – –
Other comprehensive income (10 000) 10 000 – –
Balance at end of year – 10 000 – –
8.3 Non-depreciable assets: realisation of revaluation surplus

Upon revaluation, the difference between the revalued amount and the carrying amount is
recognised in the revaluation surplus via other comprehensive income, if an upwards
revaluation occurred. The revaluation surplus is never subsequently reclassified to profit or
loss, but an entity may realise the revaluation surplus by making a direct transfer to
retained earnings through the statement of changes in equity. The revaluation surplus
non-depreciable assets are realised when the asset is retired or disposed of.
Example 8.17: Non-depreciable asset: realisation of revaluation surplus

P Ltd adopted a policy to revalue land. The company owns a piece of land, acquired at a cost
of R1 350 000 on 1 January 20.10. The year-end of the company is 31 December. The
company revalued the land to a fair value of R2 000 000 on 1 January 20.22.
The revaluation surplus that will be created is calculated as follows:
R
Carrying amount of the building on 1 January 20.22 1 350 000
Net replacement cost 2 000 000
When the land is finally derecognised, the revaluation surplus will be transferred to retained
earnings, and the journal entry will be as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
31 December
Revaluation surplus (SCE) 650 000
Retained earnings (SCE) 650 000
9 Impairments and compensation for losses
The carrying amount of an item of PPE is usually recovered on a systematic basis over
the useful life of the asset through usage. If the use of an item or a group of similar items is
impaired by (for example) damage, technological obsolescence or other economic factors,
the recoverable amount of the asset may be less than its carrying amount. Should this be
the case, the carrying amount of the asset is written down to its recoverable amount.
To determine whether there has been a decline in the value of an item of PPE, an entity
applies IAS 36. This standard explains how an entity must review the carrying amount of its
assets, how the recoverable amount thereof is determined, and when and how an
impairment loss is recognised or reversed (refer to chapter 14).
The term “depreciation” must not be confused with the term “impairment”. By
depreciating an asset, one is not necessarily attempting to find the true value of the asset.
If a well-developed market exists for the particular item of PPE, thereby enabling a reliable
second-hand value to be obtained, the carrying amount of the asset may well be adjusted
upwards or downwards to reflect true market values in the statement of financial position. In
practice however, such developed markets may exist only for certain types of vehicles. In
standard accounting practice, “depreciation” refers to the systematic allocation of the
purchase price of an asset to the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive
income in recognition of the fact that the asset has lost production potential over a period
through use. The term “impairment” will thus be used when referring to the permanent
diminution in value of an asset, which is recognised in the profit or loss section of the
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income when the cost model is used. If
the revaluation model is used, an impairment loss may be recognised in the revaluation
surplus if such a surplus exists for the asset.
IAS 16.65 and .66 provide specific guidance on how to account for monetary or
non-monetary compensation that an entity may receive from third parties for the impairment
or loss of items of PPE. Often the monetary compensation received has to be used for
economic reasons to restore impaired assets, or to purchase or construct new assets in
order to replace the assets lost or given up.
Examples of these may include:

reimbursement by insurance companies after an impairment or loss of items of PPE, due,
for example, to natural disasters, theft or mishandling;
compensation by the government for items of PPE that are expropriated;
compensation related to the involuntary conversion of items of PPE, for example
relocation of facilities from a designated urban area to a non-urban area in accordance
with a national land policy; and
physical replacement in whole or in part of an impaired or lost asset.
Specific guidance is provided on how to account for the essential elements of the
abovementioned examples, namely:
impairments or losses of items of PPE;
related compensation from third parties; and
subsequent purchase or construction of assets.
The abovementioned instances are separate economic events, and are accounted for as
follows:
Impairments of items of PPE must be recognised and measured in terms of the standard
on impairment of assets (IAS 36).
The retirement or disposal of items of PPE must be recognised in terms of IAS 16.
Monetary or non-monetary compensation received from third parties for items of PPE
that were impaired, lost, or given up must be included in the profit or loss section of the
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income when receivable.
The cost of assets restored, purchased, or constructed as a replacement must be
accounted for in terms of IAS 16.
Example 8.18: Compensation for the loss of PPE

On 1 January 20.21, a motor vehicle with a carrying amount of R150 000 was stolen. The
company was fully insured; consequently, the insurance paid out R160 000 in cash on
31 January 20.21. On 1 February 20.21, a new vehicle was purchased for R160 000 to
replace the stolen one. The end of the reporting period is 31 December. Assume all amounts
are material.
The above information will be disclosed as follows in the notes for the year ended
31 December 20.21. The company uses a “Profit before tax” note to disclose all disclosable
income and expenses.
Example 8.18: Compensation for the loss of PPE (continued)

Profit before tax R
Profit before tax include the following:
Income
Proceeds from insurance claim 160 000
Expenses
Carrying amount of motor vehicle lost due to theft 150 000
Comment:
¾ In terms of IAS 16.65 and .66, the insurance proceeds received when an asset is
impaired, the loss of the asset, and the purchase of a replacement asset are all separate
transactions and must be disclosed as such. In terms of IAS 1.86, the nature and
amount of such items, if material, must be disclosed separately.
10 Derecognition
An item of PPE is derecognised in the statement of financial position:

on disposal; or
when no future economic benefits are expected from its use or disposal.
The above two criteria preclude the derecognition of an asset by mere withdrawal from use,
unless the withdrawn asset can no longer be used or sold to produce any further economic
benefits.
The gain or loss arising from the derecognition of an item of PPE will be determined as
the difference between the net disposal proceeds (if any), and the carrying amount of the
item on the date of disposal. This gain or loss shall be recognised in the profit or loss
section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income (unless IAS 17
requires otherwise on a sale and leaseback transaction where it is deferred). A gain is not
revenue from the sale of goods and services (or assets) as outlined by IAS 18.
The disposal of an item of property, plant and equipment may occur in a variety of ways
(for example by sale, by entering into a finance lease, or by donation). In determining the
date of disposal of an item, the following criteria should be considered:
the entity has transferred the significant risks and rewards of ownership of the goods to
the buyer;
the entity retains neither continuing managerial involvement to the degree usually
associated with ownership, nor effective control over the goods sold;
the amount of revenue can be measured reliably;
it is probable that the economic benefits associated with the transaction will flow to the
entity; and
the costs incurred or to be incurred in respect of the transaction can be measured
reliably.
All the above conditions must be met before a disposal may be recognised.
The consideration receivable on disposal of an item of property, plant and equipment is
recognised initially at its fair value. If payment for the item is deferred, the consideration
received is recognised initially at the cash price equivalent on the transaction date (being
the present value of the right to receive cash in the future). The difference between the
actual amount received and the cash price equivalent is recognised as interest income using
the effective interest rate method, reflecting the effective yield on the asset. This principle is
the reverse side of deferred settlement terms as discussed in section 6.3 above.
Depreciation on an item of PPE ceases at the earlier of the date that the asset is classified
as held for sale (or included in a disposal group that is classified as held for sale), and the
date that the asset is derecognised.
Example 8.19: Disposal and withdrawal of assets

Lima Ltd entered into the following two transactions relating to items of PPE during the year
ended 31 December 20.22:
Asset A, with a carrying amount of R210 000 on 1 January 20.22 and an original cost of
R400 000, was sold for R220 000 on 30 June 20.22. The payment will only be received
on 30 June 20.23.
Asset B, with a carrying amount of R480 000 on 1 January 20.22 and an original cost of
R800 000, was withdrawn from use on 30 September 20.22 after environmental
inspectors certified that the asset can no longer be used. The asset cannot be altered to
secure further use which makes the sale thereof unlikely. The scrap value of the asset is
negligible.
Both these assets are depreciated at 20% per annum on a straight-line basis, and the
current interest rate on asset financing is 10% per annum. Assume that the derecognition
criteria have been adhered to in the case of Asset A, and that the disposal thereof was
therefore recognised on 30 June 20.22.
The profit or loss arising at derecognition of the two assets, as well as any other relevant
profit or loss items, are as follows:
R
Asset A
Proceeds on disposal (See IAS 16.72) 200 000
(n = 1; FV = 220 000; i = 10%; Compute PV = 200 000)
Carrying amount at disposal (210 000 – (400 000 × 20% × 6/12)) (170 000)
Profit on sale of Asset A in profit or loss section of the statement of
profit or loss and other comprehensive income 30 000
Finance income (200 000 × 10% × 6/12) 10 000
Asset B
Proceeds on withdrawal from use –
Carrying amount at withdrawal (480 000 – (800 000 × 20% × 9/12)) (360 000)
Loss on withdrawal to profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss
and other comprehensive income (360 000)
11 Disclosure
In terms of IAS 16, the following information on PPE must be disclosed:
accounting policy:
– for each class of property, plant and equipment, the measurement basis used in
establishing the gross carrying amount;
– depreciation methods for each class of PPE;
– useful lives or depreciation rates for each class of PPE; and
– information regarding revaluations (for example whether the revaluation surplus
realises through use).
Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income and notes for each class of
asset:
– Depreciation recognised as an expense or shown as a part of the cost of other assets
during a period must be disclosed in terms of IAS 1. A breakdown between the
different classes of assets is not required. The depreciation charge need not be split
between amounts related to historical cost and revaluation amounts.
– The effect of material changes on the estimate (IAS 8) of:
• useful lives;
• residual values;
• dismantling, removal or restoration costs; and
• depreciation method.
– The amount of compensation received from third parties for the impairment, giving
up, or loss of items of PPE must be disclosed in a note if not presented on the face of
the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
Statement of financial position and notes:
– for each class of asset, the gross carrying amount and accumulated depreciation
(including impairment losses) at the beginning and end of the period;
– for each class of asset, a detailed reconciliation (see # below) of movements in the
carrying amount (see $ immediately below) at the beginning and end of the period
(layout illustrated below);
$ The carrying amount is the amount at which an asset is recognised in the statement
of financial position after deducting the accumulated depreciation and impairment
losses. This implies that accumulated depreciation and impairment losses must be
combined when disclosing the opening and closing carrying amounts.
# The abovementioned reconciliation must contain the following:
• the carrying amount at the beginning and end of the period;
• additions;
• acquisitions through business combinations;
• increases or decreases in value arising from revaluations;
• impairments, as well as reversals of impairment losses;
• depreciation;
• net exchange differences due to the translation of the financial statements of a
foreign operation from functional to presentation currency (if different), including
translation of a foreign operation into the presentation currency of the reporting
entity; and
• other changes.
Comparative amounts in respect of the reconciliation are required.
– amount incurred on PPE still under construction on which no depreciation has yet
been provided;
– statement that PPE serves as security for liabilities:
• existence and amount of restrictions on title; and
• existence and amount of PPE pledged as security.
– the following carrying amounts of PPE can also be disclosed voluntarily:
• temporarily idle; and
• retired from active use and not classified as held for sale in terms of IFRS 5.
– where the cost model is used, the fair value of each class of PPE if it differs materially
from the carrying amount.
The following additional information regarding assets that have been revalued must be
disclosed in terms of IAS 16:
statement of financial position, statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive
income and notes:
– the effective date of the last revaluation;

– whether the revaluation was done independently;
– the carrying amount of each class of revalued PPE, had the cost model was used; and
– the revaluation surplus, including the movement, limitations on distributions to
shareholders (in other words, whether the revaluation surplus is viewed as non-
distributable or not).
Example 8.20: Disclosure of accounting policy and notes

Notes to the financial statements
1. Accounting policies
Plant and equipment is stated at cost, excluding the costs of day-to-day servicing, less
accumulated depreciation and accumulated impairment in value. Costs include the cost of
replacing part of such plant and equipment when that cost is incurred upon fulfilment of the
recognition criteria. Land and buildings are measured at fair value less depreciation on
buildings and impairment charged subsequent to the date of the revaluation. Depreciation is
calculated on a straight-line basis over the useful life of the assets.
The useful lives of the assets are estimated as follows:
20.23 20.22
Buildings 20 years 20 years
Plant and equipment 5 to 15 years 5 to 15 years
The carrying amounts of plant and equipment are reviewed for impairment when events or
changes in circumstances indicate that they may not be recoverable.
Following initial recognition at cost, land and buildings are carried at a revalued amount,
which is the fair value at the date of the revaluation less any subsequent accumulated
depreciation on buildings and subsequent accumulated impairment losses.
Valuations are performed frequently enough to ensure that the fair value of a revalued asset
does not differ materially from its carrying amount.
Any revaluation surplus is credited to the revaluation surplus (which is included in the equity
section of the statement of financial position) via other comprehensive income. However, if
this reverses a revaluation decrease of the same asset previously recognised in profit or
loss, the increase is recognised in profit or loss. A revaluation deficit is recognised in profit or
loss, but a deficit directly offsetting a previous surplus on the same asset is offset against
the surplus via other comprehensive income.
An annual transfer from the revaluation surplus to retained earnings is made for the
difference between depreciation based on the revalued carrying amount of the asset and
depreciation based on the asset’s original cost. Additionally, accumulated depreciation as at
the revaluation date is eliminated against the gross carrying amount of the asset, and the
net amount is restated to the revalued amount of the asset. Upon disposal, any revaluation
surplus relating to the particular asset being sold is transferred to retained earnings.
An item of property, plant and equipment is derecognised upon disposal, or when no future
economic benefits are expected from its use or disposal. Any gain or loss arising on
derecognition of the asset (calculated as the difference between the net disposal proceeds
and the carrying amount of the asset) is included in the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income in the year the asset is derecognised.
The asset’s residual value, useful life and depreciation method are reviewed and adjusted, if
appropriate, at each financial year-end.
When each major inspection is performed, its cost is recognised in the carrying amount of
the plant and equipment as a replacement, if the recognition criteria are satisfied.
Example 8.20: Disclosure of accounting policy and notes (continued)

2. Property, plant and equipment Land and Plant and Total
buildings equipment
31 December 20.23 R’000 R’000 R’000
Carrying amount at beginning of year 9 933 15 878 25 811
Cost 11 383 30 814 42 197
Accumulated depreciation and impairment (1 450) (14 936) (16 386)
Movements for the year:
Additions 4 519 10 307 14 826
Disposals (2 674) (3 193) (5 867)
Revaluation surplus 846 – 846
Depreciation (687) (3 518) (4 205)
Carrying amount at end of year 11 937 19 474 31 411
Cost or revalued amount 12 624 32 193 44 817
Accumulated depreciation and impairment (687) (12 719) (13 406)
31 December 20.22
Cost 14 887 24 654 39 541
Additions 1 587 6 235 7 822
Disposals (2 032) – (2 032)
Impairment losses – (301) (301)
Depreciation (405) (2 803) (3 208)
Carrying amount at end of year 9 933 15 878 25 811
Cost 11 383 30 814 42 197
The R301 000 impairment loss represents the write-down of certain property, plant and
equipment in the fire prevention segment to the recoverable amount. This has been
recognised in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income in the line item of “Cost of sales”. The recoverable amount was
based on value in use. In determining value in use, the cash flows were discounted at a rate
of 12,8% on a pre-tax basis.
Revaluation of land and buildings
The group engaged Chartered Surveyors & Co, an accredited independent valuer, to
determine the fair value of its land and buildings. The date of the revaluation was
30 November 20.23.
If the land and buildings were measured using the cost model, the carrying amounts would
be as follows:
20.23 20.22
R’000 R’000
Cost 13 228 11 383
Accumulated depreciation and impairment (2 023) (1 450)
Net carrying amount 11 205 9 933
12 Comprehensive example of cost model
Example 8.21: Comprehensive example of cost model

The following is an extract from the fixed asset register of Impala Ltd on
31 December 20.22:
Asset type Date of Cost Accumulated Useful life
purchase depreciation
R R
Land 1 January 20.22 1 800 000 – –
Buildings 1 January 20.22 2 500 000 125 000 20 years
Vehicles 1 January 20.22 1 600 000 200 000 8 years
Impala Ltd concluded the following asset transactions during the year ended
31 December 20.23:
Land with a cost of R400 000 was sold unexpectedly on 1 March 20.23 for R325 000.
A stand was purchased for R350 000. The stand is used as an owner-occupied property.
Improvements amounting to R135 000 were effected to buildings on 1 January 20.23.
A vehicle (original cost – R160 000) was sold unexpectedly on 30 June 20.23 for R115 000.
The assets under consideration have no residual value, and this situation will remain
unchanged until the end of their useful lives.
The manner in which assets are recovered is not expected to change.
On 1 January 20.23, Impala Ltd determined that the remaining useful life of the
buildings was 25 years.
The entity uses a “Profit before tax” note to disclose disclosable income and expenses.
Assume all amounts are material.
Impala Ltd
Note R
Assets
Non-current assets
Property, plant and equipment 3 5 239 600
Example 8.21: Comprehensive example of cost model (continued)

Impala Ltd
Property, plant and equipment is stated at cost less accumulated depreciation and
accumulated impairment.
Land is not depreciated.
Buildings and vehicles are depreciated on a straight-line basis over their expected
remaining useful lives (at year-end):
• Buildings – 24 years
• Vehicles – 6 years
Rates are considered appropriate for reducing the carrying amounts of the assets to
estimated residual values (Rnil) over their expected useful lives.
Profit before tax is stated after taking the following items into account:
Expenses: R
Loss on disposal of land (400 000 – 325 000) 75 000
Loss on disposal of vehicles 15 000
Depreciation 290 400
During the year, the remaining useful life of the buildings was revised. This
resulted in a decrease in depreciation in the current year of R31 705, and a
cumulative increase in depreciation in the future of R31 705.
3. Property, plant and equipment
Land Buildings Vehicles Total
R R R R
Carrying amount at
beginning of year 1 800 000 2 375 000 1 400 000 5 575 000
Cost 1 800 000 2 500 000 1 600 000 5 900 000
Accumulated depreciation – (125 000) (200 000) (325 000)
Disposals (400 000) – (130 000) (530 000)
Additions 350 000 135 000 – 485 000
Depreciation – (100 400) (190 000) (290 400)
Carrying amount at end
of year 1 750 000 2 409 600 1 080 000 5 239 600
Cost 1 750 000 2 635 000 1 440 000 5 825 000
Accumulated depreciation – (225 400) (360 000) (585 400)
Calculations
Buildings R
Cost 2 500 000
Additions 135 000
2 510 000
Depreciation 31 December 20.9 (2 510 000/25) (100 400)
Example 8.21: Comprehensive example of cost model (continued)

Vehicles R
Cost 1 600 000
Depreciation 30 June 20.9 (R200 000 × 6/12) (100 000)
Carrying amount at 30 June 20.9 1 300 000
Disposals (160/8 × 6,5) (refer to the journal below) (130 000)
Depreciation 31 December 20.9 (90 000)
Dr Cr
R R
30 June 20.23
Bank 115 000
Accumulated depreciation 30 000
(300 000 × 160 000/1 600 000)
Loss on sale of vehicles (balancing) 15 000
Cost 160 000
Cost R160 000 – accumulated depreciation R30 000 =
R130 000 carrying amount on disposal
Calculation of balances:
Accumulated depreciation closing balance:
(200 000 + 100 000 + 90 000 – 30 000) 360 000
Cost: closing balance:
(1 600 000 – 160 000) 1 440 000
Depreciation – change in accounting estimate
Old method [(2 375 000 + 135 000)/19] = R132 105
New method = [(2 375 000 + 135 000)/25] = R100 400
Difference (current year) (132 105 – 100 400) = R31 705 decrease
Difference (future years): There is no residual value, therefore the carrying amount at year-
end represents the depreciable amount of future years. Difference in the depreciable
amounts between the old and new methods is the cumulative future difference due to the
change in estimate.
Carrying amount (old) = R2 510 000 – R132 105 = R2 377 895
Carrying amount (new) = R2 409 600
Difference (2 409 600 – 2 377 895) = R31 705 increase
13 Short and sweet
The objective of IAS 16 is to prescribe the accounting treatment for property, plant
and equipment.
Items of PPE are recognised when they meet the recognition criteria for an asset as
contained in the Conceptual Framework.
Property, plant and equipment is initially measured at cost.
Cost includes all costs incurred to initially acquire or construct the item and get it ready for
its intended use, as well as any subsequent costs to add to or replace part thereof.
Property, plant and equipment is subsequently measured under either the revaluation
model or the cost model.
The carrying amount is determined by subtracting depreciation and impairment losses from
the historical cost or revalued amount.
Depreciation is calculated using one of the following methods: straight-line, reducing
(diminishing) balance or production unit method.
The carrying amount must be tested for impairment per IAS 36, Impairment of Assets.
Property, plant and equipment is derecognised when disposed of, or withdrawn from use
and no future economic benefits are expected from its use.
9
Leases
IFRS 16
Contents
1 Background................................................................................................... 241
2 Schematic representation of IFRS 16 .............................................................. 242
3 Identifying a lease ......................................................................................... 244
4 Separating components of a contract .............................................................. 244
5 Lease term ................................................................................................... 245
6 Recognition and measurement: lessee ............................................................ 247
6.1 Recognition exemptions ....................................................................... 247
6.2 Initial recognition and measurement of the right-of-use asset ................. 250
6.3 Initial recognition and measurement of the lease liability ........................ 253
6.4 Subsequent measurement of the right-of-use asset ................................ 260
6.5 Subsequent measurement of the lease liability ....................................... 261
6.6 Reassessment of the lease liability ........................................................ 263
6.7 Presentation: lessee ............................................................................. 265
6.8 Disclosure: lessee ................................................................................ 265
7 Lessor ......................................................................................................... 269
7.1 Classification of leases ......................................................................... 269
7.2 Finance lease versus operating lease: land and buildings ........................ 271
7.3 Finance lease: recognition and measurement......................................... 274
7.4 Operating leases.................................................................................. 282
8 Short and sweet ........................................................................................... 286
1 Background
Entities can decide to lease an asset instead of purchasing an asset. Leasing is a means of
gaining access to assets (i.e. the right to use an underlying asset), reducing the entity’s
exposure to the risks of asset ownership, and obtaining financing. IFRS 16 Leases sets out
the principles for the accounting treatment of leases. IFRS 16 has a single lessee
accounting model where the lessee is required to recognise a right-of-use asset
representing its right to use the underlying asset and a lease liability representing its
obligation to make lease payments. However, there is an exception from this requirement
for short-term leases or when the underlying asset is of low value. IFRS 16 has a dual
lessor accounting model where leases are either classified as an operating lease or as a
finance lease.
241
2 Schematic representation of IFRS 16
Objective
To ensure that lessees and lessors provide relevant information about their leasing activities in a
manner that faithfully represents those transactions.
Definition
A lease is a contract, or part of a contract, that conveys the right to use an asset (the
underlying asset) for a period of time (lease term) in exchange for consideration (payments).
Identifying a lease
Assess at the inception of a contract whether the contract is, or contains, a lease.
A contract is, or contains, a lease if the contract conveys the right to control the use of an
identified asset for a period of time in exchange for consideration, meaning that the customer
has both of the following:
(a) the right to obtain substantially all of the economic benefits from use of the identified asset;
and
(b) the right to direct the use of the identified asset.
Accounting by lessee
Recognise a right-of-use asset and a lease liability for all leases at the commencement of
the lease or elect not to apply this requirement for short-term leases and leases for which the
underlying asset is of low value;
initially measure a right-of-use asset and the lease liability on a present value basis;
include initial direct costs, lease payments made at or before the commencement date, less any
lease incentives received, and estimates of costs to be incurred by the lessee in dismantling and
removing the underlying asset or restoring the site on which it is located, in the carrying
amount of the right-of-use asset;
to calculate the initial measurement of the lease, the lease payments shall be discounted over
the lease term using the interest rate implicit in the lease, if that rate can be readily determined.
If this rate cannot be readily determined, the lessee shall determine and use its own
incremental borrowing rate;
subsequently measure a right-of-use asset similarly to other non-financial assets (such as PPE);
and
subsequently measure the lease liability similarly to other financial liabilities (amortised cost
model).
continued
Leases 243
Accounting by lessor
Classification is made at the inception of the lease.
Classification is influenced by the substance of the agreement, not the form.
Classification: Finance lease Classification: Operating lease

Substantially all the risks and rewards Substantially all the risks and rewards
incidental to ownership of an underlying asset incidental to ownership of an underlying asset
are transferred to the lessee. are not transferred to the lessee.
Possible indicators: Leases not classified as finance leases are
Ownership transferred to the lessee at the classified as operating leases.
end of the lease term.
Option to purchase at a lower amount than
fair value. Accounting by the lessor (operating lease)
Lease term represents the majority of the Continue to recognise depreciation on the
economic life of the asset. underlying asset applying IAS 16
Present value of the lease payments Property, Plant and Equipment, or
amounts to at least substantially all of the continue to account for the property by
fair value of the leased asset. applying IAS 40 Investment Property;
Specialised leased asset. recognise net lease income (payments
If the lessee is entitled to cancel the lease, receivable less lease incentives) on a
the lessor’s losses associated with the straight-line basis over the lease term.
cancellation are borne by the lessee.
Gains or losses from fluctuations in the fair
value of the residual accrue to the lessee.
The lessee has the ability to continue to
lease for a secondary period at a rent that
is substantially lower than market rent.
Accounting by the lessor (Finance lease)

Derecognise the underlying asset;
recognise a gain or loss on derecognition of the asset (where applicable);
recognise a receivable equal to the net investment in the lease (net investment = gross
investment discounted at the interest rate implicit in the lease);
the interest rate implicit in the lease includes both the guaranteed and unguaranteed residual
values and is defined in such a way that the initial direct costs are automatically included in the
net investment in the lease;
recognise finance income in accordance with the effective interest method; and
recognise lease payments against the gross investment when the payments are received.
3 Identifying a lease
IFRS 16 defines a lease as a contract, or part of a contract, that conveys the right to
use an asset (the underlying asset) for a period of time in exchange for consideration.
Right to use the underlying asset
Lessor A lease is a contract, or part of a contract, that conveys Lessee

the right to use an asset (the underlying asset) for a
period of time in exchange for consideration.
In exchange for consideration payable

An entity assesses at the inception of a contract whether the contract represents or contains
a lease. The inception date of the lease is the earlier of the date of the lease agreement
and the date of commitment by parties to the principal provisions of the lease.
An underlying asset is an asset that is the subject of a lease, for which the right to
use that asset has been provided by a lessor to a lessee.
A lessee is an entity that obtains the right to use an underlying asset for a period of
time in exchange for consideration.
A lessor is an entity that provides the right to use an underlying asset for a period of time in
exchange for consideration.
A contract (even if it is not a legal lease agreement) represents or contains a lease if the
customer has both of the following throughout the period of use:
the right to obtain substantially all of the economic benefits from the use of the
identified asset; and
the right to direct the use of the identified asset.
4 Separating components of a contract

Contracts often combine different kinds of obligations of the supplier, which might be a
combination of lease components or a combination of lease and non-lease components. If
such a multi-element arrangement exists, each separate lease component should be
identified (using the guidance on the definition of a lease) and be accounted for
separately from non-lease components, unless the entity applies the practical expedient.
As a practical expedient, lessees don’t have to separate non-lease components from
lease components. Instead, they account for each lease component and any associated
non-lease components as a single lease component.
Leases 245
The right to use an underlying asset is a separate lease component if both of the
following criteria (IFRS 16.B32) are met:
the lessee can benefit from use of the underlying asset either on its own or together
with other resources that are readily available to the lessee; and
the underlying asset is neither highly dependent on, nor highly interrelated with, the
other underlying assets in the contract.
If the lessee could, for example, decide not to lease a specific underlying asset without
significantly affecting its rights to use other underlying assets in the contract, it might
indicate that the specific underlying asset is not highly dependent on, or highly interrelated
with, the other underlying assets.
If there are separate lease and non-lease components in the contract, the lessee shall
allocate the consideration in the contract to each lease component on the basis of its
relative stand-alone price. The relative stand-alone price of the lease and non-lease
components shall be determined on the basis of the price the lessor, or a similar supplier,
would charge an entity for only that component, or a similar component, separately. If
observable stand-alone prices are not readily available, the lessee shall estimate the prices
by maximising the use of observable information.
Unless the practical expedient (indicated above) is applied, a lessee shall account for any
non-lease components by applying other applicable IFRSs (such as IAS 2 for inventory
acquired as part of the contract).
The lessor shall allocate the consideration in the contract to each lease or non-lease
component in accordance with step 4 of the 5-step revenue model of IFRS 15 Revenue from
Contracts with Customers. The abovementioned practical expedient is not available to the
lessor.
Example 9.1: Allocation of consideration to lease and non-lease components

Tembe Ltd entered into a lease contract in terms of which it will lease a bus and obtain
maintenance services for the bus. The contract contains a lease in terms of IFRS 16
because it conveys the right to use a bus for a period of time in exchange for consideration
(payments). The total consideration payable under the contract is R200 000 per annum for
three years. Tembe Ltd determines that the contract consists of two separate components,
namely, the lease of the bus and the maintenance of the bus.
According to the accounting policy of Tembe Ltd, lease components and non-lease
components should be separated. Tembe Ltd establishes that third parties provide similar
maintenance services at R25 000 per year, and the relative stand-alone rental amount for a
similar bus is R180 000 per annum. The annual consideration of R200 000 will therefore be
allocated as follows:
R
Bus (R180 000 / R205 000 (R180 000 + R25 000) × R200 000) 175 610
Maintenance (R25 000 / R205 000 (R180 000 + R25 000) × R200 000) 24 390
200 000
5 Lease term
IFRS 16 defines lease term as the non-cancellable period of the lease for which the
lessee has the right to use the underlying asset, as well as periods covered by an option to
extend or an option to terminate if the lessee is reasonably certain to exercise the extension
option or not exercise the termination option.
The lease term begins at the commencement date and includes any rent-free periods
provided to the lessee by the lessor.
The commencement date of a lease is the date on which a lessor makes an

underlying asset available for use by a lessee.
In determining the length of the non-cancellable period of the lease, an entity shall
apply the definition of a contract and determine the period for which the contract is
enforceable. A lease is no longer enforceable when the lessee and the lessor each have the
right to terminate the lease without permission from the other party with no more than an
insignificant penalty. If only a lessee has the right to terminate a lease, that right is
considered to be an option to terminate the lease available to the lessee that an entity
considers when determining the lease term. If only a lessor has the right to terminate a
lease, the non-cancellable period of the lease includes the period covered by the option to
terminate the lease.
In assessing whether a lessee is reasonably certain to exercise, or not to exercise, the
option to extend or terminate, all relevant facts and circumstances that create an
economic incentive for the lessee to exercise, or not to exercise the option, must be
considered. A lessee’s past practice may also provide helpful information in assessing
whether the lessee is reasonably certain to exercise, or not to exercise, an option.
Example 9.2: Identifying the lease term

Eagle Ltd (lessee) entered into the following lease agreements:
Lease A: Eagle Ltd has the right to use a machine for three years. The first year is rent-free,
and R100 000 is payable at the end of year 2 and year 3. The lease term is three years.
Even though the first year is rent-free, Eagle Ltd has the right to use the machine during the
first year (for a total of three years).
Lease B: Eagle Ltd has the right to use a vehicle for three years, and has the option to
extend the lease for another two years. Eagle Ltd’s projections for the next few years
indicate that it would not need the use of this vehicle beyond three years. At the
commencement date of the lease, Eagle Ltd is not reasonably certain to exercise the option
to extend the lease. The lease term is three years.
Lease C: Eagle Ltd has the right to use a delivery truck for three years, and has the option to
extend the lease for another two years. Eagle Ltd modifies the delivery truck at a substantial
cost to meet its specific needs. At the commencement date of the lease, Eagle Ltd is
reasonably certain to exercise the option to extend the lease. The substantial costs incurred
to modify the truck create an economic incentive for Eagle Ltd to exercise the extension
option. The lease term is five years.
Comments
¾ Judgement may be needed to assess whether an entity is “reasonably certain” to exercise
any option attached to a lease.
¾ An entity needs to account for a reassessment of the lease liability (refer to section 6.6 for
more detail) should the lease term be revised (for example, if during the lease term, it
becomes reasonably certain that the option to extend the lease will be exercised where this
was not reasonably certain at the commencement of the lease; or the extension of the lease
is no longer reasonably certain).
Leases 247
6 Recognition and measurement: lessee

Legally, the lessee is not the owner of the leased asset and is not required to take
ownership of the leased asset at the end of the lease term. However, the substance of the
agreement and its financial reality is that the lessee obtains the right to use the asset to
generate economic benefits for itself over the lease term. For this reason, the lessee is
required to recognise both an asset (right-of-use asset) and a liability (lease liability) on its
statement of financial position for all assets leased by it under lease agreements, except if
the entity elects one of the two recognition exemptions allowed by IFRS 16.
At the commencement date, a lessee shall recognise a right-of-use asset and a lease
liability.
6.1 Recognition exemptions

A lessee may elect not to recognise the right-of-use assets and lease liabilities for:
short-term leases (leases of 12 months or less, without a purchase option); and
leases for which the underlying asset is of low value, for example, tablets, personal
computers and small office furniture and items.
If this exemption is elected, the lease payments are recognised as an expense in the profit
or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income on a
straight-line basis over the lease term, unless another systematic basis is more
representative of the pattern of the lessee’s benefit. In terms of SAICAs Circular 2/2020
Recognition of lease income and expense on a basis other than the straight line basis under
IFRS 16 – Leases, the use of ‘another systematic basis’ is expected to be rare. When
applying such other systematic basis, the pattern of the user’s benefit is only affected by
factors which impact the physical usage of the underlying asset. Where the straight-line
basis is used and cash flows are not equal, the difference between the cash flows and the
expense recognised in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income will
end up in the statement of financial position as an accrued or prepaid expense.
6.1.1 Short-term leases

An option to extend or terminate a lease that is reasonably certain to be exercised should
be considered when determining if the lease term is 12 months or less; however, a lease
that contains a purchase option is not a short-term lease.
If a lessee elects this exemption, it has to be made by class of underlying asset,
meaning that the election must be applied to leases of the entire class of assets selected.
6.1.2 Low-value underlying assets

To determine if the underlying asset is of low value, the lessee needs to assess its value
based on the value when the underlying asset is new, regardless of the age of the asset
being leased. Furthermore, this assessment is performed on an absolute basis, meaning
that leases of low-value assets will qualify for this exemption election regardless of whether
those leases are material to the lessee – the assessment is not affected by the size, nature
or circumstances of the lessee.
An underlying asset can also only be of low value if:

the lessee can benefit from the use of the underlying asset on its own or in combination
with other resources that are readily available to the lessee; and
the underlying asset is not highly dependent on, or highly interrelated with, other assets.
If a lessee subleases an asset, the head lease does not qualify as a lease of a low-value
asset.
The election for leases for which the underlying asset is of low value can be made on a
lease-by-lease basis.
Example 9.3: Leases of low-value assets

Zumba Ltd (lessee) provides training and online professional development courses. Zumba
Ltd has the following leases that have non-cancellable terms in excess of 12 months:
lease of its office building;
leases of office furniture such as boardroom tables, chairs and couches;
leases of company cars; and
leases of numerous items of IT equipment, such as laptops and data projectors.
Zumba Ltd determines that the leases of its office furniture and IT equipment qualify for the
recognition exemption in IFRS 16 on the basis that these underlying assets, when they are
new, are individually of low value. Consequently, the lease payments will be recognised as an
annual expense on a straight-line basis in profit or loss. Zumba Ltd will apply the recognition
and measurement principles of IFRS 16 for the leases relating to the office building and
company cars and would recognise a right-of-use asset and a lease liability.
IFRS 16 does not indicate what amount “llow-value” is, but in the Basis of Conclusion,
paragraph BC100, the IASB indicates they had an amount of US$5 000 or less in mind.
Example 9.4: Accounting for a lease for which the underlying assets are of low value
The end of the reporting period of Zet Ltd is 31 December 20.29. Zet Ltd entered into a non-
cancellable lease on 1 January 20.29 to lease five laptop computers for its employees from
Rent Ltd. The contract is a lease in terms of IFRS 16.
The following information is applicable to the lease contract:
The initial lease term is six years. The lease payments are R2 500 per month for the first four
years and R1 500 per month for the final two years. Zet Ltd has the option to extend the lease
term for a further two years at R1 000 per month. At the commencement of the lease, Zet Ltd is
reasonably certain that it will exercise the option to extend the lease term by a further two years.
10% of every payment goes towards covering the maintenance costs incurred and paid by Rent
Ltd. These values are in line with costs for similar maintenance services rendered by third
parties.
Zet Ltd elected to apply the recognition exemption in respect of low-value assets to this lease
agreement (IFRS 16.5). Zet Ltd accounts for the lease and the non-lease components
separately (IFRS 16.12).
Leases 249
Example 9.4: Accounting for a lease for which the underlying assets are of low value
(continued)
Calculation of the straight-line amount of the lease
Total amount actually paid or payable R
Years 1–4 R2 500 × 48 months 120 000
Years 5–6 R1 500 × 24 months 36 000
Years 7–8 R1 000 × 24 months 24 000
180 000
Amount in respect of maintenance (R180 000 × 10%) (18 000)
Lease component 162 000
Lease term (6 years non-cancellable period, plus the reasonably certain option to
extend the lease by 2 years) 8 years
Annual lease expense (R162 000/8 years) 20 250
Journal entries
Dr Cr
R R
Years 1–4
Maintenance (P/L) (30 000 × 10%) 3 000
Lease expense (P/L) 20 250
Prepayments (balancing) (SFP) 6 750
Bank (SFP) (2 500 × 12) 30 000
Recognition of straight-line lease expense for low-value assets
Years 5–6
Maintenance (P/L) (18 000 × 10%) 1 800
Bank (SFP) (1 500 × 12) 18 000
Years 7–8
Maintenance (P/L) (12 000 × 10%) 1 200
Bank (SFP) (1 000 × 12) 12 000
Comments:
¾ A similar approach would be followed for short-term leases where the recognition
exemption was elected. There would only be a prepaid/accrued amount in the statement
of financial position if the payments are not equal to the lease expense (straight-line)
and the lease term (< 12 months) is during two financial periods.
¾ Any lease incentive the lessee receives would be deducted from the total lease
payments to calculate the (net) straight-lined lease expense.
6.1.3 Disclosure: the lessee (recognition exemption)

The lessee should disclose the following amounts in a tabular format:
for short-term leases where the recognition exemptions were elected:
– the fact that the recognition exemptions were elected;
– the expense relating to such short-term leases (this expense need not include the
expense relating to leases with a lease term of one month or less); and
– the amount of its lease commitments for such short-term leases if its portfolio of
short-term leases, to which it is committed at the end of the reporting period, is
dissimilar to the portfolio of short-term leases to which the disclosed short-term lease
expense relates.
for low-value asset leases where the recognition exemptions were elected:
– the fact that the recognition exemptions were elected; and
– the expense relating to such low-value assets (this expense does not include the
expense relating to low-value assets already disclosed under short-term leases above
– only disclosed once).
Example 9.5: Disclosure: the lessee (recognition exemption)

The disclosure of the information provided above of Zet Ltd (Example 9.4) will be as follows:
Zet Ltd
28. Lease agreements in which the company is a lessee
28.1 Income and expenses related to leases
20.30 20.29
R R
Expenses
Maintenance expense 3 000 3 000
Low-value assets lease expense 20 250 20 250
The company has elected to apply the simplified accounting method for its
low-value lease of laptop computers.
Comments:
¾ The prepayment of R6 750 in 20.29 and R13 500 (cumulative balance for R6 750 over
two years) in 20.30 is presented in the statement of financial position under non-current
assets – Prepayments.
6.2 Initial recognition and measurement of the right-of-use asset

The Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting (Conceptual Framework) defines an
asset as a present economic resource, which is a right that has the potential to produce
economic benefits, controlled by the entity as a result of past events. In terms of a lease
agreement, a lessee would have a right to use an underlying asset for the lease term as
the use of the asset is under its control (legally established under the agreement). An
entity controls an economic resource if it has the present ability to direct the use of it and
obtain the economic benefits that may flow from it (refer to paragraphs 4.3, 4.4 and 4.20
of the Conceptual Framework and to section 3 above). Consequently, the lessee should
recognise a right-of-use asset when entering into a lease agreement, unless the
recognition exemption (section 6.1 above) is elected.
At the commencement date, the right-of-use asset is measured at cost.

Leases 251
The cost of the right-of-use asset shall comprise the following:
the amount of the initial measurement of the lease liability (section 6.3 below);
Dr Right-of-use asset (SFP) R100 000
Cr Lease liability (SFP) * R100 000
* assumed amounts are used for the illustration
any lease payments made at or before the commencement date (e.g. a deposit), less
any lease incentives received;
– lease incentives are payments made by the lessor to the lessee associated with a
lease, or the reimbursement or assumptions by a lessor of costs of the lessee.
Dr Right-of-use asset (SFP) (90 000 + 10 000) R100 000
Cr Bank (SFP) (deposit) R10 000
Cr Lease liability (SFP) R90 000
– lease incentives are only deducted from the cost of the right-of-use asset if the costs
the incentives were intended to reimburse were included in the cost of the right-of-
use asset.
Dr Right-of-use asset (SFP) (100 000 – 10 000) R90 000
Dr Bank (SFP) (incentive received) R10 000
any initial direct costs incurred by the lessee; and

– initial direct costs for the lessee are the incremental costs of obtaining a lease which
would not have been incurred if the lease had not been obtained.
Dr Right-of-use asset (SFP) (100 000 + 10 000) R110 000
Cr Bank (SFP) (initial direct costs paid) R10 000
an estimate of costs to be incurred by the lessee in dismantling and removing the
underlying asset, restoring the site on which it is located or restoring the underlying
asset to the condition required by the terms and conditions of the lease.
– the obligation that arises is accounted for in accordance with IAS 37 Provisions,
Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets and initially measured at the present
value of the expected future cash flows.
– the lessee incurs an obligation for such costs either at the commencement date or as
a consequence of having used the underlying asset during a particular period.
– if dismantling and restoring costs are incurred as a consequence of having used the
right-of-use asset to produce inventories, the lessee shall apply IAS 2 Inventories for
such costs incurred.
Dr Right-of-use asset (SFP) R12 000
Cr Provision for dismantling costs (SFP) R12 000
A lessee may also incur other costs related to the underlying asset that are not incurred for
the right to use the asset, such as costs for the construction or design of an asset. The
lessee shall account for those costs by applying other applicable Standards, such as
IAS 16. Accordingly, such costs would be capitalised as part of the cost of the property,
plant and equipment (PPE). Such costs are sometimes referred to as leasehold
improvements.
Example 9.6: Initial measurement of a right-of-use asset

Thabo Ltd (lessee) leases a machine under a lease agreement from 1 June 20.22 from
Tembe Ltd (lessor). Thabo Ltd did not elect the simplified accounting treatment for the
machine. The details of the lease agreement are as follows:
Lease term 3 years
Payment made on 27 May 20.22 relating to the design of the machine R19 500
Non-refundable deposit paid on 26 May 20.22 to secure the lease R15 000
Legal fee paid to a legal adviser to check the contract R2 500
50% of the legal fee reimbursed by Tembe Ltd in cash R1 250
Cost to assemble the machine R5 000
Annual inspection cost to be paid by Thabo Ltd R3 500
Estimated future dismantling cost to be paid on 31 May 20.25 R7 000
Pre-tax discount rate applicable to the dismantling provision 9%
Initial measurement of the lease liability on 1 June 20.22 (being the present R46 000
value of future lease payments – refer to section 6.3 below)
On the commencement date, Thabo Ltd will recognise a right-of-use asset for the use of the
machine at the following amount:
R
Lease liability 46 000
Lease payment made before the commencement date 15 000
Initial direct costs (2 500 legal fees + 5 000 assembly costs) 7 500
Less lease incentive received (1 250)
Inspection cost –
Cost relating to the design of the machine –
Dismantling cost (FV = 7 000, N = 3, I = 9%, PV = ?) 5 405
Total cost of the right-of-use asset 72 655
Comments:
¾ The non-refundable deposit or lease payment paid in advance to secure the lease will
not form part of the present value of the lease liability (it has already been paid and is
not part of the liability to pay the future lease payments). Only lease payments that are
not paid at the commencement date will be included in the initial measurement amount
of the lease liability. The deposit is still included in the initial cost of the right-of-use
asset.
¾ The lessee shall apply IAS 16 to account for the inspection cost when paid in future. The
inspection cost does not relate to the lease and the right to use the machine, but is a
cost of actually using it.
¾ The assembly cost is arguably also an “initial direct cost” as it represents an
“incremental cost” that would not have been incurred if the right to use the asset was
not obtained.
¾ If a lessee incurs costs relating to the design of an underlying asset, the lessee shall
account for those costs under IAS 16 (see IFRS 16.B44). Such costs would typically be
treated as a leasehold improvement and be recognised as an item of property, plant and
equipment. Costs relating to the construction and design of the underlying asset are not
incurred in connection with the right to use the underlying asset.
¾ Since the dismantling costs do not arise from the production of inventories (i.e. from
using the underlying asset), it is capitalised to the right-of-use asset.
Leases 253
Example 9.6: Initial measurement of a right-of-use asset (continued)

Journal entries
Dr Cr
May and June 20.22 R R
Right-of-use asset (SFP) 46 000
Lease liability (at PV) (SFP) 46 000
Bank (SFP) 15 000
Right-of-use asset (initial direct costs) (SFP) 7 500
Bank (SFP) (2 500 legal fees + 5 000 assembly costs) 7 500
Bank (SFP) (50% x 2 500 legal fees) 1 250
Dismantling provision (SFP) 5 405
Initial recognition of lease, initial direct costs and lease
incentive received
Property, plant and equipment (SFP) 19 500
Bank (SFP) 19 500
Recognition of design cost as PPE
6.3 Initial recognition and measurement of the lease liability

The Conceptual Framework defines a liability as a present obligation of the entity to transfer
an economic resource as a result of past events. In terms of a lease agreement, a lessee
would have the obligation to make certain cash payments (transfer of an economic
resource) and would have no practical ability to avoid making such payments as it is legally
bound by the lease contract (legal obligation). Consequently, at the commencement date of
the lease, the lease should recognise the lease liability, unless the recognition exemption
(section 6.1 above) is elected.
At the commencement date, a lessee shall measure the lease liability at the present
value of the lease payments that are not paid at that date.
The lease payments shall be discounted over the lease term using the interest rate implicit
in the lease, if that rate can be readily determined (the interest rate implicit in the lease is
determined from the perspective of the lessor – see section 6.3.2 below). If that rate cannot
be readily determined, the lessee shall use its incremental borrowing rate.
6.3.1 Lease payments
At the commencement date, the lease payments included in the measurement of the lease
liability comprise the following payments for the right to use the underlying asset during the
lease term that are not paid at the commencement date:
fixed payments (including in-substance fixed payments), less any lease incentives
receivable;
– fixed payments include all payments made by the lessee for the right to use an underlying
asset during the lease term. A balloon (last) payment will form part of fixed payments.
variable lease payments that depend on an index or a rate, for example, a consumer
price index (CPI), or linked to a benchmark rate (such as the Johannesburg Interbank
Average Rate (JIBAR)), initially measured using the index or rate as at the
commencement date;
amounts expected to be payable by the lessee under residual value guarantees (the
lessee may have made a guarantee to the lessor that the value of the underlying asset
at the end of the lease will be at least a specified amount);
– the lessee needs to estimate the amount payable under such guarantee, and it would
arguably be equal to the shortfall between the expected future value of the
underlying asset (which would arguably be the expected market value thereof at the
end of the lease term, based on how the lessee expects to use the asset) and the
amount specified under the agreement.
the exercise price of a purchase option if the lessee is reasonably certain to exercise that
option; and
payments of penalties for terminating the lease, if the lease term reflects the lessee
exercising an option to terminate the lease.
In-substance fixed payments are lease payments that may, in form, contain variability
but that, in substance, are unavoidable, for example, where payments must be made if the
asset is proven to be capable of operating during the lease term, or where payments must
be made only if an event occurs that has no genuine possibility of not occurring.
Example 9.7: In-substance fixed payments

Flexi Ltd provides various training classes, including yoga. Flexi Ltd leases a studio from
Health Ltd in terms of a lease contract. The lease contract specifies that Flexi Ltd must pay
an amount of R400 per hour for the use of the studio with a minimum annual payment of
R500 000. Flexi Ltd expects to use the studio for 1 500 hours per year.
The R500 000 represents an in-substance fixed payment per year.
Flexi Ltd expects to pay an annual amount of R600 000 (R400 × 1 500). The difference
between the R600 000 and the fixed annual payment of R500 000 is a variable payment.
This variable payment is not dependent on an index or a rate.
Consequently, the R500 000 in-substance fixed payment will be included in the initial
measurement of the lease liability, and the R100 000 variable payment will be included as
an expense in profit or loss.
Variable lease payments that depend on an index or rate are unavoidable because
uncertainty relates only to the measurement of the amount, but not to its existence;
consequently, they form part of the lease liability for the lessee/net investment for the
lessor. Such variable lease payments are initially measured using the index or the rate at
the commencement date. The entity does not forecast future changes in the index/rate;
changes are only taken into account when the lease payments actually change.
Example 9.8: Lease payments that depend on an index

Medex Ltd (lessee) operates in an inflationary environment. On 1 March 20.26, Medex Ltd
entered into a six-year lease contract with annual lease payments of R250 000, payable at
the beginning of each year. Every two years, lease payments will be adjusted to reflect
changes in the Consumer Price Index (CPI) for the preceding 24 months. On 1 March 20.26,
the CPI was 125.
On 1 March 20.26, the lease liability is calculated based on the lease payments of
R250 000 per year. Medex Ltd will only remeasure the lease liability on 1 March 20.28 (i.e.
two years later) when the contractual cash flows actually change based on the CPI on that
date. This will then be accounted for as a reassessment of the lease liability (which is
discussed in 6.6 below).
Leases 255
Variable lease payments based on the future amount of something that changes other than
with the passage of time or not based on an index or rate (e.g. a lease payment linked to a
lessee’s performance derived from the underlying asset, such as payments of a specified
percentage of sales) are not part of the lease liability. Such variable payments are excluded
from the definition of fixed payments. Such lease payments, often referred to as “contingent
lease payments”, are recognised in profit or loss (expenses) in the period in which the
event or condition that triggers such payments occurs.
Example 9.9: Variable lease payments linked to sales

Assume the same facts as Example 9.8 above, except that Medex Ltd is also required to
make variable lease payments for each year of the lease, which are determined as 2,5% of
Medex Ltd’s audited sales generated from the underlying asset.
At the commencement date, the lease liability will be recognised at the same amounts as in
Example 9.8 This is because the additional variable lease payments are linked to future
sales and, thus, do not meet the definition of lease payments. Consequently, such
contingent payments are not included in the measurement of the lease liability.
If Medex Ltd’s audited sales generated from the underlying asset for the first year of the
lease are R1 000 000, Medex Ltd will recognise an expense (P/L) of R25 000 (R1 000 000
× 2,5%) in its statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the year ended
28 February 20.27. The contra entry (credit) to this journal entry will probably be recorded
as an accrual at year-end because Medex Ltd’s sales generated from the underlying asset
will first need to be audited after year-end to determine the exact amount.
Lease agreements often include a residual value for the underlying asset. It was also
mentioned above that the amount expected to be paid under a residual value guarantee is
included in the initial measurement of the lease liability for the lessee.
The standard defines an unguaranteed residual value as that portion of the residual
value of the underlying asset, the realisation of which by a lessor is not assured or is
guaranteed solely by a party related to the lessor. When an unguaranteed residual value is
attached to a lease, the asset will normally be returned to the lessor at the end of the lease
term. The theory is that the residual value will be equal to the estimated market value of
the asset at the end of the lease term. This will enable the lessor to sell the asset for that
amount. The residual value will be an estimate, and the lessor will not be certain what the
market value of the asset will be at the end of the lease term. However, the residual value
amounts can also be fixed (a guaranteed residual value) (i.e. a contractually agreed
amount that will be paid by the lessee or a third party regardless of the market value of the
underlying asset or variable (i.e. expected selling price of the asset in the open market).
Furthermore, at the commencement date of the lease, the lessee and the lessor can also
have a contractual agreement where they agree on a residual value guarantee amount
of the underlying asset at the end of the lease term (i.e. the lessee made a guarantee to
the lessor that the value of the underlying asset at the end of the lease will be at least a
specified amount). A residual value guarantee will be variable if, for example, the
estimated market value of the asset is lower than the agreed residual value guarantee, then
the lessee will have to pay the difference/shortfall to the lessor. This amount is the
expected amount payable by the lessee under residual value guarantees.
Example 9.10: Initial measurement of the lease liability

The end of the reporting period of Peglarea Ltd is 31 December. On 1 January 20.26, Peglarea
Ltd entered into a lease agreement with Platinum Ltd to lease a new office building from
Platinum Ltd for a non-cancellable period of ten years, starting on 1 January 20.26. Peglarea
Ltd has also guaranteed Platinum Ltd that it will receive a residual value of at least
R25 000 000 for the office building.
Peglarea Ltd does not have sufficient information to determine the interest rate implicit in
the lease. The incremental borrowing rate of Peglarea Ltd is 12%. The following information
has been extracted from the lease contract:
1 January 20.26 is the commencement date of the lease;
Deposit of R500 000 paid on 15 December 20.25 to secure the lease;
Peglarea Ltd incurred legal fees of R20 000 relating to this lease contract. Platinum Ltd
partially reimbursed Peglarea Ltd and paid R10 000 over to Peglarea Ltd on 1 January 20.26;
and
Annual lease payments, payable in arrears, are R2 500 000.
On 1 January 20.26, Peglarea Ltd expects that the market value of the office building will be
R23 000 000. Therefore, Peglarea Ltd expects that it will have to make a payment of
R2 000 000 under the residual value guarantee (i.e. it needs to pay the shortfall of
R2 000 000).
Peglarea Ltd should initially recognise the lease liability at the present value of the unpaid
lease payments, using the incremental borrowing rate of 12%, which is R14 769 504
(FV=2 000 000, N=10, PMT=2 500 000, I=12%).
The journal entries for the initial recognition of the right-of-use asset and the lease liability
will therefore be as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
Journal entries:
15 December 20.25
Lease deposit debtor (SFP) 500 000
Bank (SFP) 500 000
Pay deposit on the lease before the commencement date
1 January 20.26
Right-of-use asset (SFP 15 269 504
Lease liability (SFP) 14 769 504
Recognise right-of-use asset and lease liability
Bank (SFP) 20 000
Capitalise initial direct costs
Bank (SFP) 10 000
Lease incentive paid by the lessor
Leases 257
Example 9.10: Initial measurement of the lease liability (continued)

Comment:
¾ Lease incentives which have been received before or on the commencement date are
deducted from the initial measurement of the right-of-use asset. Lease incentives not yet
received at the commencement date reduce the initial measurement of the lease liability.
The future cash inflow from the lease incentive will reduce the present value of the lease
liability.
Lease incentives receivable:
Use the same information as above, but assume the initial direct costs that Platinum Ltd agreed
to reimburse will not be paid in cash. Instead, Peglarea Ltd can reduce its first lease instalment
with that amount.
The present value of the lease incentive receivable on initial recognition is R8 929 (FV=10 000,
N=1, I=12%, PMT=0).
Comment:
¾ The present value of the expected lease incentive receivable is deducted below from the
present value of all lease payments payable to calculate the initial measurement of the
lease liability. The answer would be the same if the present value was calculated with the
first payment of R2 490 000 (2 500 000 – 10 000), all the other payments of R2 500 000,
and a future value of R2 000 000 (the amount expected to be payable under the residual
value guarantee).
The journal entries for the initial recognition of the right-of-use asset and the lease liability
will therefore be as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
Journal entries:
15 December 20.25
Bank (SFP) 500 000
Pay deposit on the lease before the commencement date
1 January 20.26
Right-of-use asset (SFP) 15 260 575
Lease liability (SFP) (14 769 504 – 8 929) 14 760 575
Bank (SFP) 20 000
Capitalise initial direct costs
6.3.2 Interest rate implicit in the lease
The interest rate implicit in the lease is calculated from the perspective of the lessor
and therefore takes the unguaranteed residual value into account.
The interest rate implicit in the lease is the rate of interest that causes the present
value of the
lease payments; and
unguaranteed residual value
to equal the sum of

the fair value of the underlying asset; and
any initial direct costs of the lessor, for example, legal costs and commissions in
negotiating and arranging a lease.
Consequently, both the guaranteed residual value (included per the definition of the lease
payments) and the unguaranteed residual value are taken into account when calculating the
interest rate implicit in the lease.
Example 9.11: Structuring a lease

On 1 January 20.26, Springbok Ltd (lessor) entered into a lease agreement with Kudu Ltd
(lessee) to lease a vehicle to Kudu Ltd for a non-cancellable period of two years, starting on
1 January 20.26.
Springbok Ltd acted as the financier, bought the vehicle for R500 000 on 1 January 20.26
and paid legal fees of R20 000 relating to this lease contract. These amounts represent the
cash outflows for the lessor, which the lessor would want to recover from the lessee through
future lease payments and, where applicable, by selling the asset at the end of the lease
term. These amounts would be used as the ‘present value’ (PV) to calculate the lease
payments to be made by Kudu Ltd over the lease term of two years (‘p period’ (N) of 2 would
be used).
At the end of the lease term, Springbok Ltd expects to sell the vehicle in the market for
R60 000 (unguaranteed residual value). This amount represents a future cash inflow for the
lessor and would be used as the ‘ffuture value’ (FV) to calculate the lease payments to be
made by Kudu Ltd over the lease term.
Springbok Ltd requires a return of 10% to recoup its investment in the lease (i.e. the net
cash outflows made in respect of the lease). Springbok Ltd would use these inputs to
determine the lease payments. Consequently Springbok Ltd would require Kudu Ltd to make
two annual payments of R271 048 (PV = -520 000; I = 10%, N = 2, FV = 60 000) in arrears
to recover its initial outflow of cash.
The timeline for the cash flows can be illustrated as follows
Commence date End of End of
year 1 year 2
-500 000 PMT = +271 048 PMT = +271 048
-20 000 Sale at end:
PV = -520 000 FV = +60 000
Discounted cash flow = R520 000

Under the ‘time value of money’ concept, the present value of the future cash flows (two
payments of R271 048 each at the end of each year, and the sale of the vehicle at the end
of the lease term) discounted at 10%, will result in a present value of R520 000. For a lease,
the discount rate is referred to as the ‘iinterest rate implicit in the lease’ (here 10% per year)
(being the rate of interest that causes the present value of the two lease payments
(R271 048 each) and the unguaranteed residual value (R60 000), to equal the sum of the
fair value of the underlying asset (R500 000) and any initial direct costs of the lessor
(R20 000).
Leases 259
Example 9.11: Structuring a lease (continued)

Amortisation table for Springbok Ltd (lessor)
Date PMT Interest, 10 % Capital Balance
(a) (b) (c) (d)
R R R R
1 January 20.26 520 000
31 December 20.26 271 048 52 000 219 048 300 952
31 December 20.27 271 048 30 096 240 952 60 000
31 December 20.27 0 0 60 000 0
(a) Annual lease payment resulting in a return of 10% on the net investment.
(b) 10% on the prior balance in (d).
(c) (a) minus (b) = capital redemption on instalment.
(d) The prior balance less (c).
Comments:
¾ The detailed accounting treatment of a finance lease for the lessor is discussed and
illustrated in section 7 below, but is illustrated here for the sake of completeness.
The journal entries in the books of Springbok Ltd (lessor) for the initial recognition of the
finance lease will therefore be as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
Net investment in the lease (SFP) 520 000
Vehicle (SFP) 500 000
Bank (SFP) (initial direct costs) 20 000
Initial recognition of finance lease
Lessee:
Kudu Ltd (lessee) will initially recognise the lease liability (and here the right-of-use asset as
well) at the present value of the lease payments using the above interest rate implicit in the
lease of 10%, which is R470 414 (FV = 0, N = 2, PMT = 271 048, I = 10%).
Amortisation table for Kudu Ltd (lessee)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
R R R R
1 January 20.26 470 414
31 December 20.26 271 048 47 041 224 007 246 407
31 December 20.27 271 048 24 641 246 407 0
Comments:
¾ The vehicle will be returned to the lessor at the end of the lease term, and the lessee is not a
party to the subsequent sale thereof by the lessor in the market. Consequently, the lessee
will use a future value of Rnil to calculate the present value of its lease liability.
The journal entries in the books of Kudu Ltd (lessee) for the initial recognition of the right-of-
use asset and the lease liability will therefore be as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
Comment:
¾ The subsequent treatment of a right-of-use asset and a lease liability is discussed in
sections 6.4 and 6.5 below.
Example 9.12: Interest rate implicit in the lease with no amount expected to be paid
under a residual value guarantee
On 1 January 20.26, Peglarea Ltd entered into a lease agreement with Platinum Ltd to lease
a new office building from Platinum Ltd for a non-cancellable period of ten years, starting on
1 January 20.26.
The following information relating to the lease is available to both parties:
1 January 20.26 is the commencement date of the lease;
Platinum Ltd incurred initial direct costs of R5 000 related to the lease agreement and paid
in cash;
Peglarea Ltd incurred initial direct costs of R15 000 related to the lease and paid in cash;
Annual lease payments, payable in arrears at the end of each year, are R7 500 000; and
The fair value of the building on the commencement date is R51 200 000.
Peglarea Ltd has also guaranteed Platinum Ltd that it will receive a residual value of at least
R25 000 000 for the office building at the end of the lease term. Platinum Ltd estimated on
1 January 20.26 that it will be able to sell the building to an independent third party for
R28 000 000 at the end of the lease term (and this information is available to Peglarea Ltd).
Consequently, as Platinum Ltd expects to sell the building at the end of the lease term at an
amount greater than the guarantee from Peglarea Ltd, Peglarea Ltd would not need to pay
any amount to Platinum Ltd. On 1 January 20.26, Peglarea Ltd expects that it will have to
make a payment of Rnil under the residual value guarantee (it will use a future value of Rnil
in initially measuring the lease liability).
The interest rate implicit in the lease (lessor’s perspective) is calculated as follows:
PV = - R51 205 000 (R51 200 000 fair value + R5 000 initial direct costs incurred by
lessor)
N = 10
PMT = R7 500 000
FV = R28 000 000 (R25 000 000 residual value guarantee + R3 000 000 unguaranteed
residual value (R28 000 000 – R25 000 000))
I = ?;
I = 12,07%
Peglarea Ltd (lessee) will initially recognise the lease liability at the present value of the
unpaid lease payments using the above interest rate implicit in the lease of 12,07%
(rounded), which is R42 255 522 (FFV = 0, N = 10, PMT = 7 500 000, I = 12,07%).
Whenever it is impracticable to determine this rate (remember that it is calculated from the
perspective of the lessor, and all information may not necessarily be available to the
lessee), the lessee’s incremental borrowing rate of interest is used (refer to example
9.10 above). This is the rate the lessee would have to pay to borrow over a similar term,
and with a similar security, the funds necessary to obtain an asset of a similar value to the
right-of-use asset in a similar economic environment.
6.4 Subsequent measurement of the right-of-use asset

Subsequently, a lessee shall measure the right-of-use asset by applying the cost model
unless it applies the revaluation model mentioned below.
6.4.1 Cost model
Under the cost model, the right-of-use is measured at:
initial cost, less
accumulated depreciation (calculated in terms of IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment)
and impairment losses (calculated in terms of IAS 36 Impairment of Assets).
Leases 261
If the lease transfers ownership of the underlying asset to the lessee by the end of
the lease term or if the cost of the right-of-use asset reflects that the lessee will exercise
a purchase option, the lessee shall depreciate the right-of-use asset over its useful
life. The useful life of an asset is the period over which an asset is expected to be
available for use by an entity (which may then extend beyond the lease term if
ownership is transferred at the end of the lease).
If the transfer of ownership is not apparent, the right-of-use asset should be depreciated
over the shorter of its useful life or the lease term, since the lessee will probably
use the asset only for the period of the lease; and
adjusted for subsequent remeasurements (see section 6.6) of the lease liability (e.g. to
reflect a reassessment due to changes in the estimate of the lease term or an option to
purchase the asset, etc.; lease modifications; or revised in-substance fixed lease
payments).
6.4.2 Revaluation model
If a right-of-use asset in the records of the lessee relates to a class of property, plant and
equipment to which the lessee applies the revaluation model, then the lessee is allowed to
elect to apply the revaluation model to the right-of-use asset of the same class. If the
lessee does not own any assets in the same class of assets to which the right-of-use asset
relates, the right-of-use asset is measured in terms of the cost model.
6.4.3 Fair value model
If a right-of-use asset represents the use of a property under a head lease, and the
property is then subleased under operation leases (i.e. the lessee under the head lease then
becomes the lessor under the sublease), the leasehold interest meets the definition of an
investment property under IAS 40 Investment Property. If a lessee applies the fair value
model in IAS 40 to its investment property, the lessee shall also apply that fair value model
to such right-of-use assets that meet the definition of investment property.
6.5 Subsequent measurement of the lease liability

Subsequently, the lease liability should be measured by:
increasing the carrying amount to reflect interest on the lease liability;
reducing the carrying amount to reflect the lease payments (PMT) made; and
remeasuring the carrying amount to reflect any reassessment, lease modifications or
revised in-substance fixed lease payments.
Example 9.13: Lessee: subsequent measurement

Assume the same facts as the first part of Example 9.10 and the following additional
information:
The lease does not include any options to extend or terminate the lease, and ownership of
the office building does not transfer to Peglarea Ltd at the end of the lease term;
Peglarea Ltd does not own another office building; and
In terms of IAS 16, depreciation is calculated in accordance with the straight-line method
over the estimated useful life because the office building is used evenly over time.
Amortisation table for the lease liability for the first three years:
R R R R
1 Jan 20.26 15 269 504
1 Jan 20.26: deposit 500 000 500 000 14 769 504
31 Dec 20.26 2 500 000 1 772 340 727 660 14 041 844
31 Dec 20.27 2 500 000 1 685 021 814 979 13 226 865
Example 9.13: Lessee: subsequent measurement (continued)

The journal entries for the year ended 31 December 20.26 and 20.27 will be as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
Journal entries:
31 December 20.26
Depreciation (P/L) (15 269 504 + 20 000 – 10 000)/10) 1 527 950
Accumulated depreciation: right-of-use asset: office
building (SFP) 1 527 950
Depreciation for the year
Interest expense (P/L) 1 772 340
Bank (SFP) 2 500 000
Payment of first instalment (AMORT 1)
31 December 20.27
Depreciation (P/L) 1 527 950
Accumulated depreciation: right-of-use asset: office
building (SFP) 1 527 950
Bank (SFP) 2 500 000
Payment of second instalment (AMORT 2)
Comments:
¾ The lease does not transfer ownership of the office building; therefore, the useful life of the
right-of-use asset will be limited to the lease term of ten years.
¾ The component approach for calculating the depreciation under IAS 16 may be relevant if
ownership of the office building was transferred at the end of the lease term. The initial
direct costs capitalised to the right-of-use asset (here, R20 000 less the R10 000 received
as a lease incentive) will be depreciated over the lease term of 10 years as it only relates to
the ‘lease’. However, the capitalised right-of-use asset (here, R15 269 504) will be
depreciated over the useful life of the asset, which would extend beyond the lease term (as
the lessee will become the owner of the office building and continue using it after the lease
term).
¾ The depreciation charge can also be accounted for directly against the carrying amount of
the right-of-use asset. IFRS 16 only requires that the carrying amount at the beginning of the
year be reconciled to the carrying amount at the end of the year and does not require that
the carrying amount of the asset be split into the ‘cost’ and ‘accumulated depreciation’ as
with property, plant and equipment under IAS 16.
¾ If the payment dates of the lease contract and the reporting date of the entity do not
coincide, an interest expense accrual must be accounted for.
¾ When instalments are payable in advance, care should be taken regarding the finance
charges, as the finance charges are paid in a different period than what they are accrued in.
This is due to the first instalment, which is payable immediately, only consists of a capital
repayment (no finance costs have accrued yet). This will result, for example, in the finance
charges relating to the first period only being paid with the second instalment.
¾ The disclosure of the lease is illustrated in Example 9.15 below.
Leases 263
6.6 Reassessment of the lease liability

If lease payments (refer to section 6.3.1) or the lease term (refer to section 5) change
after the commencement date, the lease liability should be remeasured to reflect such
changes. Remember that lease liability is effectively measured at the present value of
expected future payments. Consequently, if the future payments or the lease term change,
the present value will change. The amount of the remeasurement of the lease
liability is an adjustment to the right-of-use asset. If the present value of the lease
liability increases, a credit will be recognised against the lease liability, with a corresponding
debit to the right-of-use asset. However, if the present value of the lease liability decreases,
a debit will be recognised against the lease liability, with a corresponding credit to the right-
of-use asset. Furthermore, the adjusted carrying amount of the right-of-use asset is limited
to Rnil (any remaining credit amount shall be recognised in profit or loss).
A lessee shall remeasure the lease liability by discounting revised lease payments, using a
revised discount rate, if:
there is a change in the lease term (for example, whether an option to extend becomes
reasonably certain or no longer reasonably certain); or
there is a change in the assessment of an option to purchase the underlying asset (for
example, whether a purchase option becomes reasonably certain or no longer
reasonably certain).
A revised discount rate is used as the IASB viewed (IFRS 16.BC194) the changes above as
changing the economics of the lease; therefore, it is appropriate to reassess the discount
rate consistent with the change in the lease payments and lease term.
The discount rate is generally not revised (IFRS 16.BC193) in applying the effective
interest method (as with the lease liability). A lessee shall remeasure the lease liability by
discounting any revised lease payments, using an unchanged discount rate, if:
there is a change in the amounts expected to be payable under a residual value
guarantee (i.e. the economics of the lease have not changed, and there is merely a
revision in the expected future value); or
there is a change in future lease payments to reflect market rates (e.g. based on a
market rent review) or a change in an index or a rate used to determine the lease
payments. As mentioned earlier, such variable lease payments are initially measured
using the index or the rate at the commencement date. The entity does not forecast
future changes in the index/rate (other than floating interest rates) on the
commencement date. Consequently, the lessee shall only remeasure the lease liability
to reflect such revised lease payments when there is a change in the cash flows (i.e.
when the lease payments actually change).
Example 9.14: Reassessment of a lease liability

Assume the same facts as example 9.13 except for the following additional information:
The carrying amount of the lease liability on 31 December 20.27 is R13 226 865
(R14 769 504 – R727 660 – R814 979), and the right-of-use asset is R12 223 604
(R15 279 504 – R1 527 950 – R1 527 950).
On 1 January 20.28 (after two years since the commencement of the lease), Peglarea Ltd
estimated that the amount payable under the residual value guarantee decreased to
R1 000 000 (and not R2 000 000 any longer).
Remeasurement of the lease liability:
PMT = R2 500 000
N = 8 (remaining term of the lease)
I = 12% (unchanged discount rate)
FV = R1 000 000 (revised estimate)
PV = ? (R12 822 983)
The lease liability of R13 226 865 should now be adjusted to R12 822 983 to reflect the
reassessment (change in accounting estimate), and the liability is reduced by the difference
of R403 882. Following this adjustment, the interest expense for 20.28 and thereafter will
be based on the revised liability.
The contra-account for the reassessment of the lease liability is the right-of-use asset. The
revised carrying amount of the right-of-use asset with now be R11 819 722 (R12 223 604 –
R403 882). Following this adjustment, the depreciation expense for 20.28 and thereafter
will be based on the revised carrying amount of the right-of-use asset.
Peglarea Ltd will process the following journals for the year ended 31 December 20.28:
Dr Cr
R R
Journal entries:
1 January 20.28
Remeasurement of the lease liability
(R12 822 983 – R13 226 865)
31 December 20.28
Bank (SFP) 2 500 000
Payment of instalment (AMORT 1 – using new calc)
Depreciation (P/L) (SFP) 1 477 465
Accumulated depreciation: right-of-use asset: office 1 477 465
building (SFP)
((R12 223 604 – R403 882)/8 years)
Comment:
¾ A change in the amount payable under a residual value guarantee is a change in estimate.
The disclosure requirements per IAS 8 Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting
Estimates and Errors are also applicable.
Leases 265
6.7 Presentation: lessee

A lessee shall present or disclose right-of-use assets separately from other assets and
lease liabilities separately from other liabilities, either in the statement of financial
position, or in the notes.
If a lessee does not present these items separately in the statement of financial position,
it shall disclose which line items in the statement of financial position include each of them.
Right-of-use assets not presented separately in the statement of financial position shall be
included in the same line item within which the underlying assets would have been
presented, if they were owned by the lessee, for example, if the underlying asset would
have been classified as property, plant and equipment if it was owned (and not leased), the
lessee shall present the underlying asset within the property, plant and equipment line item
(unless the right-of-use asset is classified as an investment property).
Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
A lessee shall present the interest expense (on the lease liability) separately from the
depreciation charge (for the right-of-use asset) in the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income. Interest expense on the lease liability is a component of the finance
costs line item, which IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements requires to be presented
separately in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
Statement of cash flows
In the statement of cash flows, a lessee shall classify:
cash payments for the principal portion of the lease liability within financing activities;
cash payments for the interest portion of the lease liability applying the requirements in
IAS 7 Statement of Cash Flow for interest paid, meaning that such cash flows can either
be presented separately as cash flows from operating activities or cash flow from
financing activities, depending on the guidance of IAS 7; and
short-term lease payments, payments for leases of low-value assets and variable
lease payments not included in the measurement of the lease liability (e.g. contingent
rentals) within operating activities.
Furthermore, IAS 7.44A-D requires a reconciliation disclosing the movement of cash and
non-cash changes in liabilities arising from financing activities.
6.8 Disclosure: lessee

The objective of the disclosure requirements for lessees is to disclose information that will
give a basis for users of financial statements to assess the effect that leases have on the
financial position (SFP), financial performance (P/L) and cash flows of the lessee. To meet
this objective, the lessee should also consider, amongst others, whether additional
information needs to be disclosed. In making this assessment, the lessee shall consider
whether such disclosures would be relevant to users of its financial statements; for
example, would additional disclosure help users to better understand the flexibility provided
by leases, the restrictions imposed by leases, and the exposure to other risks arising from
leases.
IFRS 16 further requires a lessee to disclose information about its leases in a single note
or separate section in its financial statements. However, a lessee is not required to duplicate
information that is already presented elsewhere in the financial statements, provided that
the information is cross-referenced to the single lease note or separate lease section.
The lessee shall disclose the following amounts in a tabular format (unless another format is
more appropriate):
the depreciation charge for right-of-use assets by class of underlying asset;
the interest expense on lease liabilities;
the expense for short-term leases where the recognition exemptions were elected (refer
to 6.1.3);
the expense for low-value asset leases where the recognition exemptions were elected
(refer to 6.1.3);
the expense relating to variable lease payments not included in the measurement of
lease liabilities, for example, contingent rentals;
income from subleasing right-of-use assets;
total cash outflow for leases (i.e. the sum of all the different “activities” included in the
statement of cash flows);
additions to right-of-use assets;
the carrying amount of right-of-use assets at the end of the reporting period by class of
underlying asset.
IFRS 16 does not require the separate disclosure of the cost and accumulated depreciation
of right-of-use assets. If a lessee measures right-of-use assets at revalued amounts
(applying IAS 16), the lessee shall disclose the information related to revalued assets
required by IAS 16 for such revalued right-of-use assets.
In addition to the above, a lessee shall also disclose a maturity analysis of its lease
liabilities in terms of IFRS 7 Financial Instruments: Disclosures separately from the maturity
analyses of other financial liabilities. IFRS 7.39 and .B11 do not prescribe specific time
bands to be presented for the maturity analysis. An entity should use its judgement to
determine the appropriate time bands to be disclosed.
The following example illustrates some of the basic quantitative IFRS 16 disclosures.
Comparatives, although required by IAS 1, are not illustrated. This example also assumes
that the lessee elected to present right-of-use assets separately from other assets in the
statement of financial position, meaning that it does not provide cross-references to other
asset notes.
Example 9.15: Disclosure of leases – lessee

Refer to the information in Example 9.13 above.
1. Leases
1.1 Right-of-use assets: Office building Total
R R
Carrying amount at the start of the period 0 xx xxx
Additions (including initial costs capitalised) 15 279 504 xx xxx
Depreciation (1 527 950) (xx xxx)
Adjustments for lease reassessments xx xxx xx xxx
Adjustments for lease modifications xx xxx xx xxx
Total xx xxx xx xxx
Leases 267
Example 9.15: Disclosure of leases – lessee (continued)

1.2 Lease liability:
20.26
R
Opening balance –
New leases entered into 15 269 504
Deposits paid (500 000)
Repayment of capital (727 660)
Adjustments for lease reassessments xx xxx
Adjustments for lease modifications xx xxx
Closing balance 14 041 844
Long-term portion presented under non-current liabilities 13 226 865
Short-term portion presented under current liabilities (amort 2) 814 979
Comment:
¾ IAS 1 requires the presentation of the non-current and current portions or the lease liability. A
principal amount of R814 979 is due to be paid within 12 months after the reporting date (see
IAS 1.69(c)) and is classified as a current liability.
Maturity analysis of lease payments to be paid at the reporting date:
20.26
R
Future lease payments (undiscounted) (based on Peglarea Ltd’s judgement
of appropriate time bands)
– For 20.27 2 500 000
– For 20.28 2 500 000
– For 20.29 2 500 000
– For 20.30 2 500 000
– For 20.31 2 500 000
– Remaining years ((2 500 000 x 4 years) + 2 000 000 (FV)) 12 000 000
Total future lease payments 24 500 000
Total future finance costs* (amort 2 – 10) (10 458 156)
Lease liability* 14 041 844
* Please note: Strictly speaking, this information is not necessarily required by IFRS 16, but
is shown here so that the subtotals reflect the amounts presented on the face of the
1.3 Potential future lease payments relating to periods following the exercise date of
extension/termination options are summarised below:
Lease Payable during Payable Total
liabilities 20.xx–20.xx during
recognised 20.xx
(discounted) (undiscounted)
R R R R
Business segment xx xxx xx xxx xx xxx xx xxx
Brand A xxx xxx Xxx xxx
Brand B xx xxx xx xxx xx xxx xx xxx
Total xx xxx xx xxx xx xxx xx xxx
Example 9.15: Disclosure of leases – lessee (continued)

1.4 Income and expenses related to leases
R
Income
Income from subleasing right-of-use assets xxx xxx
Gain from sale and leaseback xxx xxx
Expenses
Depreciation of right-of-use assets (note 1.1) 1 527 950
Variable lease payments xx xxx
Short-term lease expense – recognition exemption xx xxx
Low-value lease expense – recognition exemption xx xxx
Peglarea Ltd elected the recognition exemption on short-term leases of office equipment
and low-value leases of office furniture.
1.5 Total cash outflows relating to leases
R
Presented under financing activities
Cash payments for the principal portion of lease liabilities 727 660
Presented under operating activities
Cash payments for the interest portion of lease liabilities 1 772 340
Cash payments for short-term leases xx xxx
Cash payments for low-value leases xx xxx
Cash payments for variable lease payments xx xxx
Total cash outflow relating to leases xxx xxx
2. Finance costs
R
Finance cost on financial liabilities xx xxx
Finance cost on lease liabilities 1 772 340
Other finance costs xx xxx
Borrowing cost capitalised (xx xxx)
Finance costs recognised in profit or loss xxx xxx
Borrowing cost has been capitalised to qualifying assets using a capitalisation rate of x,xx% p.a.
The portfolio of short-term leases to which Peglarea Ltd is committed at the end of
31 December 20.26 is similar to the portfolio of short-term leases expenses recognised
during the year.
IFRS 16 also refers to “additional qualitative and quantitative information” about an

entity’s leasing activities necessary to meet the disclosure objective of IFRS 16, which
should be included in this note. This would include, but is not limited to, the following:
the nature of the lessee’s leasing activities;
future cash outflows to which the lessee is potentially exposed that are not reflected in
the measurement of lease liabilities, for example,
exposure arising from variable lease payments (IFRS 16.B49), extension and termination
options (IFRS 16.B50), residual value guarantees (IFRS 16.B51), and leases not yet
commenced but to which the lessee is already committed;
restrictions imposed by leases; and
sale and leaseback transactions.
The IFRS 16 references provided in brackets above provide additional information that the
lessee needs to disclose to satisfy the disclosure objective of this Standard.
Leases 269
7 Lessor
IFRS 16 defines a lessor as an entity that provides the right to use an underlying asset for a
period of time in exchange for consideration. A lessor shall classify each of its leases as
either an operating lease or a finance lease.
A finance lease is a lease which, in effect, transfers substantially all the risks and
rewards incidental to ownership of an underlying asset, from the lessor to the lessee.
An operating lease is a lease that does not transfer substantially all the risks and rewards
incidental to ownership of an underlying asset from the lessor to the lessee. The lessee of
this type of lease does not take on the owner’s responsibility with respect to the asset. The
lessee generally uses the asset over a shorter period than the economic life of the asset, so
there could be a number of lessees during the economic life of the asset.
7.1 Classification of leases

Lease classification is made at the inception date. This classification depends on the
substance of the transaction rather than the legal form of the contract. As noted
above, a lease is classified as a finance lease if it transfers substantially all the risks and
rewards incidental to ownership of an underlying asset, while an operating lease is a lease
that does not transfer substantially all the risks and rewards incidental to ownership of an
underlying asset. Risks include the possibilities of losses from variations in return because
of changing economic conditions and losses from technical obsolescence or idle capacity.
Rewards may be represented by the expectation of profitable operations through the use
of the underlying asset over its economic life and of gain from an increase in value or
realisation of a residual value of the asset.
The following are examples of situations that individually or in combination would
normally lead to a lease being classified as a finance lease (IFRS 16.63):
the lease transfers ownership of the underlying asset to the lessee at the end of the
lease term;
the lessee has the option to purchase the underlying asset at a price that is expected to
be sufficiently lower than the fair value at the date the option becomes exercisable; for it
to be reasonably certain, at the inception date, that the option will be exercised;
the lease term is for the major part of the economic life of the underlying asset, even if
the title is not transferred;
at the inception date, the present value of the lease payments amounts to at least
substantially all of the fair value of the underlying asset; and
the underlying asset is of such a specialised nature that only the lessee can use it
without major modifications.
The following indicators of situations could, individually, or in combination, also lead to a
lease being classified as a finance lease (IFRS 16.64):
if the lessee can cancel the lease, the lessor’s losses associated with the cancellation are
borne by the lessee;
gains or losses from the fluctuation in the fair value of the residual accrue to the lessee
(e.g. in the form of a rent rebate equalling most of the sales proceeds at the end of the
lease); and
the lessee has the ability to continue the lease for a secondary period at a rent that is
substantially lower than market rent.
Lease classification is only reassessed if there is a lease modification. Changes in estimates,

for example, a change in the residual value estimate of an underlying asset or changes in
circumstances (for example, default by the lessee), will not give rise to a new lease
classification.
The most important differences between operating leases and finance leases can be
summarised as follows:
Area of difference Operating lease Finance lease
Payments Not directly related to cost Recover the cost and interest
Term Usually shorter than economic life Approximates economic life
Renewal Negotiable Usually a nominal purchase option
Cancellation Negotiable Usually not cancellable
Ownership With the lessor Usually transfers at the end of the
lease term to the lessee
Maintenance Usually borne by the lessor Usually borne by the lessee
Example 9.16: Finance lease and operating lease

Finance lease
The acquisition of a vehicle may, for instance, be financed by way of a finance lease
agreement. The essence of the agreement is that the lessee assumes all risks incidental to
ownership as he/she is responsible for the maintenance and upkeep of the vehicle. The
lessee expects profits from utilising the vehicle over most of its useful life and/or by realising
the residual value for its own account. The finance lease agreement is merely a way of
financing the vehicle by paying a number of instalments over a period of time. At the end of
the lease term, legal ownership is transferred to the lessee, or the lease may be extended at
a nominal rental.
The terms of a lease agreement stipulate, for example, that the initial lease period would be
five years and the lease payments for this period amount to R6 000 per month. Thereafter,
nominal lease payments of R100 per year for a further three years are required. The
economic life of the vehicle and the useful life to the lessee is the same, i.e. eight years. This
kind of agreement is referred to as a finance lease.
Operating lease
The scenario above may be contrasted to the situation where a motor vehicle is hired for a
short period, say a few days, for instance, from one of the motor vehicle hiring companies
that are usually situated at airports. The purpose of such a transaction is not to acquire
effective ownership of the vehicle but merely to make use of it for a limited period. Over the
economic life of the vehicle, a number of different users are expected to utilise the vehicle in
the same way. This kind of agreement is referred to as an operating lease agreement.
Where substantially all the risks and rewards incidental to ownership of an asset have
been transferred from the lessor to the lessee, the agreement is classified as a finance
lease. If this is not the case, the agreement is classified as an operating lease.
Leases 271
Example 9.17: Classification as finance or operating lease

Chelsea Ltd (lessor) leased a manufacturing machine to Zoe Ltd (lessee). The fair value of
the machine is R125 000 on the signing of the lease agreement.
The lease agreement contained the following clauses:
Zoe Ltd would pay Chelsea Ltd 20 six-monthly instalments of R10 000 each. During this
period, Zoe Ltd will be responsible for the maintenance and repair of the machine.
Ownership of the machine will not be transferred to Zoe Ltd at the end of the lease period.
Example 9.17: Classification as finance or operating lease (continued)

The nature of the machine is such that only Zoe Ltd can use it without making substantial
adjustments to the machine.
The expected life of the machine at the inception of the lease is 10 years.
A loan with a similar term to acquire a similar asset will bear interest at a nominal rate of
10% per annum.
In terms of IFRS 16, it should be determined whether substantially all the risks and rewards
incidental to ownership of the underlying asset are transferred to the lessee to determine if
the lease agreement should be classified as an operating or a finance lease in the records of
the lessor.
Although ownership of the asset does not transfer to the lessee at the end of the lease, the
following examples of situations, both individually or in combination, would normally lead to
the lease being classified as a finance lease:
The lease term of 10 years equals the expected life of the asset.
The asset is of a specialised nature and can only be used by Zoe Ltd.
The present value of the minimum lease payment at commencement of the lease is
R124 622 (PV if PMT = 10 000, N = 20, I = 10% (2 P/YR), FV = 0). This is very close to the
fair value of R125 000 at the commencement date.
Zoe Ltd also carries the risk of repairs and maintenance of the asset.
Based on the above, the lease agreement must be treated as a finance lease by the lessor
for accounting purposes in terms of IFRS 16.61 to .63.
Comment:
¾ Judgement may often be needed in the classification of a lease as an operating or
finance lease, for example, what portion may represent the “major” part of the economic
life, etc. Also, note that management should disclose, along with its significant
accounting policies or other notes, the judgements it has made in the process of applying
the entity’s accounting policies and that have the most significant effect on the amounts
recognised in the financial statements (IAS 1.122-123).
7.2 Finance lease versus operating lease: land and buildings

Leasing of land and buildings requires a lessor to assess how the land and building elements
are to be classified, based on the criteria contained in IFRS 16.62 to .66 and .B53 to .B54.
In determining whether the land element is an operating or finance lease, the fact that land
normally has an indefinite economic life is an important consideration.
If the ownership of both the land and building elements is expected to be transferred to
the lessee at the end of the lease term, each of these elements would be classified as a
finance lease. Where a lease of land and buildings is, for instance, for a 20-year period, and
ownership is not transferred to the lessee at the end of the lease term, the land would
normally be classified as an operating lease (substantially all the risks and rewards
incidental to ownership of an asset have not been transferred) and the buildings may be
classified as a finance lease (substantially all the risks and rewards incidental to ownership
of an asset may have been transferred) in the records of the lessor. The lessor shall then
allocate lease payments (including any lump-sum upfront payments) between the land and
building elements in proportion to the relative fair values of the leasehold interests in
the land element and building element of the lease at the inception date. Note that the
allocation is done with reference to the fair value of the leasehold interests (and not the fair
value of the actual property).
If this allocation cannot be reliably done, the lease will be classified as a finance lease,
unless it is clear that both elements are operating leases, in which case the entire lease is
classified as an operating lease.
If the amount allocated to the land element is immaterial, then the lessor may treat the
land and buildings as if they were a single unit for the purpose of lease classification and
classify that lease as either an operating lease or finance lease, applying the criteria for the
classification of leases contained in IFRS 16. In these situations, the economic life of the
buildings will be deemed to be the economic life of the entire underlying asset.
Example 9.18: Land and buildings – finance and operating lease

Build Ltd (lessor) leases land and buildings on the first day of its financial year, for a period
of 25 years, to Landon Ltd (lessee) at an annual rental of R200 000 (payable at the
beginning of each year). Ownership of the land and buildings will not be transferred to the
lessee at the end of the lease term. The carrying amount of the building is R800 000 (cost
R1 000 000), and the carrying amount of the land is R210 000.
The buildings have an economic life of 27 years, and since the lease term is a major part of
the economic life of the buildings, the lease of the buildings will be classified as a finance
lease (substantially all the risks and rewards incidental to ownership of the building is
transferred from the lessor to the lessee; the lessor would in substance recognise a sale of
the building).
The land, on the other hand, has an indefinite economic life, resulting in its classification as
an operating lease (substantially all the risks and rewards incidental to ownership of the land
are not transferred from the lessor to the lessee; the lessor would retain the ownership of
the land).
At the inception date, the relative fair value of the leasehold interest in the land is
R288 000, and that of the buildings is R864 000. Assume an interest rate implicit in the
lease of 10% for the finance lease.
The lease is allocated as follows:
Lease, with PMT
of R200 000
Land (25%) Buildings (75%)

(operating lease) (finance lease)
PMT = R50 000 PMT = R150 000
The annual rental of R200 000 needs to be allocated between the land and buildings based
on the relative fair value of their respective leasehold interests. As a result, R50 000
(288 000/(288 000 + 864 000) × 200 000) is allocated to the land and R150 000
(864 000/(864 000 + 288 000) × 200 000) to the buildings.
Leases 273
Example 9.18: Land and buildings – finance and operating lease (continued)
The following journal entries illustrate the accounting treatment of the above lease of the
land and buildings in the records of Build Ltd for the year in which the transaction occurred:
Dr Cr
Building component (finance lease) R R
Initial recognition:
Gross investment in finance lease (SFP) 3 750 000
Unearned finance income (SFP) 2 252 288
Profit on sale of asset (P/L) (1 497 712 – 800 000) 697 712
Building – cost (SFP) 1 000 000
Initial recognition of building component as a finance lease
Bank (SFP) 150 000
Gross investment in finance lease (SFP) 150 000
First payment received for finance lease component
Calculate the gross investment
150 000 × 25 = 3 750 000
Calculate the net investment
PMT = 150 000, N = 25, I = 10%, FV = 0, thus PV =
1 497 712
Calculate the unearned finance income
3 750 000 – 1 497 712 = 2 252 288
Land component (operating lease)
Bank (SFP) 50 000
Income received in advance (SFP) 50 000
First payment received for operating lease component
Accounting treatment at the end of the year:
Building component (finance lease)
Unearned finance income (SFP) 134 771
Finance income (P/L) 134 771
((1 497 712 – 150 000) × 10%) (or amort 2)
Interest accrued on the net investment in the lease for the
first year
Land component (operating lease)
Operating lease income (P/L) 50 000
Recognition of operating lease income for the first year
Comments:
¾ The recognition and measurement principles for operating leases and finance leases are
discussed in more detail in the sections to follow.
7.3 Finance lease: recognition and measurement

7.3.1 Gross investment versus net investment
Finance leases are accounted for according to the net investment method by the
lessor, which means that the assets held under a finance lease are presented as receivables
equal to the net investments in the leases.
At the commencement date, the lessor shall recognise its net investment in the leases.
The net investment in the lease is defined as the gross investment in the lease
discounted at the interest rate implicit in the lease, resulting in the present value of
the gross investment. This method aims to allocate the finance income earned by the lessor
on a systematic and rational basis over the lease term.
The gross investment in the lease is the sum of all amounts receivable in terms of the
lease agreement:
the lease payments receivable by a lessor under a finance lease; and
any unguaranteed residual value accruing to the lessor.
The difference between the gross investment and net investment in the lease is the
unearned finance income.
The lessor under a finance lease can either be the financier (whereby the lessor would first
obtain the underlying asset and then lease it to the lessee) or the current owner of the
underlying asset. The journal entries for the lessor would be as follows:
the lessor acts as a financier and first obtains the machine (cost of R100 000*) that is
then leased to a lessee under a finance lease agreement (with the gross investment
amounting to R120 000 and the unearned finance income of R20 000):
Dr Machine – cost (SFP) R100 000

Cr Bank (SFP) R100 000
Dr Gross investment in finance lease (SFP) R120 000
Cr Unearned finance income (SFP) R20 000
Cr Machine – cost (SFP) R100 000
* assumed amounts are used for the illustration
the lessor currently owns a machine (cost of R150 000 and accumulated depreciation
of R65 000) that is now leased to a lessee under a finance lease agreement (with the
gross investment amounting to R120 000 and the unearned finance income of R20 000):
Dr Gross investment in finance lease (SFP) R120 000

Cr Unearned finance income (SFP) R20 000
Cr Machine – cost (SFP) R150 000
Dr Accumulated depreciation (SFP) R65 000
Cr Profit on sale of an asset (P/L) R15 000
Leases 275
7.3.2 Initial measurement

At the commencement date, the lessor shall use the interest rate implicit in the lease
(refer to section 6.3.2) to measure the net investment in the lease. Where a lessor incurs
initial direct costs, such as legal costs and commissions in negotiating and arranging a
finance lease, the costs are included in the initial measurement of the net investment in the
lease. The lease payments included in the measurement of the net investment in the
lease at the commencement date comprise the following payments for the right to use the
underlying asset during the lease term that are not received at this date:
fixed payments (including in-substance fixed payments), less any lease incentives
payable;
variable lease payments that depend on an index or a rate, for example, CPI or linked to
JIBAR, initially measured using the index or rate as at the commencement date;
any residual value guarantees provided to the lessor by the lessee, a party related to the
lessee or a third party unrelated to the lessor that is financially capable of discharging
the obligations under the guarantee;
the exercise price of a purchase option if the lessee is reasonably certain to exercise that
option; and
payments of penalties for terminating the lease, if the lease term reflects the lessee
exercising an option to terminate the lease.
Example 9.19: Accounting treatment of initial direct cost for a finance lease by a
lessor
On 1 January 20.23, Delta Ltd leased a machine with a cost of R100 000, which is equal to
the fair value, from Lessoco Ltd for a period of three years. There is no guaranteed or
unguaranteed residual value. The annual lease payment is R40 211, receivable by the
lessor in arrears. Initial direct costs incurred by the lessor, Lessoco Ltd, amounted to
R5 000.
Taking the principle set out in IFRS 16.69 into account, it should be clear that the interest
rate implicit in the lease is the discount rate that would cause the present value of three
future lease payments (R40 211 each) and the unguaranteed residual value (Rnil), to be
equal to the sum of the fair value of the leased asset (R100 000) and any initial direct costs
of the lessor (R5 000). Based on the information above, the implicit interest rate is:
(PV = – (100 000 + 5 000); N = 3; PMT = 40 211; FV = O; comp I = 7,274%)
Using this interest rate, it can be established that the unearned finance income on the
transaction is the following:
R
Gross investment (R40 211 × 3) 120 633
Net investment (N = 3; I = 7,274%; PMT = 40 211; FV = 0; comp PV = ) (105 000)
Unearned finance income (SFP) (amort 1-3) 15 633
Journal entries to account for the lease in the books of Lessoco Ltd at initial recognition:
Dr Cr
R R
Gross investment in the lease (SFP) 120 633
Machine (SFP) 100 000
Bank (SFP) (initial direct costs) 5 000
Initial recognition of the finance lease
7.3.3 Subsequent measurement

After initial recognition, the lessor should recognise finance income on a systematic basis
reflecting a constant periodic rate of return on the lessor’s net investment in the lease. The
lessor should allocate the lease payments against the gross investment in the lease. This
implies that the net investment is measured on the amortised cost model, using the
effective interest method (similar to the default measurement of debt instruments under
IFRS 9).
Example 9.20: Finance lease by lessors

A financier lessor entered into a finance lease agreement for equipment on the following
terms:
The lease term of the finance lease is five years from 1 January 20.23, with equal
instalments of R25 982 payable at the beginning of each year. Each payment includes an
amount of R2 000 for maintenance costs. There are no guaranteed or unguaranteed
residual values.
The cost of the equipment is R100 000 with an estimated useful life of five years and no
residual value.
No initial direct costs were incurred by the lessor.
The interest rate implicit in the lease is 10% per annum.
(B
BGN; PV = –100 000; N = 5; PMT = 23 982 (25 982 – 2 000); FV = 0; Comp I)
Calculate the gross investment
(R25 982 – R2 000 maintenance, not being a lease payment) × 5 = R119 910 (no
guaranteed or unguaranteed residual value)
Calculate the net investment
The present value of the annual instalment of R23 982 (payable in advance) at 10% per
annum over five years is R100 000, and this represents the net investment.
Calculate the unearned finance income
The unearned finance income is the difference between the gross investment of R119 910
and the net investment of R100 000 and is equal to R19 910.
Amortisation table
Date Instalment Cost Interest, 10 % Capital Balance
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
R R R R R
1 January 20.23 100 000
1 January 20.23 25 982 2 000 – 23 982 76 018
1 January 20.24 25 982 2 000 7 602 16 380 59 638
1 January 20.25 25 982 2 000 5 964 18 018 41 620
1 January 20.26 25 982 2 000 4 162 19 820 21 800
1 January 20.27 25 982 2 000 2 182 21 800 –
129 910 10 000 19 910 100 000
(a) Annual lease payment resulting in a return of 10% on the net investment.
(b) Cost of maintenance / other services included in lease payments to be removed.
(c) 10% on the prior balance in (e) except for 1 January 20.23. On 1 January 20.23, no
interest has accrued, and the instalment represents only a capital redemption.
(d) (a) minus (b) and (c) = capital redemption on instalment.
(e) The prior balance less (d).
Leases 277
Example 9.20: Finance lease by lessors (continued)

Dr Cr
R R
Journal entries by the lessor will be as follows:
1 January 20.23
Equipment (SFP) 100 000
Initial recognition of finance lease
Bank (SFP) 25 982
Recognition of first payment received for finance lease
31 December 20.23
Finance income earned (P/L) (amort 2) 7 602
Recognition of interest accrued for the first year
Maintenance costs recovered (P/L) 2 000
Recognition of maintenance income for the first year
1 January 20.24
Bank (SFP) 25 982
Recognition of first payment received for finance lease
The above process will be repeated for the accounting treatment for the remaining payments
to be received under the finance lease.
Comments:
¾ As an alternative to the first journal entry for the initial recognition of the finance lease, an
entity may recognise only the ‘net investment in the lease’ at the present value of R100 000
(instead of the gross investment and unearned finance income).
Journal entries by the lessee will be as follows:

Dr Cr
R R
1 January 20.23
Finance lease liability (SFP) 100 000
Initial recognition of lease
Prepaid expenses (SFP) 2 000
Bank (SFP) 25 982
Recognition of first payment made in advance
31 December 20.23
Finance charges (P/L) (amort 2) 7 602
Finance charges accrued (SFP) 7 602
Recognition of interest accrued for the first year
Example 9.20: Finance lease by lessors (continued)

Dr Cr
R R
Maintenance expenses (P/L) 2 000
Recognition of the maintenance expense for the year
Depreciation (P/L) (100 000/5) 20 000
Recognition of depreciation on the right-of-use asset
1 January 20.24
Finance charges accrued (SFP) (amort 2) 7 602
Bank (SFP) 25 982
Recognition of second payment made in advance
The above process will be repeated for the accounting treatment for the remaining payments
to be made under the lease agreement.
Timeline for payments

PMT 1 Interest accrues for PMT 2 Interest accrues for
(a) the first year (b) (c) the second year
(a) PMT 1 is received on day 1 of year 1. No interest has accrued yet, and the payment
received reduces the capital outstanding.
(b) Interest accrues on a time basis, and the interest for year 1 needs to be recognised as an
accrual (the payment/receipt of such interest will only occur at the beginning of the next
year, i.e. with PMT 2). The interest amount is calculated using ‘amort 2’ on the financial
calculator, as the calculator works on when the payment is made/received and not on
which financial year it relates to.
(c) PMT 2 is received on day 1 of year 2. This lease payment effectively pays the interest that
accrued during the first year to the lessor. The balance of the payment received reduces
the capital outstanding.
Example 9.21: Finance lease with different year ends and payment dates
Charlie Ltd (lessor) leases an asset with a carrying amount of R220 000 (cost of R310 000
and accumulated depreciation of R90 000) to Alpha Ltd in terms of a lease agreement that
is classified as a finance lease for accounting purposes. Charlie Ltd has a 30 June year-end.
The terms of the lease agreement are as follows:
The agreement was signed by both parties on 1 January 20.23, and Alpha Ltd started using
the asset on this date.
Alpha Ltd will make seven instalments of R50 000, payable annually in arrears on
31 December, to Charlie Ltd. (The cash selling price of the asset on 1 January 20.23 is
R250 000, which is also equal to the fair value thereof).
There are no guaranteed or unguaranteed residual values.
No initial direct costs were incurred by the lessor.
Assume that the terms of the agreement are market-related.
Leases 279
Example 9.21: Finance lease with different year ends and payment dates (continued)
The accounting treatment for Charlie Ltd (lessor) is as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
Initial recognition on 1 January 20.23:
Gross investment in lease (SFP) (50 000 × 7) 350 000
Unearned finance income (SFP) (350 000 – 250 000) 100 000
Asset at cost (SFP) 310 000
Asset accumulated depreciation (SFP) 90 000
Profit on sale of asset (P/L) (250 000 – 220 000) 30 000
Initial recognition of the finance lease and derecognition of the
underlying asset being leased out
Comments:
¾ With a finance lease, substantially all the risks and rewards incidental to ownership of the
underlying asset are transferred from the lessor to the lessee. It implies that the asset was
‘sold’ to the lessee. Consequently, the lessor will derecognise the underlying asset and
recognise any profit or loss on the disposal of the asset as the difference between the
‘selling price’ and its carrying amount. The lessor now recognises the net investment (long-
term receivable) under the finance lease.
At year-end – 30 June 20.23:
Interest rate calculation:
PV = -250 000, PMT = 50 000, N = 7, P/YR = 1, FV = 0
Comp I = 9,1961%
Dr Cr
R R
Interest income (P/L) (250 000 × 9,19% × 6/12) 11 495
Recognition of interest accrued for the first six months
As the interest accrues on a time basis, the interest for the
six months between 1 January 20.23 and 30 June 20.23 is
recognised at year-end, i.e. 30 June 20.23. When the
unearned finance income account is reduced (debited) by
R11 495, the net investment in the lease (asset) increases
by R11 495, reflecting the accrued finance income.
Accounting treatment when the first payment is made on
31 December 20.23 (during the next financial year)::
Interest income (P/L) (250 000 × 9,19% × 6/12) 11 495
Recognition of interest accrued for the second six months
Interest income for the remaining six months
(1 July 20.23 to 31 December 20.23) is recognised on
31 December 20.23.
Bank (SFP) 50 000
Gross investment in lease (SFP) 50 000
Recognition of lease payment received
The above process is repeated for the accounting treatment of the remainder of the six
instalments.
7.3.4 Impairment of the net investment in the lease

A lessor shall apply section 5.5 of IFRS 9 Financial Instruments to account for impairments
on its net investment in the lease (IFRS 16.77). A lessor may choose as its accounting policy
to measure the loss allowance on its net investment in the lease (i.e. the lease receivable)
at an amount equal to lifetime expected credit losses (the simplified approach).
7.3.5 Disclosure: lessor
The following disclosures, in addition to the disclosure requirements of IFRS 7 Financial
Instruments: Disclosure, will give a basis for users of financial statements to assess the
effect that finance leases will have on the financial position (SFP), financial performance
(P/L), and cash flows of the lessor:
any selling profit or loss, finance income on the net investment in the lease, and
lease income relating to variable lease payments not included in the measurement of
the lease receivable, in a tabular format unless another format is more appropriate;
qualitative and quantitative information to help users of financial statements assess the
nature of the lessor’s leasing activities and how the lessor manages the risk associated
with any rights it retains in underlying assets;
qualitative and quantitative explanations of the significant changes in the carrying
amount of the net investment in the lease;
a maturity analysis of lease payments receivable, showing the undiscounted lease
payments to be received on an annual basis for a minimum of each of the first five years
and a total of the amounts for the remaining years; and
a reconciliation of the undiscounted lease payments to the net investment in the lease,
identifying the unearned finance income relating to the lease payments receivable and
any discounted unguaranteed residual value.
Example 9.22: Disclosure of a finance lease: lessor

Some of the quantitative IFRS 16 disclosures in the records of the lessor are illustrated
below. This example only shows the current year’s information. Comparative amounts
required by IAS 1 are not illustrated.
The reporting date of Cloud Ltd is 31 December 20.26. Cloud Ltd is a lessor and entered
into the following finance lease agreement for equipment leased to Sunny Ltd:
The lease term of the finance lease is eight years from 1 January 20.26, with equal, fixed
annual instalments of R30 000 payable at the end of each year.
Cloud Ltd did not incur any initial direct cost.
The fair value of the equipment on 1 January 20.26 was R183 610. The carrying amount of
the equipment in the records of Cloud Ltd on 1 January 20.61 was R150 000.
Cloud Ltd expects to sell the equipment at the end of the lease term for R35 000
(unguaranteed residual value).
The interest rate implicit in the lease is 9% per annum.
Amortisation table
Date Instalment Interest Capital Balance
R R R R
183 610
20.26 30 000 16 525 13 475 170 135
20.27 30 000 15 312 14 688 155 447
20.28 30 000 13 990 16 010 139 437
20.29 30 000 12 549 17 451 121 986
20.30 30 000 10 979 19 021 102 965
20.31 30 000 9 267 20 733 82 232
20.32 30 000 7 401 22 599 59 633
20.33 30 000 5 367 24 633 35 000
91 390 148 610
Leases 281
Example 9.22: Disclosure of a finance lease: lessor (continued)

1. Finance income: R
Finance income on net investment in finance leases 16 525
2. Profit before tax:
Profit before tax is disclosed after the impact of the following, amongst others,
has been taken into account:
Finance lease income (also refer to note 1) R
Profit on the sale of assets when finance leased (183 610 – 150 000) 33 610
Income from variable lease payments xx xxx
3. Reconciliation of net investment in finance leases: R
Opening balance —
New finance leases entered into 183 610
Repayments of capital (13 475)
Interest accrued 16 525
Payment received (30 000)
Effect of lease modification –
Closing balance 170 135
Long-term portion presented under non-current assets (refer to IAS 1) 155 447
Short-term portion presented under current assets (refer to IAS 1) 14 688
The company’s main leasing activities include the following:
(company-specific details)
The company manages the risks associated with its leasing activities by
doing a thorough credit check of customers and by retaining ownership to
protect future cash inflows.
4. Maturity analysis of finance lease payments to be received at the reporting date:
Gross *Unearned *Net
investment in finance income investment in
the lease the lease
(undiscounted) (discounted)
R R R
20.27 (Year 1) 30 000 (15 312) 14 688
20.28 (Year 2) 30 000 (13 990) 16 010
20.29 (Year 3) 30 000 (12 549) 17 451
20.30 (Year 4) 30 000 (10 979) 19 021
20.31 (Year 5) 30 000 (9 267) 20 733
After 20.31 (remaining years),
including an unguaranteed
95 000 (12 768) 82 232
residual value
((30 000 × 2) + 35 000)
Total 245 000 (74 865) 170 135
Included in the net investment in the analysis above is the discounted unguaranteed
residual value to the amount of R19 146 (FV = 35 000, N = 7, I = 9%).
Example 9.22: Disclosure of a finance lease: lessor (continued)

* Please note: IFRS 16 is not prescriptive about whether the reconciliation of the
undiscounted lease payments to the net investment should be done on an annual basis
for a minimum of each of the first five years and a total. The maturity analysis of the
finance lease payments may also be presented as follows:
4. Maturity analysis of finance lease payments to be received at the reporting R
date:
20.27 (Year 1) 30 000
20.28 (Year 2) 30 000
20.29 (Year 3) 30 000
20.30 (Year 4) 30 000
20.31 (Year 5) 30 000
After 20.31 (remaining years), excluding the unguaranteed residual value 60 000
(30 000 × 2)
Total undiscounted lease payments 210 000
Unearned finance income in respect of lease payments only
((30 000 × 7) – PV of R150 989 (PMT = 30 000, FV = 0, N =7, I =9%) (59 011)
Discounted unguaranteed residual value (FV = 35 000, N = 7, I = 9%) 19 146
Net investment in the lease 170 135
7.4 Operating leases

7.4.1 Recognition and measurement
The asset subject to an operating lease is treated by the lessor as either a

depreciable asset (for example, property, plant and equipment) or a non-depreciable asset
(for example, investment property), depending on the nature of the asset.
Lease income is recognised as income over the lease term on a straight-line basis, even if
the cash is not received evenly, unless another systematic allocation basis is more
representative of the pattern in which benefit from the use of the underlying asset is
diminished.
Costs, including depreciation, incurred to generate the lease income are recognised as
expenses. The depreciation policy for depreciable leased assets will be consistent with the
lessor’s normal depreciation policy for the type of asset subject to the lease.
The initial direct costs incurred by lessors in negotiating and arranging an operating lease
shall be added to the carrying amount of the leased asset and be recognised over the lease
term on the same basis as lease income. This treatment is similar to the ‘component
approach’ for depreciation on items of property, plant and equipment where the useful life
of the components differ.
Leases 283
Example 9.23: Operating lease, initial direct cost and the lessor
Init Ltd acquired equipment at a cost of R600 000 and leased it to Tial Ltd for a period of
five years under an operating lease. The equipment has a useful life of 15 years and no
residual value. The initial direct costs incurred by Init Ltd in arranging the lease amounted to
R12 000.
The amount of R12 000 must be capitalised to the cost of the equipment, leading to a
depreciable amount of R612 000. Of the total of R612 000, R600 000 must be depreciated
over 15 years at R40 000 per annum, while the remainder of R12 000 must be expensed
over five years at R2 400 per annum. The annual depreciation expense in the first five years
will therefore be R42 400 per year; thereafter, it will reduce to R40 000 per year.
Lease income (the net amount after deducting any lease incentives paid by the lessor)
should be recognised on a straight-line basis over the lease term (including any rent-free
periods). If lease payments are not spread evenly over the lease term, they should be
equalised. Where the straight-line basis is used and cash flows are not equal, the difference
between the cash flows and the income recognised in the statement of profit or loss and
other comprehensive income will end up in the statement of financial position as an
accrued income or income received in advance. In terms of SAICAs Circular 2/2020
Recognition of lease income and expense on a basis other than the straight line basis under
IFRS 16 – Leases, the use of ‘another systematic basis’ is expected to be rare.
Example 9.24: Equalisation of lease instalments

The following information is available in respect of an operating lease agreement. The cash
price of a machine is R70 000. The lease term is from 1 January 20.23 to 31 December
20.25. The monthly lease payment is R2 500 for the first 24 months, and thereafter R250
per month for the remaining 12 months. The operating lease will be accounted for as
follows:
Equalisation of operating lease payments [ (2 500 × 24) + (250 × 12) ] y 36 = R1 750 p.m.
R
Annual rental received in advance from 1 January 20.23 to 31 December
20.24:
Lease income (on the straight-line basis) for 12 months (1 750 × 12) 21 000
Actual amount received (2 500 × 12) 30 000
Rental received in advance per annum (for the first two years) 9 000
R
Shortfall 1 January 20.25 to 31 December 20.25:
Lease income (on the straight-line basis) for 12 months (1 750 × 12) 21 000
Actual amount received (250 × 12) 3 000
Shortfall (for the third year) 18 000
Example 9.24: Equalisation of lease instalments (continued)

The journal entries will be as follows: Dr Cr
R R
20.23:
Bank (SFP) 30 000
Recognition of operating lease income and payment received
20.24:
Bank (SFP) 30 000
20.25:
Bank (SFP) 3 000
7.4.2 Presentation and disclosure: operating leases

A lessor shall present underlying assets subject to operating leases in its statement of
financial position according to the nature of the underlying asset (as property, plant and
equipment under IAS 16, or as an investment property under IAS 40). The definition of
property, plant and equipment includes tangible assets that are held for rentals to others.
Property that is rented out would be classified as an investment property. The definition of
investment property includes property held to earn rentals (i.e. rented out under operating
leases).
The following disclosures will give a basis for users of financial statements to assess the
effect that operating leases will have on the financial position (SFP), financial performance
(P/L), and cash flows of the lessor:
lease income, separately disclosing income relating to variable lease payments that do
not depend on an index or rate, in tabular format, unless another format is more
appropriate;
qualitative and quantitative information to help users of financial statements assess the
nature of the lessor’s leasing activities and how the lessor manages the risk associated
with any rights it retains in underlying assets;
the disclosure requirements in respect of specific leased assets in the books of the
lessor, arising from IAS 16, IAS 36, IAS 38, IAS 40 and IAS 41 (depending on the nature
of the underlying asset). If the underlying asset is thus, for example, property, plant and
equipment subject to an operating lease, it is required of the lessor to disaggregate each
class of property, plant and equipment into assets subject to operating leases and assets
not subject to operating leases and provide IAS 16 disclosures separately for each
group; and
a maturity analysis of lease payments, showing the undiscounted lease payments to
be received on an annual basis for a minimum of each of the first five years and a total
of the amounts for the remaining years.
Leases 285
Example 9.25: Disclosure of operating lease

Some of the quantitative IFRS 16 disclosures in the records of the lessor are illustrated
below. This example only shows the current year’s information. Comparative amounts
required by IAS 1 are not illustrated.
Profit before tax is disclosed after the impact of the following, amongst others, has been
taken into account:
Operating lease income (1):: R
Straight-line lease income:
Investment property xxx xxx
Other underlying assets xx xxx
Income from variable lease payments that do not depend on an index:
Machinery xxx xxx
Other underlying assets xx xxx
2. Operating lease agreements
The undiscounted (2) lease payments expected to be received under operating lease agreements
at the reporting date are as follows:
R
Year 1 x xxx
Year 2 x xxx
Year 3 x xxx
Year 4 x xxx
Year 5 x xxx
After Year 5 (remaining years) x xxx
Total xx xxx
The company’s main leasing activities include the following:
(company-specific detail)
The company manages the risks associated with its leasing activities as follows:
(company-specific detail)
(1) These amounts must be the equalised (straight-lined) income amounts.
(2) These amounts must be the actual cash amounts receivable and not the equalised
expense amounts disclosed in the ‘Profit before tax’ note.
8 Short and sweet
IFRS 16 sets out the principles for the accounting treatment of leases.
Identify a “lease” if the contract conveys the right to use an asset for a period of time in
exchange for consideration.
Separate components of a contract and separately account for the lease component.
Lessee:
Single accounting model. Lessee should recognise a right-of-use asset (with
depreciation) and a lease liability (with interest/finance costs).
Initial direct costs are capitalised to the right-of-use asset.
Exemptions: short-term leases and leases for which the underlying asset is of low value.
Lessor:
Dual accounting model. Leases are classified as a finance lease or an operating lease.
Finance lease: recognise a net investment in the lease and account for interest on the
receivable.
Operating lease: recognise lease income on a straight-line basis.
10
Revenue from contracts with customers
IFRS 15
Contents
2 Background................................................................................................... 288
3 Schematic representation of IFRS 15 .............................................................. 289
4 Scope ........................................................................................................... 289
5 Five-step revenue model ............................................................................... 289
5.1 Identify the contract (Step 1) ............................................................... 290
5.2 Identify the performance obligations (Step 2) ........................................ 292
5.3 Determine the transaction price (Step 3) ............................................... 295
5.4 Allocate the transaction price to the performance obligations (Step 4) ..... 300
5.5 Recognise revenue (Step 5) ................................................................. 302
6 Contract costs ............................................................................................... 304
6.1 Costs to obtain a contract .................................................................... 304
6.2 Costs to fulfil a contract ....................................................................... 304
6.3 Amortisation and impairment................................................................ 305
7 Application guidance (Appendix B to the Standard) .......................................... 305
8 Presentation.................................................................................................. 307
8.1 Trade receivables ................................................................................ 307
8.2 Contract assets.................................................................................... 307
8.3 Contract liabilities ................................................................................ 307
9 Disclosure ..................................................................................................... 309
9.1 Contracts with customers ..................................................................... 309
9.2 Significant judgements and changes in the judgements .......................... 309
9.3 Assets recognised from the costs to obtain or fulfil a contract ................. 309
10 Short and sweet ............................................................................................ 310
Know and apply the definitions relevant to revenue.
Recognise revenue based on the five-step revenue model.
Calculate and recognise contract costs.
Present and disclose revenue in the financial statements.
287
2 Background
The objective of IFRS 15, Revenue from Contracts with Customers is to establish the
principles for reporting useful information about the nature, amount, timing and uncertainty
of revenue and cash flows arising from a contract with a customer.
The core principle of IFRS 15 is that an entity should recognise revenue to depict the
transfer of promised goods or services to customers at an amount that reflects the
consideration to which the entity expects to be entitled to in exchange for those goods or
services. IFRS 15 prescribes a five-step revenue model to establish the above principle.
IFRS 15, similar to the other IFRSs, is based on the Conceptual Framework for Financial
Reporting, 2010. The element of the Conceptual Framework which is applicable here, is
income. Different types of income exist, for example income from dividends, rent, interest
and even the profit on sale of an asset. This Standard relates to a specific type of income,
Revenue from Contracts with Customers, referring to revenue which is generated from the
entity’s main operating activities.
Income is an increase in economic benefits during the accounting period in the form
of inflows or enhancements of assets, or decreases of liabilities that result in an increase in
equity, other than those relating to contributions from equity participants.
The revised definition of Income, in the Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting
(2018) is: Income is increases in assets, or decreases in liabilities, that result in increases in
equity, other than those relating to contributions from holders of equity claims.
Revenue is income arising in the course of an entity’s ordinary activities.
Revenue from contracts with customers are disclosed as the first line-item on the face of
the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income. This Standard determines
when and how much revenue from contracts with customers should be recognised.
Revenue from contracts with customers 289
3 Schematic representation of IFRS 15
IFRS 15
Revenue from Contracts with Customers
Objective and Scope
Five-step revenue model

Identify the contract
Identify the performance obligation
Determine the transaction price
Allocate the transaction price to the performance obligations
Satisfy the performance obligations (recognise revenue)
Contract costs
Costs to obtain a contract
Costs to fulfil a contract
Amortisation and impairment
Presentation and disclosure
Appendices
Defined terms
Application guidance
Effective date, transition and amendments to other Standards
4 Scope
IFRS 15 only applies to revenue from contracts with customers. IFRS 15 does not apply to
the following contracts with customers:
Lease contracts (IFRS 16, Leases).
Insurance contracts (IFRS 4, Insurance Contracts).
Financial instruments and other contractual rights or obligations within the scope of
IFRS 9, Financial Instruments, IFRS 10, Consolidated Financial Statements, IFRS 11,
Joint Arrangements, IAS 27, Separate Financial Statements and IAS 28, Investments in
Associations and Joint Ventures.
Non-monetary exchanges between entities in the same line of business to facilitate sales
to customers or potential customers.
5 Five-step revenue model

An entity should apply the five-step revenue model to an individual contract with a
customer. An entity may apply the revenue model to a portfolio of contracts (or
performance obligations) with similar characteristics if the entity reasonably expects that the
result of doing so would not differ materially from the result of applying this revenue model
to the individual contracts (or performance obligations) within the portfolio.
Revenue is recognised and measured according to the following five steps as set out in
IFRS 15:
Single contract
Step 1 Identify the contract Combined contract
Contract modification
Distinct goods or services

Identify the performance
Step 2 A series of distinct goods or
obligations in the contract
services
Variable consideration
Time value of money
Step 3 Determine the transaction price Non-cash consideration
Consideration payable to
customers
Allocation based on
Allocate the transaction price to the stand-alone selling price
Step 4 performance obligations in the Allocate discounts
contract Allocate variable
consideration
Recognise revenue when (or as) Control

Step 5 the entity satisfies a performance Over a period of time
obligation At a point in time
Each step is discussed in more detail below.
5.1 Identify the contract (Step 1)

5.1.1 Contract criteria
The first step in the revenue model is to determine whether a contract with a customer
exists.
A contract is an agreement between two or more parties that creates enforceable

rights and obligations.
A customer is a party that has contracted with an entity to obtain goods or services
that are an output of the entity’s ordinary activities in exchange for consideration.
A contract with a customer can be written, oral or implied but must meet the following
criteria in order to be a contract within the scope of IFRS 15:
the parties have approved the contract and are committed to perform;
the entity can identify each party’s rights regarding the goods or services to be
transferred;
the entity can identify the payment terms of those goods or services to be transferred;
the contract has commercial substance (i.e. the risk, timing or amount of the entity’s
future cash flows is expected to change as a result of the contract); and
it is probable that the entity will collect the consideration.
If a contract with a customer does not meet the criteria above, any consideration
received by the entity in terms of such a contract is only recognised as income if one of the
following events has occurred:
the entity has no remaining obligation to transfer goods or services to the customer and
all consideration has been received and is non-refundable; or
the contract has been terminated and the consideration received is non-refundable.
If one of the two events above is also not applicable, then the entity recognises any
consideration received in terms of such a contract as a liability. A liability is recognised until
such time as the contract meets the criteria or one of the two events above have occurred.
The liability amount is equal to the amount of consideration received from the customer.
It is important to note that a contract does not exist if each party has the unilateral
enforceable right to terminate a wholly unperformed contract without compensation (i.e.
paying a penalty) to the other party. A unilateral enforceable right is one in which any one
party to the contact can terminate the contract without the consent of any of the other
parties to the contract. A contract is wholly unperformed when the entity has not yet
transferred goods or services to the customer and the entity has not yet received, and is not
yet entitled to receive, any consideration.
5.1.2 Combination of contracts

Each contract that meets the five criteria, as discussed above, is accounted for separately in
terms of IFRS 15. In certain instances, two or more contracts with the same customer
entered into at or near the same time, may be accounted for as a single contract.
The contracts have to meet one of the following in order to be accounted for as a single
contract:
the contracts are negotiated as a package with a single commercial objective;
the amount of consideration paid under one contract is dependent on the price or
performance under another contract; or
the goods or services promised under the contracts constitute a single performance
obligation.
5.1.3 Contract modification

Sometimes parties to a contract change the price or scope of the original contract. If such a
change is approved by both parties and the change creates new enforceable rights and
obligations, a contract modification in terms of IFRS 15 exists.
A contract modification may either be treated as a new and separate contract or as an
amendment to an existing contract. If the contract modification is treated as a separate
contract, the revenue recognition principles are applied to the separate contract that arose
from the modification, and the accounting of the existing contract (original contract) is not
affected.
A contract modification results in a new and separate contract if both the following
conditions are present:
scope: increases because of additional promised goods or services that are distinct;
and
price: increases by an amount of consideration that reflects the stand-alone selling
price of these goods and services, and any appropriate adjustments to that price to
reflect the circumstances of the contract.
Example 10.1: Contract modification resulting in a separate contract

On 1 January 20.22, Time Ltd enters into a contract with a customer to sell 100 wall clocks
to the customer over a period of six months. The transaction price for the 100 wall clocks
amounts to R150 000 (R1 500 per product). The wall clocks are transferred to the customer
at various points in time over a six-month period.
On 1 April 20.22, the contract with the customer is modified by both parties. Both parties
approved the modification on this date. On the date of the modification, Time Ltd had
already delivered 70 wall clocks to the customer. In terms of the modification agreement,
Time Ltd will deliver an additional 20 wall clocks for an additional consideration of R28 000
(R1 400 per product) over the remaining term of the contract. The pricing for the additional
wall clocks reflects the stand-alone selling price of the wall clocks at the time of the contract
modification. The additional wall clocks are distinct goods, as they are regularly sold
separately by Time Ltd.
Comments:
¾ The change to the original contract between Time Ltd and the customer is a contract
modification because the change was approved by both parties and the change created
new enforceable rights and obligations (the delivery of an additional 20 products).
¾ The contract modification results in a new and separate contract for the following
reasons:
the scope of the contract increased: the promised goods increased from 100 products to
120 products (these products are distinct)
the pricing of the contract increased: the additional products resulted in additional
consideration of R28 000 (the amount that reflects the stand-alone selling price of
additional goods).
¾ The modification does not affect the accounting of the existing contract to deliver the
remaining 30 products between 1 April 20.22 and 30 June 20.22. Consequently,
revenue of R45 000 (R1 500 × 30) is recognised by Time Ltd on delivery of the
remaining 30 wall clocks. Revenue of R28 000 (R1 400 × 20) is recognised by Time Ltd
from 1 April 20.22 on the delivery of the additional 20 wall clocks under the new and
separate agreement.
¾ Take note that changes in stand-alone selling prices of goods or services after contract
inception do not result in a change in the amount of revenue recognised.
If a contract modification does not result in a new and separate contract, an entity accounts
for it in one (or a combination) of the following ways:
A replacement of the original contract with a new contract (if the remaining goods or
services are distinct from those already transferred to the customer before the date of
the contract modification)
A continuation of the original contract (if the remaining goods or services under the
original contract are not distinct from those already transferred to the customer, and the
single performance obligation is, therefore, partially satisfied at modification date).
5.2 Identify the performance obligations (Step 2)

At inception of the contract, an entity shall assess the goods or services promised in the
contract, and shall identify the performance obligations.
A performance obligation is a promise, in a contract with a customer, to transfer to

the customer either:
a good or service (or bundle thereof) that is distinct; or
a series of distinct goods or services that are substantially the same and that have the same
pattern of transfer to the customer.
5.2.1 Distinct goods and services

A promise to deliver a good or service in terms of a contract, is a performance obligation
when the good or service is distinct. The term distinct means:
The customer can benefit from the good The entity’s promise to transfer the good
or service either on its own or together or service to the customer is separately
with other resources that are readily identifiable from other promises in the
available to the customer. and contract.
(The goods or services are capable of (The goods or services are distinct
being distinct) within the context of the contract)
A customer can benefit from a good or service if the good or service can be used,
consumed or sold in order to generate economic benefits for the customer. Sometimes
a customer can only use or consume a good or service in conjunction with other readily
available resources. A readily available resource is a good or service that is sold
separately by the entity or other entities or is a resource that the customer has already
obtained from the entity or from other transactions or events. If an entity regularly sells a
good or service separately, this would indicate that a customer can benefit from the good or
service on its own or with other readily available resources.
Factors that indicate that an entity’s promise is separately identifiable include:
The entity does not provide a significant service of integrating the good or service with
other goods or services promised in the contract into a bundle that represents the
combined output for which the customer has contracted.
The good or service does not significantly modify or customise another good or service
promised in the contract.
The good or service is not highly dependent on, or highly interrelated with, other goods
or services promised in the contract.
Example 10.2: Identifying separate performance obligations

Dream Motors Ltd enters into an agreement with customer A for the sale of a motor vehicle
along with a three-year service plan for a total of R500 000. Customers may also acquire a
motor vehicle without a service plan from Dream Motors Ltd. Dream Motors Ltd regularly
sells a three-year service plan to customers on a stand-alone basis.
Comments:
¾ Although Dream Motors Ltd is required to deliver a good (motor vehicle) and a service
(service plan) to the customer, only one contract with customer A exists. It is a single
contract since it was negotiated as a package with a single commercial objective.
¾ In order to identify the performance obligations in the contract with customer A, the entity
first has to determine if the good and service are distinct.
¾ Firstly, the motor vehicle, as well as the service contract, are regularly sold separately by
Dream Motors Ltd, and the customer can benefit from the good (motor vehicle) and
service (service plan) either on its own or with other resources readily available to the
customer.
¾ Secondly, the good (motor vehicle) and service (service plan) are separately identifiable in
the contract with customer A. The motor vehicle and service plan are not highly
interrelated or dependent on each other (each can be used and sold separately).
¾ Consequently, the delivery of the motor vehicle and the service plan are both distinct and
are two performance obligations within the contract with customer A.
5.2.2 Non-distinct good or service

If a good or service is not distinct it cannot be identified as a separate performance
obligation. A good or service that is not distinct should be combined with other goods or
services until the entity identifies a bundle of goods or services that are distinct.
Example 10.3: Non-distinct good or service

Comp Ltd sells licensed accounting software to customer B for a total consideration of
R40 000. In addition, Comp Ltd promises to provide consulting services to significantly
customise (modify) the software to the customer’s business environment.
Comments:
¾ The contract with the customer is single contract since the contract was negotiated as a
package with a single commercial objective.
¾ The contract requires Comp Ltd to provide a significant integration of goods and services
(software and consulting services). In addition, the software is significantly modified by
Comp Ltd in accordance with the specifications negotiated with the customer. Therefore,
the software is not distinct and the consultation services are also not distinct.
¾ Consequently Comp Ltd should account for the licensed software and consulting services
together as a bundle and as one performance obligation.
5.2.3 A series of distinct goods or services

A series of distinct goods or services that are substantially the same and that have the
same pattern of transfer to the customer is also a performance obligation.
A series of distinct goods or services has the same pattern of transfer to the customer if
both the following criteria are met:
each distinct good or service in the series that the entity promises to transfer to the
customer would meet the criteria to be a performance satisfied over time; and
the same method would be used to measure the entity’s progress toward complete
satisfaction of the performance obligation to transfer each distinct good or service in the
series to the customer.
The following diagram illustrates the process of identifying the performance obligations in a
contract:
Is only one good or service promised? One performance obligation exists

Yes
No
Multiple goods or services are promised
Is the individual good or

Can the customer benefit from an individual service separate from other
good or service on its own or with other promises in the contract?
resources?
Yes
No Yes
No
The individual good or service
Combine the goods or services until they are
is a separate performance
a distinct bundle
obligation.
5.3 Determine the transaction price (Step 3)
The transaction price is the amount of consideration to which an entity expects to be

entitled in exchange for transferring promised goods or services to a customer, excluding
amounts collected on behalf of third parties.
Determining the transaction price is straightforward in many transactions where the transaction
price is a fixed price. However, the transaction price might be more complex when an entity
has to consider other effects, such as:
variable consideration;
time value of money;
non-cash consideration; or
consideration payable to the customer.
5.3.1 Variable consideration
Variable consideration encompasses any amount that is variable under a contract. The amount
of consideration received under a contract can vary due to discounts, rebates, refunds,
credits, incentives, performance bonuses, penalties, contingencies, price concessions
(including concessions due to doubts about the collectability based on the customer’s credit
risk) and other similar items.
If the consideration of a contract is variable, then the entity has to estimate the amount
to which it will be entitled to after delivering the promised goods or services. An entity
estimates an amount of variable consideration by using either the expected value
(probability weighted method) or the most likely amount (single most likely amount in a
range), depending on whichever has the better predictive value. This estimate is however
limited to the extent that it is highly probable that its inclusion of this estimate in revenue
will not result in a significant revenue reversal in the future as result of a re-estimation.
Example 10.4: Variable consideration

On 20 April 20.22 Moon Ltd sold goods at a selling price of R200 000 (fair value) to a
customer on credit. In terms of Moon Ltd’s credit policy, a discount of 3% is granted to debtors,
provided they pay within 10 days after the date of sale. Based on historical information, the
entity estimates that the majority of its customers settle their accounts within 10 days after the
date of sale. The customer obtains control of the asset on 20 April 20.22. Assume that credit
losses (impairment losses) on the trade receivable were not expected at any stage.
The debtor actually does pay on 30 April 20.22 and consequently, the unfolding of the whole
transaction between 20 and 30 April 20.22 will be accounted for as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
20 April 20.22
Trade receivable (SFP) (Fair value per IFRS 9) 200 000
Revenue [(R200 000 – (R200 000 × 3%)] (P/L) 194 000
Allowance account for settlement discount (SFP) 6 000
Recording revenue based on the most likely amount
on 20 April 20.22
30 April 20.22
Bank (200 000 × 97%) (SFP) 194 000
Allowance account for settlement discount (SFP) 6 000
Trade receivable (SFP) 200 000
Consideration received within 10 days and the settlement
discount granted.
Example 10.4: Variable consideration (continued)

Comments:
¾ The transaction price should reflect the expected or most likely amount of the consideration.
¾ The most likely amount of consideration (i.e. the outcome with the highest probability),
based on historical information, is the transaction price, taking into account the 3%
settlement discount to be granted at settlement date.
¾ If the debt is settled late (i.e. after 30 April 20.22), the expected settlement discount will
not be granted. It is then written back against revenue. The total amount of the sales
invoice is therefore then recognised in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit
or loss and other comprehensive income as revenue (sales).
Variable considerations include that an entity shall recognise a refund liability if the entity
receives consideration from a customer and expects to refund a portion of, or all of, the
consideration to the customer. A refund liability is measured at the amount of consideration
received to which the entity does not expect to be entitled to. The refund liability shall be
updated at the end of each reporting period for changes in circumstances.
Example 10.5: Refund liability

Mars Ltd retrospectively reduces the price of goods sold by 2% for the year, when a
customer purchases more than 500 items during the year. During the first month, a
customer purchased 60 items at R1 500 per item. Based on historical experience with this
customer, Mars Ltd expects that the customer will purchase more than 500 items during the
year and will be entitled to the rebate at the end of the year.
The following journal entry will be prepared on date of sale of the 60 items:
Dr Cr
R R
Bank (SFP) (1 500 × 60) 90 000
Revenue (P/L) (1 500 × 60 × 98%) 88 200
Refund liability (SFP) (1 500 × 60 × 2%) 1 800
Recognise revenue at the amount the entity is expected to be
entitled to
5.3.2 The time value of money

In determining the transaction price, the entity has to adjust the amount of consideration
for the effects of the time value of money if the contract includes a significant financing
component. Revenue is therefore recognised at an amount that reflects the price that a
customer would have paid for the goods and services if the customer had paid cash when
the goods and services transfer to the customer. To this end, the entity has to discount the
promised consideration for the effect of the time value of money.
5.3.2.1 Determining if the financing component is significant
To determine if the financing component is significant, the entity considers several factors,
including both of the following:
the difference between the amount of promised consideration and the cash selling price;
and
the combined effect of:
– the expected length of time between when the entity transfers the goods or services
to the customer and when the customer pays for those goods or services; and
– the prevailing interest rates in the relevant market.
Example 10.6: Financing component

Sunshine Ltd sold goods to a customer for a total consideration of R121 000, payable 24
months after delivery. The customer obtained control of the products on delivery. The cash
selling price of the goods amounted to R100 000 and represents the amount that the
customer would pay upon delivery instead of over 24 months.
Comments:
¾ The contract includes a significant financing component. This is evident from the
difference between the amount of promised consideration of R121 000 and the cash
selling price of R100 000 on delivery of the goods. The difference amounts to R21 000
and represents a 10% implicit interest rate in the contract (i.e. the 10% interest rate
exactly discounts, over 24 months, the promised consideration of R121 000 to the cash
selling price of R100 000 on delivery date).
¾ Sunshine Ltd recognises:
Revenue of R100 000 on delivery,
Interest income of R21 000 over 24 months.
In the above example it is clear that a significant financing component exists because the
customer receives and obtains control of the goods but the payment of the consideration is
only due later (i.e. the length of time of time between the transfer of the goods and
payment of the consideration is significant). A financing component in a contract may also
exist in an opposite scenario than the one in the above example: a customer pays for the
goods upfront but the goods are transferred to the customer at a later point in time. In such
a case a contract liability (income received in advance liability) is recognised when
the consideration is received by the entity. The contract liability is adjusted over the period
with the interest expense (calculated using the implicit interest rate of the contract) until
the goods or services are transferred to the customer.
A contract will not have a significant financing component if, for example, the following
conditions exist:
The customer paid in advance and the timing of the transfer is at the discretion of the
customer.
A substantial amount of the consideration varies on the occurrence or non-occurrence of
a future event that is not within the control of the customer or entity.
Even though the contract has a significant financing component, it is not necessary to
separate the financing component if the period between transfer of the goods or services
and receipt of payment is expected to be less than one year.
5.3.2.2 Measuring and recognising the financing component
The discount rate to be used is the rate that would be reflected in a separate financing
transaction between the entity and the customer at contract inception. The discount rate
should reflect the customer’s credit risk. After the contract inception, the discount rate is
not adjusted for changes in interest rates or other circumstances.
The effects of financing (interest) are presented separately from revenue in the statement
of profit or loss and other comprehensive income. Interest is accrued from the date that the
entity recognised a contract asset (i.e. when the right to receive consideration is
recognised).
Example 10.7: The time value of money (in arrears and in advance)
In arrears
On 1 January 20.21, Brit Ltd sells a computer for R10 000 to a customer on credit, on the
condition that the amount must be paid on 31 December 20.22. Assume that the financing
component of this transaction is significant.
Brit Ltd’s incremental borrowing rate is 8% per annum. Brit Ltd determined that the discount
rate that reflects the customer’s credit risk is 12% per annum. Assume that credit losses
(impairment losses) on the trade receivable were not expected at any stage.
Comment:
¾ Since the financing component is significant, the consideration is adjusted for the time
value of money. The discount rate to be used is the rate that reflects the customer’s
credit risk i.e. 12% per annum.
FV = 10 000
n=2
i = 12
PV = ? = 7 971,94 rounded to 7 972
R
Revenue (adjusted for the time value of money component) 7 972
Finance income over 24 months (R10 000 – R7 972) 2 028
Total selling price 10 000
Dr Cr
R R
1 January 20.21
Trade receivable (SFP) (Fair value per IFRS 9) 7 972
Revenue (P/L) 7 972
Recognise revenue on the date that control is transferred
31 December 20.21
Trade receivable (SFP) 957
Finance income (P/L) 957
Recognise finance income accrued on amount outstanding from
the date that right to consideration was recognised
31 December 20.22
Finance income (P/L) 1 071
Recognise finance income accrued on amount outstanding from
the date that right to consideration was recognised
Bank (SFP) 10 000
Recognise the consideration received in cash on the settlement
date
Comments:
¾ IFRS 9, Financial Instruments requires trade receivables to be initially measured at fair
value.
¾ Interest is recognised on the effective interest method.
Example 10.7: The time value of money (in arrears and in advance) (continued)
In advance
On 1 January 20.21 Brit Ltd received payment of R7 972 from a customer (regular cash
selling price), on the condition that Brit Ltd must deliver the product to the customer on
31 December 20.22. Assume that the financing component of this transaction is significant.
The market-related interest rate is 12%.
Calculation
n=2
i = 12
PV = 7 972
FV = ? = 10 000
Dr Cr
R R
1 January 20.21
Bank (SFP) 7 972
Contract liability (SFP) 7 972
Recognise the amount received and recognise a contract
liability, as there is a current obligation either to pay the money
back or to deliver the product
31 December 20.21
Finance costs (P/L) 957
Contract liability (SFP) 957
Recognise finance cost accrued on amount received in advance
from the date that the contract liability was recognised
31 December 20.22
Finance costs (P/L) 1 071
Recognise finance cost accrued on amount received in advance
from the date that the contract liability was recognised
Revenue (P/L) 10 000
Recognise revenue on date that control is transferred
5.3.3 Non-cash consideration

If the consideration received by the entity is not in cash, then the entity measures the non-
cash consideration at fair value (IFRS 13, Fair Value Measurement). If the entity cannot
reasonably estimate the fair value of the non-cash consideration, it measures the
considerations indirectly by reference to the stand-alone selling price of the goods or
services promised to the customer.
Example 10.8: Non-cash consideration

On 1 April 20.22 a customer purchases a plant from Oak Ltd for a stand-alone selling price
of R8 000 000. The customer agreed with Oak Ltd that, instead of paying for the plant in
cash, the customer will transfer a property it owns to Oak Ltd. The property therefore serves
as consideration for the purchase of the plant. The fair value of the property on 1 April 20.22
is R8 400 000.
Example 10.8: Non-cash consideration (continued)

Comments:
¾ If the criteria for recognising revenue on 1 April 20.22 are met, then Oak Ltd will
recognise revenue for the sale of plant at an amount of R8 400 000 (fair value).
¾ Instead of a debit to cash/bank, the debit will be to property in the statement of financial
position of Oak Ltd.
5.3.4 Consideration payable to a customer

Consideration payable to a customer is the amounts that an entity pays to a customer in the
form of cash, credit or other items (such as coupons or vouchers) that the customer can
apply against amounts owed to the entity. In determining how to account for the
consideration payable it first has to be determined whether the consideration payable is for
the purchase of distinct goods or service from the customer.
Is the consideration payable for a distinct good or service?
Yes No
In this case the entity’s customer is also a In this case the consideration receivable
supplier to the entity. The consideration from the customer is reduced by the
payable to the customer for goods or consideration payable to the customer.
services is therefore accounted for as a Therefore the revenue recognised from
purchase from a supplier. the sale to the customer is reduced by the
consideration payable to the customer.
The revenue is recognised at the amount The reduction of revenue is recognised at

of consideration from the customer that the latter of when the entity recognises
the entity is entitled to in terms of revenue for the transfer of goods, or the
IFRS 15. entity pays or promises to pay the
consideration.
5.4 Allocate the transaction price to the performance obligations (Step 4)

5.4.1 Allocating the transaction price
At the inception of a contract with a customer, the entity allocates the transaction price to
the performance obligations as identified in Step 2. The allocation of the transaction price is
based on the stand-alone selling prices of the underlying goods or services and depicts
the amount of consideration to which the entity expects to be entitled in exchange for
satisfying each performance obligation.
A stand-alone selling price is the price at which an entity would sell a promised good
or service separately to a customer.
The best evidence of a stand-alone selling price is the observable price of goods or services
when the entity sells those goods or services separately in similar circumstances and to
similar customers. If the stand-alone selling prices are not directly observable, then the
entity needs to estimate them based on suitable estimation methods (for example expected
cost plus relevant profit margin).
Example 10.9: Allocation of transaction price

Dream Motors Ltd enters into an agreement with customer A for the sale of a motor vehicle
along with a three-year service plan for a total of R500 000. Customers may also acquire a
motor vehicle without a service plan from Dream Motors Ltd a stand-alone selling price of
R460 000. Dream Motors Ltd regularly sells a three-year service plan to customers at a
stand-alone selling price of R50 000.
Comments:
¾ As discussed in Example 10.2, Dream Motors Ltd has two performance obligations (the
delivery of a motor vehicle and the delivery of a service plan) which are accounted for
separately for revenue purposes.
¾ The total consideration from customer A of R500 000 is allocated to the two separate
performance obligations based on the best estimate of the stand-alone selling prices.
Allocation of transaction price

Stand- Allocation of
alone selling Ratio transaction
price price
R % R
Motor vehicle 460 000 90,20** 450 980^^
Three-year service plan 50 000 9,80 49 020
Total 510 000 100 500 000
* 460 000/510 000 × 100
^ 500 000 × 90,20%
Comment:
¾ Revenue is recognised for these two performance obligations when the performance
obligations are satisfied.
The transaction price can be amended after inception of a contract. In such a case an entity
allocates the transaction price change to the performance obligations on the same basis as
at contract inception. A change in revenue is not recognised for changes in stand-alone
selling prices of goods or services after contract inception.
5.4.2 Allocating a discount

A customer receives a discount when the sum of the stand-alone selling prices of the
promised goods or services in the contract exceeds the transaction price. A discount given
to a customer is allocated proportionately to all performance obligations on a relative stand-
alone selling price basis.
In certain cases an entity may allocate a discount only to some performance obligations
in the contract if all of the following criteria are met:
the entity regularly sells each distinct good or service (or each bundle of goods or
services) in the contract on a stand-alone basis;
the entity regularly sells, on a stand-alone basis, a bundle of some of those distinct
goods or services at a discount to the stand-alone selling price of the goods or services
in each bundle;
the discount ascribed to each bundle is substantially the same as the discount in the
contract; and
an analysis of the goods or services in each bundle provides observable evidence of the
performance obligation to which the entire discount in the contract belongs.
5.4.3 Allocating variable consideration

Variable consideration promised in a contract may be attributable to the entire contract, or
to a specific part of a contract. If variable consideration promised in a contract relates to:
the entire contract, then the variable consideration is allocated to all the performance
obligations in a contract based on the stand-alone selling prices of the promised goods
or services in the contract.
a part of a contract, then the variable consideration is allocated to those specific
performance obligations based on their stand-alone selling prices.
5.5 Recognise revenue (Step 5)

An entity recognises revenue when the entity satisfies a performance obligation. A
performance obligation is satisfied when the entity transfers the promised goods or services
to a customer thereby giving the customer control of that asset.
By definition, a customer obtains control of the asset when:
the customer has the ability to direct the use of the asset; and
the customer has the ability to receive substantially all the remaining benefits from the
asset.
A performance obligation can be satisfied at a point in time or over a period of time.
IFRS 15 requires the entity to determine at contract inception firstly if the performance
obligation is satisfied over time. If this is not the case, it is assumed that the performance
obligation is satisfied at a point in time.
5.5.1 Performance obligation satisfied over time
A performance obligation is satisfied over time if one of the following criteria is met:
the customer simultaneously receives and consumes the benefits as the entity performs;
the entity’s performance creates or enhances an asset that the customer controls as the
asset is created or enhanced; or
the entity’s performance does not create an asset with an alternative use to the entity,
and the entity has an enforceable right to payment for performance completed to date.
Once it is determined that the performance obligation is indeed satisfied over time, the
entity recognises revenue over time based on the measure of the progress towards
complete satisfaction of that performance obligation. In order to determine the measure of
progress, the entity should apply a single method for each performance obligation and this
should be applied consistently to similar performance obligations and in similar
circumstances. The method to determine the measure of progress can be either the input
method or the output method.
Revenue recognition is based on the goods or
services produced up to date.
Output method This method considers the results of appraisals,
milestones reached or units produced.
Measure of
progress
Revenue recognition is based upon the entity’s

efforts or inputs.
Input method This method considers the resources consumed,
labour hours expended, costs incurred or time
lapsed.
As circumstances change over time, an entity shall update its measure of progress to
depict the entity’s performance completed to date. Such changes shall be accounted for as
a change in accounting estimate in accordance with IAS 8, Accounting Policies, Changes in
Accounting Estimates and Errors.
In some circumstances, for instance in the early stages of a contract, the entity is unable
to reasonably measure the outcome of a performance obligation, but the entity expects to
recover the costs incurred in satisfying the performance obligation. The revenue recognised
is therefore limited to the costs incurred until such time that the outcome can be measured.
Example 10.10: Measure of progress

Comp Ltd entered into the following contracts during the year ended 30 June 20.22:
Contract 1:
Comp Ltd entered into a contract with a customer on 1 July 20.21 to develop a software
program for the customer. The development of the software is a single performance
obligation. The transaction price of the contract is R500 000. The programmer sends
monthly reports on the progress of the software development to management. On
30 June 20.22 the evaluation report indicated that the software was 20% complete. Assume
that the performance obligation is satisfied over time.
Comment:
Comp Ltd uses an output method, based on the evaluation report, to determine the measure
of progress of the performance. The measure of progress is 20% based on the evaluation
report. Therefore the revenue recognised by Comp Ltd for the year ended 30 June 20.22
amounts to R100 000 (R500 000 × 20%).
Contract 2:
Comp Ltd entered into a contract with a customer on 1 July 20.21 to develop a software
obligation. The transaction price of the contract is R500 000. The programmer does not
provide any monthly reports on the progress of the software development to management.
Comp Ltd determines that the total cost of the development of the software amounts to
R300 000. On 30 June 20.22 the actual costs spent to date on the software development
amounted to R45 000.
Comment:
Comp Ltd uses an input method, based on the costs incurred, to determine the measure of
progress of the performance. The measure of progress is 15% (45 000/300 000) based on
the costs incurred. Therefore the revenue recognised by Comp Ltd for the year ended
30 June 20.22 amounts to R75 000 (R500 000 × 15%).
Contract 3:
Comp Ltd entered into a contract with a customer on 25 June 20.22 to develop a software
obligation. The transaction price of the contract is R500 000. On 30 June 20.22 the
outcome of the contract was uncertain and the recoverable costs spent to date amounted to
R15 000.
Comment:
Since the outcome of the performance obligation cannot be determined, the income
recognised should be limited to the recoverable costs incurred. Consequently, revenue of
R15 000 is recognised by Comp Ltd for the year ended 30 June 20.22, an amount equal to
the recoverable costs and no profit is recognised.
5.5.2 Performance obligations satisfied at a point in time

If an entity does not satisfy a performance obligation over time, it consequently satisfies the
performance obligation at a point in time. The point in time when a performance obligation
is satisfied by the entity, is the point in time that the customer obtains control of the asset
in terms of the two requirements illustrated above, i.e. the customer has the ability to
direct the use of the asset and has the ability to receive the benefit from the asset. In
addition, an entity also considers the following indicators that control transferred to the
customer:
The customer has a present obligation to pay for the asset.
The customer has accepted the asset.
The customer has significant risks and rewards of ownership of the asset.
The customer has physical possession of the asset.
The customer has legal title to the asset.
Example 10.11: Transfer of control

Dream Motors Ltd enters into a contract to sell a luxury motor vehicle to a customer. The
delivery terms of the contract are free on board shipping point (i.e. legal title to the motor
vehicle passes to the customer when the motor vehicle is handed over to the carrier).
Comment:
¾ The customer obtains control of the motor vehicle at the point of shipment. Although it
does not have physical possession of the motor vehicle at that point, it has legal title to
the motor vehicle.
6 Contract costs
An entity can incur costs in order to obtain a contract and/or to fulfil a contract. The
accounting treatment of such costs is discussed in more detail below:
6.1 Costs to obtain a contract

Costs to obtain a contract may include costs such as marketing costs, legal costs and sales
commission paid. These costs can be recognised as an asset if:
the costs are incremental to obtaining the contract with a customer; and
the entity expects to recover those costs.
The incremental costs of obtaining a contract are those costs that it would not have
incurred if the contract had not been obtained (for example, payment of sales commission).
The costs capitalised as an asset is amortised on a systematic basis (refer to 6.3 below).
As a practical expedient, an entity may recognise the costs of obtaining a contract as an
expense when incurred if the amortisation period of the asset is one year or less.
6.2 Costs to fulfil a contract

If the costs incurred to fulfil a contract with a customer are in the scope of another
Standard, such as IAS 2, Inventories, an entity accounts for those costs in accordance with
that Standard. If the costs incurred to fulfil a contract with a customer are not in the scope
of another Standard, then IFRS 15 allows those costs to be recognised as an asset when:
the costs are directly related to a contract (or a specific anticipated contract);
the costs generate or enhance resources of the entity that will be used in satisfying
the performance obligations; and
the costs are expected to be recovered.
Direct costs include direct labour, direct raw material and costs directly related or
chargeable to the contract. The following costs cannot be recognised as an asset in terms of
IFRS 15 and should be treated as an expense:
general and administrative costs (unless these costs are explicitly chargeable to the
customer under the contract);
costs of wasted material, labour or other resources;
costs that relate to satisfied or partially satisfied performance obligations (i.e. costs that
relate to past performance); and
costs for which the entity cannot distinguish whether the costs relate to unsatisfied
performance obligations or satisfied performance obligations or partially satisfied
performance obligations.
6.3 Amortisation and impairment

If an entity recognises an asset for contract costs, the asset is amortised on a systematic
basis, consistent with the pattern of transfer to the customer of the goods or services to
which the asset relates.
An entity shall update the amortisation to reflect a significant change in the entity’s
expected timing of transfer to the customer of the related goods or services. Such a change
shall be accounted for as a change in estimate in accordance with IAS 8, Accounting
Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors.
An asset recognised for contract costs is also tested for impairment in terms of IAS 36,
Impairment of Assets.
Example 10.12: Contract costs

On 1 January 20.22, Comp Ltd enters into a five-year contract to provide outsource services
for a customer’s information technology data. Comp Ltd incurs selling commission costs of
R20 000 to obtain the contract with the customer. Before providing the services, the entity
designs and builds a technology platform that interfaces with the customer’s systems. The
initial costs incurred to set up the technology platform are as follows:
R
Hardware costs 220 000
Software costs 40 000
Comments:
¾ The R20 000 selling commission paid by Comp Ltd is an incremental cost of obtaining
the contract, and is recognised as an asset in terms of IFRS 15 since it cannot be
capitalised in terms of another IFRS. The asset is amortised on a systematic basis over
the term of the contract (five years).
¾ The initial set-up costs of the technology platform relate primarily to activities to fulfil the
contract but do not transfer goods or services to the customer.
¾ The initial set-up costs of the technology platform are in the scope of other IFRSs and are
accounted for in accordance with the other IFRSs:
• Hardware costs – accounted for in accordance with IAS 16, Property, Plant and
Equipment.
• Software costs – accounted for in accordance with IAS 38, Intangible Assets.
7 Application guidance (Appendix B to the Standard)

The Appendix to the Standard includes the revenue recognition criteria for certain specific
transactions. Not all of these transactions are discussed in this chapter, as the Appendix
provides detailed discussions and examples of these transactions. Examples of these

transactions include (however are not limited to):
sale with a right of return;
warranties;
principal versus agent considerations;
repurchase arrangements;
consignment arrangements;
bill-and-hold arrangements.
Sale with a right of return

With a sale with a right of return, the entity does not recognise revenue for the portion
expected to be returned; instead the entity recognises a refund liability (refer to section
5.3.1) together with an asset representing items expected to be returned. The asset
represents the entity’s right to recover the goods from customers on settling the refund
liability. The asset is measured by reference to the former carrying amount of the goods
less any expected costs to recover those items. The asset is presented separately from the
refund liability (offsetting is not permitted).
Example 10.13: Sale with a right of return

On 1 January 20.22, Turbo Ltd sells 100 identical vacuum cleaners to different customers.
The sales price for a single vacuum is R1 000 and the cost price per vacuum cleaner is
R600. Customers have the right to return the vacuum cleaners, for a full refund for a period
of 30 days from the original purchase date. Revenue is recognised at the point at which the
customer purchases a vacuum cleaner. Based on historical experience and future
expectations, it is estimated that approximately three vacuum cleaners will be returned.
The following journal entry will be prepared on 1 January 20.22:
Dr Cr
R R
Cost of sales (P/L) (600 x 100) 60 000
Recognise cost of sales for the inventories sold
Bank (SFP) (1 000 × 100) 100 000
Revenue (P/L) (1 000 × 97) 97 000
Refund liability (SFP) (1 000 × 3) 3 000
Recognise revenue at the amount the entity is expected to be
entitled to
Inventories (SFP) – sale with right of return (600 × 3) 1 800
Recognise asset in relation to sale with a right of return
Comments:
¾ The right of return gives rise to a variable consideration.
¾ The amount and quality of available evidence indicates that it is highly probable that there
will not be a significant reversal of revenue if the entity recognises revenue attributable to
the 97 vacuum cleaners which it does not expect to be returned.
¾ The accounting effect is that no revenue is recognised for the three vacuum cleaners
expected to be returned. The view taken is that control over these vacuum cleaners have
not passed to the customers, because these goods are expected to be returned to the
entity.
¾ In the event that the retailer concludes that the returned vacuum cleaners will either not
be capable of being sold to other customers, or will be sold for an amount below their
original cost price, an adjustment will be made to profit or loss for the write down of the
related asset.
Warranties
It is common for an entity to provide a warranty in connection with the sale of a product.
The Standard distinguishes between two types of warranties:
Warranties that provide customers with the assurance that the product will function as
intended because it complies with agreed-upon specifications. These warranties are
accounted for in terms of IAS 37, Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent
Assets, refer to chapter 14.
Warranties that provide the customers with a service in addition to the assurance that
the product complies with agreed-upon specifications. These “additional services” are
accounted for as a performance obligation and allocated a portion of the transaction
price in accordance with this Standard.
8 Presentation
IFRS 15 provides guidance on the presentation of the following revenue related items in the
statement of financial position:
8.1 Trade receivables

A trade receivable is an entity’s unconditional right to consideration that arises when the
entity transfers goods or services to a customer but the customer’s payment of the
consideration is still outstanding. No conditions are therefore attached to the payment of
consideration to the entity.
A trade receivable is accounted for in terms of IFRS 9, Financial Instruments.
8.2 Contract assets

A contract asset is an entity’s right to consideration that arises when the entity transferred
goods or services to a customer but the customer’s payment of the consideration is still
outstanding and the entity’s right is conditional on something other than the passage of
time. In other words, the payment of consideration to the entity is dependent on the
occurrence of uncertain future events.
Contract assets are assessed for impairment in terms of IFRS 9, Financial Instruments.
8.3 Contract liabilities

A contract liability arises when a customer pays consideration to the entity before the entity
has transferred the goods or services to the customer. This is also referred to as “income
received in advance”. In this case, revenue is not recognised but instead the entity
recognises a contract liability until the goods or services are transferred to the customer.
The liability recognised therefore represents the entity’s obligation to deliver goods or
services in the future, or to repay the amount of consideration to the customer.
Example 10.14: Presentation

On 1 January 20.22, Brit Ltd sold computer X and computer Z on credit to a customer for
R200 000, on condition that computer X will be delivered first and the payment for
computer X will be made when computer Z is also delivered. Therefore, the consideration of
R200 000 is only payable to Brit Ltd when both computers are delivered to the customer.
On 31 March 20.22, Brit Ltd transferred computer X to the customer (the customer obtained
control of computer X on this date). On 30 April 20.22, Brit Ltd transferred computer Z to the
customer (the customer obtained control of computer Z on this date). At year-end
30 June 20.22, the consideration is still outstanding. Ignore the time value of money and
impairment. Assume that credit losses (impairment losses) on the trade receivable were not
expected at any stage.
The promise to transfer computer X and computer Z to the customer is separate
performance obligations. The transaction price of R200 000 is allocated to the computers
based on the following stand-alone selling prices:
Computer X: R120 000
Computer Z: R80 000
Comments:
¾ Revenue for computer X and computer Z is recognised when the computer is transferred
to the customer. Therefore, revenue of R120 000 is recognised on 31 March 20.22 for
computer X and revenue of R80 000 is recognised on 30 April 20.22 for computer Z.
¾ Based on the terms of the contract, Brit Ltd has a conditional right to consideration when
computer X is transferred to the customers. Therefore, on 31 March 20.22, a trade
receivable is not recognised for the outstanding consideration for computer X but a
contract asset is recognised. When the condition is met with the delivery of computer Z
on 30 April 20.22 to the customer, Brit Ltd has an unconditional right to consideration of
R200 000 for both computers and a trade receivable is consequently recognised.
Dr Cr
R R
31 March 20.22
Contract asset (SFP) (computer X) 120 000
Recognise a contract asset for conditional consideration
30 April 20.22
Trade receivables (SFP) (computer X) 120 000
Contract asset (SFP) 120 000
Recognise a trade receivable for unconditional consideration
and derecognise the contract asset for computer X
Trade receivables (SFP) (computer Z) 80 000
Revenue (P/L)
Recognise a trade receivable for unconditional consideration for 80 000
computer Z
9 Disclosure
The objective of the disclosure requirements is for an entity to disclose sufficient
information to enable users of financial statements to understand the nature, amount,
timing and uncertainty of revenue and cash flows arising from contracts with customers. To
achieve that objective, an entity shall disclose qualitative and quantitative information about
all of the following:
9.1 Contracts with customers

An entity discloses the following amounts for the reporting period, unless those amounts are
presented separately in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income in
accordance with other Standards:
revenue recognised from contracts with customers (separately disclosed); and
any impairment losses recognised on any receivables or contract assets.
In terms of contracts with customers, the entity also has to provide information about the
following:
disaggregation of revenue;
contract balances;
performance obligations;
transaction price allocated to remaining performance obligations.
9.2 Significant judgements and changes in the judgements

The entity discloses information regarding:
determining the timing of satisfying performance obligations; and
determining the transaction price and amounts allocated to performance obligations.
9.3 Assets recognised from the costs to obtain or fulfil a contract

The entity discloses information regarding the:
closing balance of such assets;
determining the amortisation method;
amount of amortisation and impairment; and
judgements used in determining those costs incurred.
10 Short and sweet
Five-step revenue model
Combination contract Contract costs

Account as a single contract when: Recognise an asset when:
entered into near the same time the cost is incremental to
with the same customer; and receiving the contract;
contracts have a single commercial the cost is not in the scope of
objective; or another IFRS; and
consideration depends on price of costs are directly related to the
other contract; or contract; and
THE CONTRACT
goods/services under contracts is costs generate resources that help
(STEP 1)
a single performance obligation. fulfil the performance obligations;
and
costs are recoverable.
Modification is a separate contract when:

the scope of goods/services which are distinct increases; and
the price increases and the consideration reflects stand-alone selling prices of
goods/services.
PERFORMANCE Performance obligations in a contract are accounted for separately when the
OBLIGATIONS goods/services are distinct:
(STEP 2) capable of being distinct; and
distinct within the context of the contract.
DETERMINE Consider the following to determine the transaction price:

TRANSACTION variable consideration (revenue = expected value or most likely amount);
PRICE (STEP 3) time value of money (reflect time value of money when significant financing
component exists);
non-cash consideration (recognised at fair value);
consideration payable (reduce revenue if payment is not for distinct goods or
services).
ALLOCATE Allocate transaction price to separate performance obligations based on

TRANSACTION stand-alone selling prices.
PRICE (STEP 4)
Allocate discount (sum of stand-alone selling prices > transaction price) to
all separate performance obligations.
Allocate variable consideration.
RECOGNISE Recognise revenue when the performance obligation is satisfied by

REVENUE transferring control of the asset to the customer.
(STEP 5) The performance obligation is satisfied at a point in time; or
Performance obligation is satisfied over time and revenue recognised by
measuring the progress towards completion when:
customer simultaneously receives and consumes the benefits provided by
the entity’s performance as the entity performs; or
the entity’s performance creates or enhances an asset that the customer
controls as the asset is created or enhanced; or
the entity’s performance does not create an asset with an alternative use
and the entity has an enforceable right to payment for performance
completed to date.
11
Employee benefits
IAS 19
Contents
3 Background................................................................................................... 312
4 Short-term employee benefits ........................................................................ 313
4.1 Recognition and measurement ............................................................. 314
4.2 Disclosure ........................................................................................... 324
5 Post-employment benefits .............................................................................. 324
5.1 Types of post-employment benefit plans ............................................... 324
5.2 Defined contribution plans.................................................................... 325
5.3 Defined benefit plans ........................................................................... 325
5.4 Classification of post-employment benefit plans ..................................... 326
5.5 Accounting for post-employment benefit plans ....................................... 326
6 Other long-term employee benefits ................................................................. 328
6.1 Recognition and measurement ............................................................. 328
6.2 Disclosure ........................................................................................... 329
7 Termination benefits ...................................................................................... 329
7.1 Recognition ......................................................................................... 329
7.2 Measurement ...................................................................................... 330
7.3 Disclosure ........................................................................................... 330
8 Short and sweet ............................................................................................ 333
Understand and apply the accounting terminology related to employee benefits in
practical situations.
Define and discuss the different categories of employee benefits.
Apply the recognition and measurement principles and account for the different
categories of employee benefits (with the main focus on short-term employee benefits).
Understand the difference between defined contribution plans and defined benefit plans.
Present and disclose employee benefits in the annual financial statements of an entity.
311
Objective
Prescribe the recognition, measurement and disclosure requirements of employee benefits.
The standard deals with employee benefits from the viewpoint of the employer.
Recognition
Accounting treatment is prescribed for each of the four categories of employee benefits.
(1) Short-term employee benefits

Employee benefits (other than termination benefits) that are expected to be settled wholly
before 12 months after the end of the annual reporting period in which the employees render
the related service.
Recognise the undiscounted amount of short-term employee benefits when the related service
has been rendered.
Recognise an expense together with an accrued expense (liability) after deducting any
amounts already paid.
Short-term compensated absences Profit sharing and bonus plans

Annual or other leave; Recognise an expense/accrued expense
Recognise an expense/accrued expense once service has been rendered; AND
once service has been rendered; entity has a legal/constructive obligation
Accumulating or non-accumulating; to make payment as a result of a past
Vesting or non-vesting benefits. event; AND
a reliable estimate of the obligation is
possible.
(2) Post-employment benefits

Employee benefits, which are payable after the completion of employment.
Two categories: defined contribution plans and defined benefit plans:
Defined contribution plans Defined benefit plans

Amount payable on retirement = Amount payable on retirement =
cumulative contributions to the fund determined using a formula based on
+ employees’ remuneration and/or years
investment earnings thereon. of service.
(3) Other long-term employee benefits

Employee benefits that are not expected to be settled wholly before 12 months after the end of
the annual reporting period in which the employees render the related service.
(4) Termination benefits

Employee benefits payable as a result of either an entity’s decision to terminate an employee’s
employment before retirement OR an employee’s decision to accept voluntary redundancy in
exchange for the benefits.
3 Background
Benefits provided in exchange for services rendered by employees whilst employed, as well as
benefits provided subsequent to employment, can take on many forms. Some employment
benefits even include benefits paid to either employees or their dependants.
Employee benefits 313
In terms of IAS 19, these employee benefits can be classified into the following main
categories:
short-term employee benefits;
post-employment benefits;
other long-term employee benefits; and
termination benefits.
Because each category of employee benefit identified in terms of IAS 19 has different
characteristics, IAS 19 establishes separate requirements and accounting treatments for
each category. Consequently, the different categories are dealt with on an individual basis
in this chapter.
4 Short-term employee benefits

Short-term employee benefits are employee benefits (other than termination benefits) that
are expected to be settled wholly before 12 months after the end of the annual
reporting period in which the employees render the related service.
Short-term employee benefits include items such as:
wages, salaries and contributions made to funds by the employer;
paid annual leave and paid sick leave;
profit sharing and bonuses; and
non-monetary benefits (such as medical care, housing, use of cars and free or
subsidised goods or services) for employees currently employed by the entity.
The definition of short-term employee benefits requires that only benefits expected to be
settled wholly before 12 months after the end of the annual reporting period in which the
employees render the related service, be classified as such. The standard does not specify
what is meant by the term “wholly”; whether this applies to an individual employee or to
the total benefit for all employees. The authors are of the opinion that it should reflect the
characteristics of the benefits, therefore classifying the benefit as a whole.
An entity does not need to reclassify short-term employee benefits if the expected timing
of the settlement of the benefits changes temporarily. However, if the characteristics of the
benefits change or the change in the expected timing of the settlement of the benefits are
not temporary, the entity must consider if the benefits still meet the definition of short-term
employee benefits and will most probably be classified as other long-term employee
benefits. Refer to section 6 for a discussion on other long-term employee benefits.
Accounting for short-term employee benefits is generally straightforward because no
actuarial assumptions are required to measure the obligation or the cost and there is no
possibility of any actuarial gain or loss. In addition, short-term employee benefits are
measured at an undiscounted basis.
The private use of a company vehicle by an employee is a non-monetary benefit as
mentioned above. The depreciation expense and maintenance costs incurred on such a
vehicle that relates to private use should be classified as employee benefits in the statement
of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
4.1 Recognition and measurement

4.1.1 All short-term employee benefits
When an employee has rendered services to an entity during an accounting period

(for example in exchange for a salary), the entity must recognise the undiscounted amount
of short-term employee benefits expected to be paid in exchange for those services by
raising an expense together with a corresponding liability (accrued expense) after deducting
any amount already paid. An expense should be raised unless another standard requires or
permits the inclusion of the employee benefits in the cost of the asset – see for example
IAS 2, Inventories paragraph 12 and IAS 16, Property, Plant and Equipment paragraph 17.
Example 11.1: Salary and the employee’s cost to the company

Mr Salary is an employee in the employ of Rainbow Ltd. The following is the salary slip of Mr
Salary for July 20.23:
R
Gross salary 10 000
Provident fund contribution (750)
Medical aid fund contribution (900)
Unemployment insurance fund contribution (100)
Employee tax (2 000)
Net salary paid over to Mr Salary 6 250
Rainbow Ltd contributes the same amount as the employee to the provident fund, the
unemployment insurance fund and the medical aid fund.
Contributions by Rainbow Ltd: R
Provident fund contribution 750
Medical aid fund contribution 900
Unemployment insurance fund contribution 100
The journal entries to account for the July 20.23 salary of Mr Salary and the payment thereof
in the records of Rainbow Ltd are the following:
Dr Cr
R R
Short-term employee benefit costs (P/L) 10 000
Provident fund – payable (SFP) 750
Medical aid fund – payable (SFP) 900
SARS – payable (SFP) 2 000
Unemployment insurance fund – payable (SFP) 100
Salary due to employee (SFP) 6 250
Create obligations for amounts deducted from gross salary by
Rainbow Ltd, before the net salary is paid to Mr Salary
Post-employment benefit costs (P/L) 750
Provident fund – payable (SFP) 750
Medical aid fund – payable (SFP) 900
Unemployment insurance fund – payable (SFP) 100
Recognise employer’s contributions in respect of sundry items of
Mr Salary for the month
Example 11.1: Salary and the employee’s cost to the company (continued)
Dr Cr
R R
Provident fund – payable (SFP) (750 + 750) 1 500
Medical aid fund – payable (SFP) (900 + 900) 1 800
SARS – payable (SFP) 2 000
Unemployment insurance fund – payable (SFP) (100 + 100) 200
Salary due to employee (SFP) 6 250
Bank (SFP) 11 750
Pay net salary, deductions and contributions made by employer
over to the relevant creditors
For Rainbow Ltd, the total cost (cost to company) to have Mr Salary in its employment for the
above month, would be calculated as follows:
R
Gross salary (includes net salary and all deductions) 10 000
Contributions by Rainbow Ltd:
Medical aid fund contribution 900
Provident fund contribution 750
Unemployment insurance fund contribution 100
Employee benefit costs for company 11 750
Comments:
¾ Several methods exist to account for the above, but only one is illustrated here.
¾ The fact that the salary of Mr Salary is utilised to pay employee contributions to the
various funds as well as taxation will not change the fact that Rainbow Ltd still pays a
gross salary of R10 000 to him. Therefore, the deductions funded by the employee do
not influence the gross salary of Mr Salary.
¾ The employer’s contributions to the respective funds increase the total cost related to
the services of the employee to above the gross salary. The gross salary plus the
employer’s contributions represent the so-called “cost to company”.
¾ Note that R11 750 need not necessarily be expensed, but can also be capitalised to the
cost of an asset, if the services of Mr Salary is used in the production of an asset,
provided it is required or permitted in terms of the International Financial Reporting
Standards (IFRSs) (for example IAS 2 and IAS 16).
Example 11.2: Unpaid short-term employee benefits

Wimble Ltd pays over salaries to employees on the last working day of each calendar month.
The company’s year-end falls on 31 December. The total salary bill for December 20.23
amounted to R100 000 and this amount will be paid over on 31 December 20.23. The
journal entry as at 31 December 20.23 to account for the above will be as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
31 December 20.23
Short-term employee benefit costs (P/L)# 100 000
Bank (SFP) 100 000
Payment of salary cost

Example 11.2: Unpaid short-term employee benefits (continued)

If for some reason, say R20 000 of the R100 000 was paid over on 31 December 20.23,
and the rest was only paid over on 2 January 20.24 the journal entries up to
31 December 20.23 would be as follows:
Dr Cr
Bank (SFP) 20 000
Payment of salary cost
Accrued expenses (SFP) (100 000 – 20 000 already paid) 80 000
Accrual of unpaid salary cost at year-end
# Note that this amount will not necessarily be expensed, but can also be capitalised to
the cost of an asset, provided it is required or permitted in terms of the IFRSs (for
example IAS 2 and IAS 16).
In the event of short-term compensated absences, profit sharing and bonus plans, the basic
rules on short-term employee benefits may require slight modifications to ensure proper
application. These are discussed below.
4.1.2 Short-term compensated absences

Short-term compensated absences refer to annual or other leave and can be classified as
either:
accumulating compensated absences (leave); or
non-accumulating compensated absences (leave).
Accumulating compensated absences are compensated absences that can be carried

forward to future periods if the entitlement of the current period is not used in full.
For example, ten days’ paid annual leave (accumulating) not utilised in full in the current
year, can be carried forward to the next year and utilised then.
Non-accumulating compensated absences are compensated absences that cannot

be carried forward. On the basis of the information in the above example, it means that any
unutilised paid annual leave (non-accumulating) from the current year will lapse at the end
of the current year and cannot be utilised in the following year.
Accumulating compensated absences may be classified as vesting and non-vesting.
Vesting benefits are benefits where employees are entitled to a cash payment for any
unused entitlement upon leaving the entity. Non-vesting benefits are benefits where
employees are not entitled to a cash payment for any unused entitlement upon leaving the
entity.
When accounting for the accumulating compensated absences (leave), the expected cost of
the benefit must be recognised when the employees render service that increases their
entitlement to future compensated absences. The amount is measured as the additional
amount an entity expects to pay as a result of the unused entitlement that has already
accumulated at the end of the reporting period. The basic formula to calculate this would be:
Amount = Expected number of days’ leave to be taken/paid out in future years × tariff per day.
Note that the basic formula presented above distinguishes between days’ leave to be taken
and days’ leave to be paid out. Depending on which of the two options the employer
expects would arise, the tariff used to measure the leave pay accrual would differ (see the
next paragraph). A combination of the two options would also be possible.
If the employer expects employees to have all accumulated leave paid out in cash, the
employer will use a tariff based on the gross basic salary of these employees to measure
the leave pay accrual (unless in rare circumstances the leave conditions specify something
else). However, if the employees are expected to take leave and to be absent during the
utilisation of the leave days (i.e. take time off), the tariff used to measure the leave pay
accrual will be based on the “cost to company” amount for employees – this would be the
basic gross salary plus the additional contributions paid by the employer. This is the case
because the employer will still be required to make contributions to the pension fund,
medical aid fund, etc., during the period of absence of the employees.
Example 11.3: Short-term accumulated compensated absences

Case 1: 20.23 – 100% of the leave is carried forward to the next financial year
At the beginning of 20.23, Green Ltd permanently employed one employee, namely Mr Y.
Mr Y received a total gross salary of R330 000 in the year 20.23 (cost to company is R350
000 per year) and is entitled to leave of 20 working days a year. This leave benefit can be
carried forward to the next year if not utilised in the current year. Assume that there are 261
working days in a year and that the company expects Mr Y to take all leave days due to him in
the following year (20.24). All leave payments are therefore correctly classified as short-term
employee benefits. Since Mr Y’s leave can be carried forward to the next year, it is
accumulating in nature.
Assume that Mr Y takes no holiday leave for the year ended 31 December 20.23.
Mr Y will receive his full gross salary and the employer contributions will also be made. All
the contributions and deductions are paid over. The journal entries to account for this for the
year ended 31 December 20.23 would be the following (all inclusive):
Dr Cr
R R
Bank (SFP) 350 000
Recognise the total salary cost of Mr Y as an expense for the
year
The fact that Mr Y did not utilise his leave during 20.23, but plans to take it in 20.24, means
that an accrual for leave pay must be created for the leave to be carried forward to the next
year (20.24). Assume that the expected increase for 20.24 on all employee benefit costs will
be 8%. The journal entry to recognise the accrual for the year ended 31 December 20.23 is
the following:
Dr Cr
R R
Accrual for leave pay (SFP) ((350 000 × 1.08)/261 × 20) 28 966
Recognise the accrued leave of Mr Y for the year
The effect of the second journal entry is that the employee benefit costs of 20.23 would
increase, as Mr Y did not use his annual leave but already earned it in 20.23 through
service. The leave is therefore carried forward to the next year.
Example 11.3: Short-term accumulated compensated absences (continued)

Comments:
¾ From an accounting perspective, the additional expense recognised in 20.23 due to the
unutilised leave relates to the additional income generated by the fact that Mr Y did not
take his leave in 20.23 and therefore worked and generated income for the entity during
the time when he should have taken leave.
¾ The gross salary of Mr Y is based on the assumption that he should only be present at
work for 241 of the 261 working days in a year. The accrued expense increases the
employee benefit costs, as Mr Y was present at work for 261 working days in 20.23.
¾ When the leave of both 20.23 and 20.24 (or part of it) is taken in the following year
(20.24), Mr Y will be present at work for less than 241 working days in 20.24. The
accrued expense will reverse, as leave is taken, and the employee benefit costs for the
year will be reduced accordingly. The accrued leave pay that would arise during 20.24
will increase the employee benefit costs in respect of the period of leave not taken by the
employee.
¾ Assume that the company expects Mr Y to resign early in 20.24 (before any leave is
taken) and that all accumulated leave days will be paid out in cash. Also assume that the
entity’s policy is to pay the accumulated leave in the next financial year based on the
previous year’s salary scales.
In this scenario, a tariff based on the gross basic salary of Mr Y should be used to
measure the leave pay accrual (unless in rare circumstances the leave conditions specify
something else). The journal entries to account for this for the year ended
31 December 20.23 would be the following (all inclusive):
Dr Cr
R R
Bank (SFP) 350 000
year – similar to Case 1
Accrual for leave pay (SFP) (3
330 000/261 × 20) 25 287
Recognise the accrued leave of Mr Y for the year – Gross salary
should be used as discussed to calculate the leave pay accrual
Case 2: 20.24 – 50% of the annual leave earned in 20.24 as well as the full annual leave
accumulated during 20.23 is taken in 20.24
Assume in this case that Mr Y takes his full accumulated leave of 20.23, as well as 50% of
the annual leave earned in 20.24, in the 20.24 financial year. It is company policy to first
utilise the accrued leave pay from the previous year, before utilising the accrued leave pay
for the current year. Assume there is a 10% increase on all employee benefit costs expected
in 20.25. The company expects Mr Y to take all leave days that are due to him at the end of
20.24 in the following year (20.25).
In 20.24, Mr Y will once again receive his full gross salary and all employer contributions will
be made (assume total cost to company is now R378 000 (R350 000 × 1.08) after an
increase of 8% from the previous year). The journal entries to account for the above for the
year ended 31 December 20.24 would be the following (all inclusive):
Dr Cr
R R
Bank (SFP) 378 000
year
Example 11.3: Short-term accumulated compensated absences (continued)

The accrual for leave pay of R28 966 for 20.23 already appears in the records of Green Ltd.
The whole accrued expense of 20.23 will be utilised in 20.24 in terms of the company’s
policy for the utilisation of leave, as well as 50% of the leave earned in 20.24. The closing
balance of the accrual for leave pay that arose in 20.24, will therefore amount to R15 931
(see calculation below) at the end of 20.24 and the whole accrual for leave pay of the
previous year will reverse.
Dr Cr
R R
Accrual for leave pay (SFP) 28 966
Write back leave pay accrual for 20.23 in 20.24
[378 000 × 1.1/261 × 20] × 50%
Recognise the accrued leave of Mr Y for leave days not utilised in
20.24
Comment:
¾ See the following T-Account for the accrual for leave pay:
Accrual for leave pay
Employee benefit costs (P/L) 13 035 Opening balance 28 966
Closing balance 15 931
28 966 28 966
¾ The total short-term employee benefit costs recognised in profit or loss for the 20.24
year is R364 965 (R378 000 – R28 966 + R15 931) or (R378 000 – R13 035).
In the case of vesting benefits, the total amount of the unutilised benefits must generally be
raised as a liability. The fact that accumulating compensated absences may be non-vesting
does not affect the recognition of the related obligation, but measurement of the
obligation must also take into account the possibility that employees could leave before
using an accumulated non-vesting entitlement.
The above is presented as follows:
Short-term compensated absences
Non-accumulating short-term compensated

Accumulating short-term compensated absences
absences
Employee not entitled to cash

Vesting Non-vesting
payment upon leaving the entity
Employee entitled to Employee not entitled to Recognise only if leave will

cash payment upon cash payment upon be taken in the current
leaving the entity leaving the entity leave cycle
Raise amount that will

Raise entire liability probably be ‘paid’ if the
leave is taken
Since, per definition, the liability amount for accumulating short-term compensated absences
is expected to be settled before 12 months after the end of the annual reporting period in
which the services were rendered, it is always classified as a current liability.
Example 11.4: FIFO end LIFO scenarios of annual leave and related liabilities
Strike Ltd has 50 employees, who are each entitled to ten working days’ non-vesting paid
annual leave for each completed year in service. Assume that the salary cost for 20.23 is
R60 per day, and that the gross salary equals the cost to company. Unused paid annual
leave may be carried forward for one calendar year. Paid annual leave is first taken out of
the previous year’s entitlement and then out of the current year’s entitlement (FIFO). At
31 December 20.23, the average unused entitlement is four days per employee. Based on
past experience, the entity expects that 36 employees will take ten days of paid annual
leave in 20.24, that four employees will resign during the next year before taking their leave
and that the remaining ten employees will each take an average of 14 days’ paid annual
leave. Assume that there are no salary increases expected for 20.24.
The above scenario will (depending on the circumstances) lead to the following liabilities
being raised (see journals) at 31 December 20.23:
As 46 (36 + 10) employees are expected to utilise (using FIFO) the four days’ entitlement
per employee as at 31 December 20.23 in 20.24, the following leave pay accrual must be
raised:
4 days × R60/day × 46 employees = R11 040.
Dr Cr
R R
Accrual for leave pay using FIFO principles
If paid annual leave was taken first from the current year’s (20.24) entitlement (LIFO
utilisation), the liability to be raised will be much less, as only employees taking more leave
than the current year’s allocation will give rise to a liability in respect of paid annual leave.
The following leave pay accrual would then be raised:
4 days × R60/day × 10 employees = R2 400.
Dr Cr
R R
If the unused leave pay can be carried forward indefinitely and assuming a vesting benefit
(leave to be paid in cash when employment is terminated), the leave pay accrual raised
would be the following:
4 days × R60/day × (40 + 10) employees = R12 000.
Dr Cr
R R
Non-accumulating compensated absences do not carry forward, but lapse if not utilised
in the current year. These benefits do not entitle employees to a cash payment upon
leaving the entity. Common examples of these compensated absences include maternity
leave, paternity leave and compensated absences for military service. An entity recognises
no liability or expense until the time of such absence, as employee service does not increase
the amount of the benefit.
Example 11.5: Accumulating, non-accumulating, vesting and non-vesting conditions

The year-end of Mobi Ltd is 31 December 20.28. Mobi has 100 employees. The gross salary
bill for the year ended 31 December 20.28 was R6 000 000, excluding contributions from
the employer (Mobi Ltd) towards medical aid and post-employment benefits that amounted
to 15% of the gross salary bill.
On average 8 days of vacation leave days per employee will be carried over to the 20.29
financial year. It is expected or probable that on average only 6.5 days of vacation leave per
employee will be taken in 20.29. Vacation leave can only be accumulated for one year. Days
that are forfeited will not be paid out in cash.
On average 1.5 days ad hoc compassion leave per employee will also be taken in 20.29.
After salary negotiations with the trade union, total cost to company will increase by 4.5% in
20.29.
There are 300 working days per year.
The leave pay accrual at 31 December 20.28 will be determined as follows:
Salary per day per employee in 20.29 when leave will be taken:
(6 000 000 x 1.15 x 1.045 / 100 / 300) R 240.35
Vacation leave: 240.35 x 100 x 6.5 R156 228
Compassion leave (Non-accumulating) 0
Total leave pay accrual R156 228
Take note that it is probable or expected that only 6.5 days will be utilised and not 8 days.
Compassion leave is non-accumulating and should therefore not accrue.
What if the vacation leave is vesting and the balance of the vacation leave days of 20.28 will
be paid in cash at the end of January 20.29 (assume it is paid based on the old salary scale
of 20.28 and no leave was expected to be taken in January 20.29):
Salary per day per employee if paid out in cash in January 20.29:
(6 000 000 / 100 / 300) R200.00
Vacation leave: 200 x 100 x 8 R160 000
Compassion leave (Non-accumulating) 0
Total leave pay accrual R160 000
4.1.3 Profit sharing and bonus plans
Although the recognition of the expected cost of profit sharing and bonus payments is
similar to that associated with other short-term employee benefits, IAS 19.19 introduces two
additional criteria that must be met before recognition may take place, namely:
The entity must have a present legal or constructive obligation to make such payments as a
result of past events; and
A reliable estimate of the obligation must be possible.
The difference between a legal and a constructive obligation may be illustrated by

using a bonus payment. Should an employee be entitled to a thirteenth cheque in terms of
his contract of employment, this would constitute a legal obligation.
However, should the contract of employment not mention a thirteenth cheque, but the
entity has an established practice of paying thirteenth cheques, the latter would constitute a
constructive obligation. The entity has no realistic alternative but to make the payment.
A reliable estimate of the expense associated with the legal or constructive obligation
under a profit sharing or bonus plan can be made, when and only when:
the formal terms of the plan contain a formula for determining the amount of the benefit;
and
the entity determines the amounts to be paid before the financial statements are
authorised for issue; or
past practice gives clear evidence of the amount of the entity’s constructive obligation.
Some profit-sharing plans require employees to remain in the entity’s service for a specified
period in order to receive a share of the profit. Such plans result in a constructive obligation
as employees render service which increases the amount payable if they remain in service
until the end of the specified period.
If profit-sharing and bonus plans are not wholly payable before 12 months after the
end of the annual reporting period during which the employees render the related
service, the amounts are classified as other long-term employee benefits.
Example 11.6: Short-term employee benefits and bonus plans

Jordin Ltd is a nursery in Pretoria with a current year-end of 31 December 20.23. Currently,
the company has 30 staff members, of whom 18 are gardeners, ten are administrative staff
and two are managers.
The basic salaries (excluding the bonuses) of the employees are as follows:
Type of work Basic salary per
employee per
year
R
Gardeners 70 000
Administrative staff 120 000
Managers 220 000
Assume there are no salary increases expected in 20.24.
The gardeners and administrative staff are each entitled to 20 working days’ paid holiday
leave per year, of which five days may be transferred to the next year. The leave carried
forward is not paid out if the employee leaves or retires. The managers are each entitled to
25 working days’ paid holiday leave per year, with no limit on transferring leave to
subsequent years, which is payable on resignation or retirement. All employees are entitled to
ten working days’ paid sick leave per year that expires if not taken.
Experience has indicated that gardeners take on average 18 days of holiday leave per year;
the administrative staff take 14 days each, while the managers take 17 days each. On
average, employees take four days’ sick leave per year. Because of work pressure, employees
are expected to utilise only 60% of leave carried forward. Leave is taken on a first-in, first-out
basis and it is assumed that leave will be taken within 12 months after the end of the
annual reporting period during which the employees rendered the related service.
Bonuses (cash) are paid at the end of December and are calculated on the number of
service years per employee as follows:
Service years Benefit
1 to 5 years 100% of monthly basic salary
6 to 10 years 120% of monthly basic salary
More than 10 years 150% of monthly basic salary
The service years of the employees are as follows:
Administrative
Service years Gardeners Managers
staff
1 to 5 years 5* 3# –
6 to 10 years 8 3 –
more than 10 years 5 4 2
18 10 2
Example 11.6: Short-term employee benefits and bonus plans (continued)

* Including two workers who started working on 1 July 20.23, who are each entitled to 50%
of a year’s allocation.
# Including one worker who started working on 1 December 20.23 and is entitled to one-
twelfth of a year’s allocation.
Bonuses are thus paid pro rata if an employee has worked for less than a year. The three
employees that were employed during the current year took their full pro rata leave benefits.
Assume that a calendar year consists of 266 working days.
The short-term employee benefits of Jordin Ltd for the year ended 31 December 20.23 are
Basic salaries R
Gardeners: [(16 × 70 000) + (2 × 70 000 × 6/12)] 1 190 000
Administrative staff: [(9 × 120 000) + (1 × 120 000 × 1/12)] 1 090 000
Managers: (2 × 220 000) 440 000
2 720 000
Dr Cr
R R
Cumulative journal for 20.23
Short-term employee benefit costs (P/L) 2 720 000
Bank (SFP) 2 720 000
Payment of salaries and deductions
Bonuses R
Gardeners: [(70 000/12 × 3) + (70 000/12 × 2 × 6/12) +
(70 000/12 × 1,2 × 8) + (70 000/12 × 1,5 × 5)] 123 083
Administrative staff: [(120 000/12 × 2) + (120 000/12 × 1 × 1/12) +
(120 000/12 × 1,2 × 3) + (120 000/12 × 1,5 × 4)] 116 833
Managers: (220 000/12 × 1,5 × 2) 55 000
294 916
Journal at 31 December 20.23
Dr Cr
R R
Bank (SFP) 294 916
Payment of b
Leave (compensated absences) R
Gardeners: [(70 000/266 × 2* × 16) × 60%] 5 053
Administrative staff: [(120 000/266 × 5# × 9) × 60%] 12 180
Managers: (220 000/266 × 8$ × 2) 13 233
30 466
Journal at 31 December 20.23 Dr Cr
R R
Recognition of accrual for leave pay
* (20 – 18)
# (20 – 14), but limited to 5
$ (25 – 17), not limited
Example 11.6: Short-term employee benefits and bonus plans (continued)

Comment:
¾ In this example, since no information is given regarding employer’s contributions, it is
assumed that cost to company is equal to basic salary. Note that the leave pay accrual
of managers is based on their basic salary – this supports the assumption that it will be
paid out in total. However, if there were employer’s contributions and it is anticipated
that only 50% of the managers’ holiday leave will be paid out and the rest will be taken
as days absent, the calculation will be based partly on basic salary and partly on basic
salary plus employer’s contribution (i.e. cost to company).
4.2 Disclosure
IAS 19.25 does not require specific disclosures in respect of short-term employee benefits.
IAS 1, Presentation of Financial Statements requires the following specific disclosures:
IAS 1.102 and IAS 1.104 require the total amount of employee benefit expense to be
disclosed, either on the face of the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss
and other comprehensive income (if expenses are classified by nature), or in the notes
to the financial statements (if expenses are classified by function). Presumably all
short-term employee benefits will form part of the aggregate amount for employee
benefits expense.
Where required in terms of IAS 24, Related Party Disclosures, an entity discloses
information on contributions to defined contribution plans made for key management
personnel.
5 Post-employment benefits
Post-employment benefits are employee benefits that are payable after the
completion of employment.
These benefits can take many forms, but can broadly be classified into two main categories:
retirement benefits such as pensions and payments from provident funds;
other post-employment benefits such as post-employment life insurance and post-
employment medical care.
5.1 Types of post-employment benefit plans
There are two categories of post-employment benefit plans that employers may use,
namely:
defined contribution plans (for example provident funds); and
defined benefit plans (for example pension funds).
The Pension Fund Act 24 of 1956 (as amended), which regulates most of these plans,
provides for minimum funding requirements for these plans, and prescribes the valuation
methods and the frequency of valuation. Defined contribution plans are discussed in
section 5.2 hereafter, while defined benefit plans are discussed in section 5.3.
5.2 Defined contribution plans

5.2.1 Background
Defined contribution plans are post-employment benefit plans under which amounts
to be paid to employees as retirement benefits are determined by reference to cumulative
total contributions made to a fund (by both employer and employee) together with
investment earnings thereon.
The liability (legal or constructive obligation) of the employer is limited to the agreed amount
(contributions) to be paid to the separate fund (funded plan), to provide for the payment of
post-employment benefits to employees. Most provident funds fall into this category.
A record is maintained of the contributions of each member (by employee and employer)
to the fund and the investment earnings thereon. The ultimate benefits payable to the
members will not exceed the contributions made by and on behalf of the members and the
investment earnings generated by these contributions.
5.2.2 Risk
Under defined contribution plans the risk that benefits will be less than expected (actuarial
risk) and the risk that the assets invested in will be insufficient to meet expected benefits
(investment risk) falls on the employee.
5.3 Defined benefit plans

5.3.1 Background
Defined benefit plans are post-employment benefit plans under which amounts to be
paid as retirement benefits to current and retired employees are determined using a formula
usually based on employees’ remuneration and/or years of service.
This implies that a benefit that is to be paid to an employee is determined before the
employee retires – the employer promises a benefit based on a formula. For instance, a
pension (defined benefit plan) is promised to an employee based on the employee’s salary at
retirement date, as well as the number of years in employment of the employer. Another
example is the promise to pay medical aid contributions on behalf of the employee after
retirement.
An entity must account for its legal obligation under formal terms of a defined benefit
plan, as well as its constructive obligation resulting from the entity’s past practices.
The obligation of the entity is to provide agreed benefits to its current and former
employees once they retire. Given the number of variables impacting on the final or average
remuneration of an employee – inflation, salary increases, working life, promotions, timing
of promotions, etc. – it is obvious that it will prove quite difficult to determine such an
obligation.
To finance and fund the benefits agreed upon, the entity uses assets set aside for this
purpose from contributions by the employer and employees as well as investment returns
on those accumulated contributions (in aggregate called plan assets). These plan assets
do not stand to the “credit” of any specific member of the plan, and the benefits that a
member receives are also not related to these contributions. Pension funds generally fall
into this category.
5.3.2 Risk
Under defined benefit plans both the risk that benefits will cost more than expected
(actuarial risk) and the risk that the assets invested in will be insufficient to meet expected
benefits (investment risk) falls on the employer. This is the opposite from a defined
contribution plan.
5.4 Classification of post-employment benefit plans

In practice, the classification of post-employment benefit plans can be difficult. For example,
the plan may prescribe the extent of contributions on which retirement benefits are based,
while the entity may still be liable for a minimum level of retirement benefits. Such a
retirement benefit plan has characteristics of both a defined contribution plan and a defined
benefit plan.
The deciding factor for classification as a defined contribution plan is that the employer
only has an obligation to make a contribution to the plan, while in the case of a defined
benefit plan the employer has an obligation to provide a certain benefit to the pensioner.
5.5 Accounting for post-employment benefit plans

5.5.1 Defined contribution plans
Accounting for defined contribution plans is straightforward, as the obligation of the

reporting entity for each period is determined by the amounts to be contributed for that period.
No actuarial valuation of the obligation or the associated expense is necessary and the
obligations are accounted for on an undiscounted basis, unless they do not fall due before
12 months after the end of the annual reporting period during which the employees
rendered the service involved.
5.5.1.1 Recognition and measurement
Should an employee have rendered a service to an entity during a specific period, the entity
must recognise the contribution payable to the defined contribution fund in exchange for the
service as follows:
A liability (accrued expense) must be raised after deducting any contribution already
paid, and at the same time a corresponding expense must be raised.
Should the contribution paid exceed the contribution due for services rendered at the end
of the annual reporting period, the excess must be recognised as a prepaid expense.
Should contributions to a defined contribution plan not fall due wholly within 12 months
after the end of the period during which the service was rendered, the contributions must
be discounted to present value using a relevant discount rate.
5.5.1.2 Disclosure
An entity shall disclose the amount recognised as an expense for defined contribution plans
in the note on profit before tax.
Where required in terms of IAS 24, an entity discloses information on contributions to
defined contribution plans made for key management personnel.
Example 11.7: Defined contribution plan

Bledo Ltd paid the following in respect of staff costs during the year ended 31 December 20.23:
R
Salaries (gross) 11 000 000
Wages (gross) 9 000 000
Employer’s contribution to defined contribution plan paid over 1 250 000
Employees’ contribution to defined contribution plan paid over 1 250 000
The rules of the defined contribution plan determine the following in respect of contributions:
Contribution by employee = 9% of total remuneration paid to employees.
Contribution by employer* = 10% of total remuneration paid to employees.
* The employer and employee usually make the same contribution, but this is not necessarily
the case in practice.
Any amounts due to the fund is settled on 10 January 20.24.
The disclosure resulting from the above will be as follows:
Bledo Ltd
Notes to the financial statements for the year ended 31 December 20.23
1.1 Post-employment benefits
The company makes provision for post-employment benefits to eligible employees and
retirees in the form of pensions. Contributions to defined contribution plans are
recognised when the service is provided by the employees.
R
Employee benefit costs: 22 000 000
Short-term employee benefit costs: Salaries and wages# 20 000 000
Post-employment benefits: Defined contribution plan expense *2 000 000
# The contribution of the employee forms part of the gross salary expense as it is paid
over by the employer on behalf of the employee.
* (11 000 000 + 9 000 000) × 10% = R2 000 000 (employer’s contribution)
1 January to 31 December 20.23 R R
Short-term employee benefit costs (P/L)* 20 000 000
(11 000 000 + 9 000 000)
Bank (SFP) (salary net of total employee contribution)
(20 000 000 – 1 800 000) 18 200 000
Accrued expense – defined contribution plan (SFP) 1 800 000
Payment and accrual of salaries
Defined contribution plan expense (P/L) (employer) 2 000 000
Accrued contribution of the employer
Bank (SFP) (1 250 000 × 2) 2 500 000
Payments made to the defined contribution plan
10 January 20.24
Accrued expense – defined contribution plan (SFP)$ 1 300 000
Bank (SFP) 1 300 000
Payment of defined contribution plan !
$ Note that a net amount of R1 300 000 will be paid over to the fund. It is represented by
R1 800 000 + R2 000 000 – R2 500 000.
5.5.2 Defined benefit plans

5.5.2.1 Recognition and measurement
Defined benefit plans entail:

an obligation in respect of defined benefits to be paid to employees at retirement, and
plan assets (if funded) that are accumulated to fund this obligation to employees.
Accounting for funded defined benefit plans is complicated due to the presence of a large
number of variables that impact on both the obligation of an entity to its employees, as well
as the fair value of plan assets used to eventually fund the settlement of the obligation.
Should there be a shortfall in the fund’s assets which would result in the fund not being able
to pay funded benefits once these become due, the entity remains responsible for additional
contributions to wipe out such a shortfall. Effectively, this results in the entity underwriting
the actuarial and investment risks associated with the plan. The expense recognised for a
defined benefit plan is therefore not limited to only the amount of the contribution due to a
defined benefit plan fund in the specific period, but represents the net increase in the
liability to pay benefits in future, that arose in the current period. A detailed explanation of
the recognition and measurement of defined benefit plans falls outside the scope of this
work.
6 Other long-term employee benefits
Other long-term employee benefits are employee benefits that are not expected to be
settled wholly before 12 months after the end of the annual reporting period during which
the employees render the related service.
Post-employment benefits, termination benefits and equity compensation benefits are

excluded specifically.
The following are examples of other long-term employee benefits:
long-term compensated absences such as long-service or sabbatical leave;
jubilee or other long-service benefits;
long-term disability benefits;
profit sharing and bonuses; and
deferred remuneration.
Due to the nature of other long-term employee benefits, measurement of these benefits
is not usually subject to the same degree of uncertainty as the measurement of
post-employment benefits. For these reasons, IAS 19 requires a simplified method of
accounting for other long-term employee benefits.
6.1 Recognition and measurement

The amount recognised as a liability for other long-term employee benefits must be
presented as the net total of:
the present value of the defined benefit obligation (long-term benefit obligation) at the
end of the reporting period;
less the fair value of plan assets (assets accumulated to service the obligation in respect
of long-term employee benefits) at the end of the reporting period (if any) out of which
the obligation is to be settled directly. Plan assets are accumulated assets to fund the
obligation for long-term employee benefits.
A detailed explanation of the recognition and measurement of other long-term employee
benefits falls outside the scope of this work.
6.2 Disclosure
In terms of IAS 19, no specific disclosures are required for other long-term employee
benefits. However, other standards may require certain disclosures, for example the
following:
Separately disclosable items in terms of IAS 1.85–86 could arise, where the expense
resulting from these benefits is of such size, nature or incidence that disclosure is
relevant to an understanding of the entity’s financial performance in the relevant period.
Information for key management personnel in terms of IAS 24, where the other long-
term employee benefits relate to key management personnel.
7 Termination benefits
Termination benefits are employee benefits payable as a result of either:

an entity’s decision to terminate an employee’s or group of employees’ employment before
normal retirement age; or
an employee’s decision to accept voluntary redundancy in exchange for those benefits.
Payments (or other benefits) made to employees when their employment is terminated may
result from legislation, contractual or other agreements with employees or their
representatives, or a constructive obligation based on business practice, custom or a desire
to act equitably. Such termination benefits are typically lump-sum payments, but sometimes
also include:
enhancements of retirement benefits or other post-employment benefits, either directly
or indirectly through an employee benefit plan; and
salary for and until the end of a specified notice period, if the employee renders no
further service that provides economic benefits to the entity.
Benefits paid (or other benefits provided) to employees, regardless of the reason for the
employee’s departure, are not termination benefits. These benefits are post-employment
benefits, and, although payment of such benefits is certain, the timing of their payment is
uncertain.
IAS 19 deals with termination benefits separately from other employee benefits, as the
event which gives rise to an obligation here is the termination of service rather than the
service itself.
7.1 Recognition
An entity shall, in terms of IAS 19.165, recognise termination benefits as a liability and a
corresponding expense at the earlier of the following dates:
when the entity can no longer withdraw the offer of those benefits; and
when the entity recognises costs for a restructuring that is within the scope of IAS 37,
Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets and involves the payment of
termination benefits.
An entity can no longer withdraw an offer for termination benefits at the earlier of the date
that the employees accept the offer, or when a restriction (legal, regulatory or contractual)
on the entity’s ability to withdraw the offer takes effect. If an entity decides to terminate
employees’ employment, the entity can no longer withdraw its offer for termination benefits
when the entity has communicated its termination plan to all affected employees. This
termination plan must meet the following criteria:
the actions required to complete the plan must indicate that it is unlikely that significant
changes to the plan will be made;
the plan must indicate the following: the number of employees whose services are to be
terminated; their job classifications or functions and their locations (each individual
affected does not need to be identified in the plan);
the time at which the plan will be implemented; and
the termination benefits that employees will receive in sufficient detail that employees
can determine the type and amount of benefits they will receive when the employment
is terminated.
Due to the nature and origin of termination benefits, an entity may have to account for a
plan amendment or curtailment of other employee benefits at the same time.
7.2 Measurement
Termination benefits are measured on initial recognition and if the termination benefits
are expected to be wholly settled before 12 months after the end of the annual reporting
period in which the termination benefit is recognised, the requirements for short-term
employee benefits must be applied. If it is expected not to be settled wholly before 12 months
after the end of the annual reporting period in which the termination benefit is recognised, the
requirements for other long-term employee benefits must be applied.
In the case of an offer made to encourage voluntary redundancy, the measurement of

termination benefits shall be based on the number of employees expected to accept the
offer.
7.3 Disclosure
No specific disclosure is required by IAS 19 itself, although the requirements of certain
other standards may be applicable.
A contingency exists where there is uncertainty about the number of employees who will
accept an offer of termination benefits. As required by IAS 37, an entity discloses
information about the contingency unless the possibility of a loss is remote.
Termination benefits may result in an expense requiring disclosure as a separately
disclosable item in terms of IAS 1.86. This will be the case where the size, nature or
incidence of an expense is such that its disclosure is relevant to explain the performance
of the entity for the period.
Where required by IAS 24, an entity discloses information about termination benefits for
key management personnel.
Example 11.8: Integrated short-term benefits

Eden Ltd, a company with a 31 December reporting date, has ten employees. It is the
company’s policy to appoint all employees on the same salary scale and salary-related
deductions were similar for all employees. Calculations with regards to salary remuneration
are based on 20 working days per month, i.e. 240 working days per annum.
An employee, Jane’s, salary slip for November 20.26 contained the following information:
R
Gross salary 20 000
Provident fund contribution (3.75%) by employee (750)
Medical aid fund contribution (5%) by employee (1 000)
Unemployment insurance fund (UIF) contribution by employee (149)
Employee tax (2 800)
Net salary 15 301
Example 11.8: Integrated short-term benefits (continued)

Eden Ltd contributes the same amount as the employee to the provident fund and the
medical aid fund. According to the Unemployment Insurance Act, both the employer and
employee must contribute 1% of the employee’s remuneration to the UIF. The 1% UIF
contribution is capped at R149 per month.
A salary increase of 10% is expected for the next financial year. The contributions to the
provident fund and the medical aid fund will increase in the same ratio as the salary
increase.
Employees are entitled to 20 working days paid vacation leave per year. A maximum of five
days may be carried forward to the following year and any unused vacation leave that
cannot be carried forward, expire without compensation.
Assume that any vacation leave brought forward that is not taken during the year, following
the year in which it was earned, will be paid out at the end of that year.
At 31 December 20.26, only two employees each had six days left of unused vacation leave,
while the other employees used all the vacation leave they were entitled to during 20.26. It
is expected that the two employees will probably use three of these vacation leave days
during the next financial year.
The management of Eden Ltd has decided to reward all employees for their hard work
during the 20.26 financial year. An internal memo was circulated to all employees during
December 20.26 to inform them of the R5 000 bonus, payable to each employee at the end
of January 20.27. There is no guarantee that there will be a bonus paid out for the 20.27
financial year.
In order to account for the short-term employee costs the leave pay accrual should first be
determined. In order to do this the gross salary and the cost to company should be
calculated for the following year (20.27). Firstly, it is done per employee below:
Total cost to company per employee: 20.26 20.27
R R
Gross salaries per employee 20 000 22 000
Employer’s contributions:
Provident fund 750 825
Medical aid fund 1 000 1 100
Unemployment insurance fund 149 149
Monthly cost to company per employee 21 899 24 074
Annual (× 12) 262 788 288 888
Bonus 5 000 _
Total annual cost to company per employee 267 788 288 888
The next step for calculating the leave pay accrual will be to calculate the gross salary and
cost to company per employee per day for 20.27 as set out below:
Gross salary and cost to company per day per employee 20.26 20.27
(× 1.1)
R R
Gross salary per employee per year 240 000 264 000
20.26: (20 000 × 12); 20.27: (22 000 × 12)
Number of working days per year 240 240
1 000 1 100
Gross salary per day per employee
Cost to company per employee per year 267 788 288 888
Number of working days per year 240 240
Cost to company per day per employee 1 116 1 204

All the information to calculate the leave pay accrual is now available. The leave pay accrual
is calculated below:
Leave pay accrual:
Number of Total accrual
Utilisation Number of days R per day employees R
Days to be used 3 1 204 2 7 224
Days to be paid out in cash 2 1 100 2 4 400
Total leave pay accrual 11 624
Note that only five days can be carried forward to 20.27. Therefore, of the six days that were
unused, one day will be forfeited and only five days may be carried forward by the two
employees. Two of the five days will be paid out in cash at the end of 20.27 (presumably on
the new salary scale) and three days will be taken. The accrual for the days that are paid out
in cash will be calculated at the gross salary scale of 20.27 and the accrual for the days that
will be taken will be calculated at the cost to company.
Dr Cr
December 20.26 journal entries R R
Short-term employee benefit costs (P/L) (R20 000 × 10) 200 000
Provident fund – payable (SFP) (R750 × 10) 7 500
Medical aid fund – payable (SFP) (R1 000 × 10) 10 000
Unemployment insurance fund – payable (SFP) (R149 × 10) 1 490
SARS – payable (PAYE) (SFP) (R2 800 × 10) 28 000
Net salary payable to employee (SFP) (R15 301 × 10) 153 010
Recording of monthly gross salaries for all employees
Post-employment benefit costs (P/L) 7 500
Provident fund – payable (SFP) 7 500
Medical aid fund – payable (SFP) 10 000
Unemployment insurance fund – payable (SFP) 1 490
Recognise employer's contributions (same as employee)
Provident fund – payable (SFP) 15 000
Medical aid fund – payable (SFP) 20 000
Unemployment insurance fund - payable (SFP) 2 980
SARS – payable (PAYE) (SFP) 28 000
Net salary payable to employee (SFP) 153 010
Bank (SFP) 218 990
Pay salary expenses at the end of the month

Dr Cr
Recognise accrual for leave pay (see calculations above)
Employees – bonus payable (SFP) 50 000
Recognise bonus liability (R5 000 × 10)
8 Short and sweet

of employee benefits.
What are employee benefits?
– Considerations given by the employer to the employee in exchange for services
rendered.
Employee benefits are classified into four categories:
– short-term employee benefits;
– post-employment benefits;
– other long-term employee benefits; and
– termination benefits.
Short-term employee benefits (for example salaries, wages and non-monetary benefits)
are recognised immediately once the service is rendered by the employee.
Short-term compensated absences may be classified as either:
– accumulating; or
– non-accumulating.
Accumulating compensated absences may be classified as either:
– vesting; or
– non-vesting.
Profit sharing and bonus plans are recognised once the service is rendered by the
employee.
Categories of post-employment benefits:
– defined contribution plans; and
– defined benefit plans.
Under defined contribution plans, the amount payable on retirement is the cumulative
total of all contributions made, together with investment earnings thereon.
Under defined benefit plans, the amount payable on retirement is determined using a
formula based on the employees’ remuneration and/or years of service.
Other long-term employee benefits are not expected to be settled wholly before
12 months after the end of the annual reporting period during which the employees
render the related service.
Termination benefits are payable as a result of either an entity’s decision to terminate an
employee’s employment before retirement OR an employee’s decision to accept voluntary
redundancy in exchange for the benefits.
12
The effects of changes in foreign exchange rates
IAS 21
Contents
3 Background .................................................................................................. 336
4 Exchange rate ............................................................................................... 336
5 Accounting implications.................................................................................. 338
5.1 Presentation currency .......................................................................... 339
5.2 Functional currency ............................................................................. 339
5.3 Monetary items and non-monetary items............................................... 340
6 Reporting foreign currency transactions in functional currency .......................... 340
6.1 Initial recognition................................................................................. 340
6.2 Subsequent measurement .................................................................... 341
6.3 Disclosure ........................................................................................... 347
7 Short and sweet ............................................................................................ 349
Explain and calculate translations of foreign currency transactions.
Apply the translation of foreign exchange transactions on given information.
Recognise and account for foreign exchange transactions.
Understand and explain the terms “presentation currency” and “functional currency”.
Present and disclose foreign exchange transactions in the financial statements of an
entity.
335
Objective
IAS 21 prescribes the recognition, measurement and disclosure of foreign exchange
transactions.
Foreign currency transactions Foreign operations

These transactions need to be converted The financial statements of the foreign
to the functional currency of the entity. entity should be translated to the
presentation currency of the reporting
entity – outside the scope of this work.
Recognition and measurement

Recognition and measurement of foreign exchange transactions take place on the following
dates:
– transaction date;
– reporting date; and
– settlement date.
The applicable exchange rate should be applied on each of the abovementioned dates to
translate the foreign exchange transactions into the functional currency of the entity.
Any foreign exchange differences arising from the abovementioned translation are taken to the
profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
Monetary items Non-monetary items

Recognise at spot rate on transaction Recognise at spot rate on transaction
date. date.
Restate to spot rate on reporting date. No adjustment on reporting date.
Settle at spot rate on settlement date. No adjustment on settlement date.
Examples: Foreign debtors, creditors and Examples: Inventories, property, plant
loans. and equipment.
3 Background
The volatility in currency exchange movements is a fairly general phenomenon in the world
economy. The change in the value of currencies has specific accounting implications, which
are addressed in IAS 21, The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates, and other
accounting standards.
In South Africa, the South African Reserve Bank controls all foreign transactions. The
movement of foreign exchange to and from the country is subject to the regulations issued
periodically by the Reserve Bank.
4 Exchange rate
The exchange rate is the ratio at which the currencies of two countries are
exchanged.
This rate is quoted by commercial banks and can be one of several rates, depending on
the nature of the foreign currency transaction. For example, if foreign currency is required
to pay for an import, the foreign currency must be purchased from a bank. In these
The effects of changes in foreign exchange rates 337
circumstances the bank acts as the seller of foreign currency; therefore the selling rate will
be quoted. However, if goods are exported and foreign currency is received for the export,
the bank acts as the buyer of the foreign currency and the appropriate rate of exchange
quoted by the bank will be the buying rate.
In addition, different exchange rates are quoted by the commercial banks, depending on
the method of payment required for a foreign liability. For example, the rate for the purchase
of foreign currency in cash will be different to the rate for an electronic transfer.
Example 12.1: Selling rate

Lyka Ltd, a South African company, imports inventories to the value of $200 000. Assume
that the selling rate of the bank on transaction date is as follows:
$1 = R6,50 OR R1 = $0,153846 (direct vs indirect translation)
How much will it cost (in Rand) to buy the required dollars from the bank (i.e. the bank will
sell foreign currency)?
$200 000 × R6,50 = R1 300 000
OR
$200 000/$0,153846 = R1 300 001 (rounding difference).
Comment:
¾ The appropriate exchange rate is determined from the perspective of the bank and
depends on the nature of the foreign currency transaction.
The spot exchange rate is the exchange rate for immediate delivery of currencies to
be exchanged at a particular time. The closing rate is the spot exchange rate at the reporting
date. The forward rate is the exchange rate for the exchange of two currencies at a future
agreed date.
A hedge against unfavourable exchange rate fluctuations can be obtained by, inter alia,
concluding an agreement (called a forward exchange contract) with a bank, in which
the bank undertakes to supply the foreign exchange at a predetermined rate when the
currency is required. This rate is the forward rate, which is calculated by reference to the
spot rate ruling at the time the forward exchange contract (FEC) is entered into and
the interest rate differential existing between the two countries whose currencies are being
exchanged. The forward rate is therefore quoted as a premium or a discount to the spot
rate. For example, if the American Dollar is quoted at a premium to the Rand, it implies that
the Dollar is more highly regarded by investors than the Rand.
Example 12.2: Calculating the forward rate

Importer Ltd has an obligation to pay a US debt after two months. The prevailing spot rate is
$1 = R7,00. The forward rate for two months is quoted at a premium of 60 points per
month.
The forward rate is calculated as follows:
R
Spot rate: 7,000
Add: Premium (two months) (60 points per month) (2 × 0,0060) 0,012
Forward rate 7,012
Example 12.2: Calculating the forward rate (continued)

It is therefore determined that the exchange in two months’ time will take place at a rate of
$1 = R7,012, which could differ from the actual spot rate at the end of the two months. As a
result, both the risk of unfavourable exchange fluctuations and the possible benefit of
favourable exchange fluctuations have been eliminated for the entity.
Exchange rates can be quoted directly or indirectly. With the direct method the exchange
rate shows how much local currency has to be exchanged for one unit of the foreign
currency. For example, if one has to pay R12,50 to obtain one US dollar, the direct
quotation is $1=R12,50. With the indirect method the exchange rate is expressed as the
amount of foreign currency that is required to purchase one unit of the domestic currency.
In this example the indirect quotation is thus R1=$0,080.
It is, however, important to determine what is meant by the term “foreign currency”.
IAS 21.08 defines foreign currency as any currency other than the functional currency
of the entity.
An entity’s functional currency is the currency in which the entity measures the items in
the financial statements. It is essential in the application of IAS 21 that the functional
currency of the reporting entity and any other entity that forms part of the group (should
group statements be presented) is determined correctly, as any currency, other than the
functional currency, will represent foreign currency for purposes of IAS 21.
One must also distinguish functional currency from presentation currency. The
presentation currency is the currency in which the entity presents its financial statements
(IAS 21.08).
An entity does not have a free choice of functional currency, i.e. an entity has to
determine its functional currency by applying the principles in IAS 21.9 to .13. (Refer to
section 5.2.) However, IAS 21 permits an entity to present its financial statements in any
currency or currencies (IAS 21.19).
5 Accounting implications
An entity can enter into foreign denominated activities in one of two ways:
it can enter into foreign currency transactions directly. (In such a case, the foreign
currency transactions need to be converted to the functional currency of the entity).
by conducting its foreign denominated activities through a foreign operation, e.g. a
subsidiary, associate, joint arrangement or branch of the reporting entity (in such a
case, the foreign operation will keep accounting records in its own functional currency,
which, if different from the presentation currency of the reporting entity, must be
translated to the presentation currency of the reporting entity).
IAS 21 addresses the abovementioned situations, namely conversion of foreign currency
transactions to an entity’s functional currency and translation of the financial statements of
a foreign operation of an entity to the presentation currency of the reporting entity. The
translation of financial statements of a foreign operation does not fall within the scope of
this work.
5.1 Presentation currency
An entity’s presentation currency is the currency in which the financial statements are
presented (IAS 21.08).
An entity may present its financial statements in any currency or currencies. For example, a
South African company with a primary listing on the JSE Limited and a secondary listing on
the New York Stock Exchange may present its financial statements in South African Rand or
US Dollar.
5.2 Functional currency
Functional currency is defined as the currency of the primary economic environment

in which an entity operates (IAS 21.08). It reflects the underlying transactions, events and
conditions relevant to the entity.
IAS 21 lists primary indicators, as well as secondary indicators, that must be considered
when determining an entity’s functional currency. The primary indicators are linked to the
primary economic environment of the entity, while the secondary indicators are merely used
to provide additional supporting evidence to determine an entity’s functional currency
(IAS 21.BC9). If it is evident from the primary indicators what an entity’s functional currency
is, there is no need to consider the secondary factors.
The primary economic environment in which an entity operates is normally the one in
which it primarily generates and expends cash.
The following primary factors are considered when determining the functional currency of
an entity (IAS 21.09):
the currency that mainly influences sales prices for goods or services (normally the
currency in which the sales price for goods or services is denominated and settled);
the currency of the country whose competitive forces and regulations mainly determine
the sales price of its goods and services; and
the currency that mainly influences labour, material and other costs of providing goods
or services (normally the currency in which such costs are denominated and settled).
The following secondary factors may also provide evidence of an entity’s functional
currency (IAS 21.10):
the currency in which funds from financing activities, i.e. issuing debt and equity
instruments, are generated; and
the currency in which receipts from operating activities are usually retained.
In certain instances, determining the functional currency of an entity may be
straightforward, while in other instances judgement may be required to determine the
functional currency that most faithfully represents the economic effects of the underlying
transactions, events and conditions (IAS 21.12).
For example, a gold mining company will recognise all its sales in US Dollars, as gold is
denominated in international trade in US Dollars. The competitive forces of a single country
will also not necessarily influence the sales price of gold. If this company is in South Africa,
a significant part of its labour cost will be Rand-based. Therefore, based on the primary
indicators alone, it might be difficult to determine the functional currency. One will then
need to consider the secondary indicators, for example whether the gold mining company
uses foreign financing and in which country its bank accounts are.
Once an entity has determined its functional currency, it is not changed unless there
is a change in the primary economic environment in which the entity operates its business
(IAS 21.13 and .36).
5.3 Monetary and non-monetary items
Monetary and non-monetary items must be clearly distinguished. Monetary items are
money held and assets and liabilities to be received or paid in fixed or determinable
amounts of money. All other assets and liabilities are non-monetary items.
The following are examples of monetary and non-monetary items (IAS 21.16):
Monetary items: Non-monetary items:
Pensions and other employee benefits to Amounts prepaid for goods or
be paid in cash services
Provisions that are to be settled in cash Goodwill
Lease liabilities Intangible assets
Cash dividends recognised as liability Property, plant and equipment
A contract to receive (or deliver) a variable Inventories
number of the entity’s own equity Right-of-use assets
instruments in which the fair value to be
received (or delivered) equals a fixed Provisions to be settled by deliver of non-
number of units of currency. monetary item
6 Reporting foreign currency transactions in functional currency
A foreign currency transaction is a transaction that has been concluded and has to be
settled in a foreign currency.
Examples of foreign currency transactions include the following (IAS 21.20):

buying and selling of goods and services in a foreign currency;
borrowing and lending of funds in a foreign currency;
the acquisition and disposal of assets and the incurring and settling of liabilities in a
foreign currency.
6.1 Initial recognition
Foreign currency transactions are recorded on initial recognition in the functional

currency using the spot exchange rate ruling at the transaction date.
Two questions arise from the above:

Which exchange rate must be used?
What is the transaction date?
6.1.1 The exchange rate

When a foreign debt must be paid, currency must be purchased to repay such a debt, and
the selling rate of the bank applies. However, when foreign currency will be collected, it
must be sold for South African currency and the buyer’s rate of the bank applies.
The appropriate exchange rate for accounting for such transactions must be
determined from the perspective of the bank.
The spot exchange rate is the rate specified at the close of business on the transaction
date. The closing rate is the spot exchange rate at close of business on the last day of the
reporting period.
6.1.2 Transaction date
The date of the transaction is the date on which the transaction first qualifies for
recognition in accordance with IFRS (IAS 21.22).
When goods are delivered free-on-board (FOB) at the port of departure, the significant
risks and rewards associated with ownership are transferred to the buyer on delivery to the
port of departure. The buyer pays for the shipping costs and insurance as well as the price
of the purchased items calculated according to the FOB price. If goods are dispatched on a
cost, insurance, freight (CIF) basis, the risks and rewards associated with ownership still
pass to the buyer at the port of departure, but the seller arranges for the shipping of the
items involved. Although the terminology used differs, the risk and rewards associated with
ownership are transferred at point of shipment under both FOB and CIF sales. Should other
shipping terms be used, the transaction date may differ from the date of shipment.
However, the transaction date will still be the date on which the risks and rewards of
ownership will be transferred to the purchaser.
From a practical viewpoint, an approximate rate for a specific date or an average rate for
a week, month or even a longer period may be used as a substitute for the actual rate, as
long as the exchange rate does not fluctuate significantly in which case the use of an
average rate would be inappropriate (IAS 21.22).
6.2 Subsequent measurement

6.2.1 Reporting date
If a foreign monetary item has not been settled at the reporting date, it will be converted at
the closing rate ruling on that date, and any differences are taken to the profit or loss
section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income (IAS 21.28).
Once a non-monetary item has been recorded at a particular amount, that amount will
not change subsequently due to currency fluctuations, unless it is remeasured at fair value
after the date of acquisition (IAS 21.23(c)). In that event, the date of valuation becomes
the new transaction date.
If a foreign non-monetary item must be written down to net realisable value in terms of
IAS 2, Inventories or recoverable amount in terms of IAS 36, Impairment of Assets, the
carrying amount is determined by comparing (IAS 21.25):
the cost or carrying amount translated at spot rate on transaction or valuation date; and
the net realisable or recoverable amount translated at a spot rate on the reporting date
when the value was determined.
The difference between the amounts is written off in the functional currency. The effect of
this comparison may be that an impairment loss is recognised in the functional currency but
would not be recognised in the foreign currency, or vice versa.
Currency fluctuations after the reporting date are accounted for in accordance with
IAS 10, Events after the Reporting Period.
6.2.2 Settlement date

If a foreign monetary item is settled prior to the reporting date, any difference that may
arise is taken to the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income (IAS 21.28). However, when the transaction is settled in a
subsequent period, the exchange difference recognised in each period up to the date of
settlement is determined by the change in exchange rates during each period.
If a gain or loss on a non-monetary asset or liability is recognised in other comprehensive
income, then the foreign exchange difference must be recognised in other comprehensive
income as well (IAS 21.30). It follows that the treatment of foreign exchange differences
corresponds with the treatment of the gain or loss of the underlying non-monetary item.
This principle also applies to deferred tax in terms of IAS 12.
Example 12.3: Foreign currency transaction – creditor

RSA Ltd, a company conducting business in South Africa, purchased inventories from an
overseas supplier for FC200 000 on 30 September 20.21, when R1 = FC1. The supplier will
only be paid on 31 December 20.23. No forward cover was taken for the transaction. The
exchange rates were as follows:
31 December 20.21 R1 = FC0,80
31 December 20.22 R1 = FC1,00
31 December 20.23 R1 = FC1,25
RSA Ltd uses a perpetual inventory system to account for its inventories and has a
31 December year end.
The inventories were sold as follows:
20.21: 75%
20.22: 25%
The selling price is cost plus 100%.
Journal entries
Dr Cr
30 September 20.21 R R
Creditor (SFP) (FC200 000 × R1) 200 000
31 December 20.21
Receivables (SFP) 300 000
Sales (P/L) 300 000
(R200 000 × 200% × 75%) or (R150 000 × 200/100)
Inventories (SFP) (R200 000 × 75%) 150 000
Example 12.3: Foreign currency transaction – creditor (continued)

Dr Cr
R R
Foreign exchange difference (P/L) 50 000
Creditor (SFP) (FC200 000/FC0,8 – R200 000) 50 000
31 December 20.22
Receivables (SFP) 100 000
Sales (P/L) (R200 000 × 200% × 25%) 100 000
Inventories (SFP) (R200 000 × 25%) 50 000
Creditor (SFP) 50 000
[(FC200 000/FC1,00) – (FC200 000/FC0,8)]
31 December 20.23
[(FC200 000/FC1,25) – (FC200 000/FC1,00)]
Bank (SFP) (FC200 000/FC1,25) 160 000
Comment:
¾ It is clear that when the Rand deteriorates, it would be to the disadvantage of the
South African creditor. The opposite is obviously also true.
Example 12.4: Foreign exchange transaction – sales and a debtor

Bella Ltd, operating in South Africa, entered into a sales transaction with a foreign company
on 30 September 20.21. Since Bella Ltd anticipated that the Rand would deteriorate in the
foreseeable future, the transaction was denominated in FC. In terms of this transaction,
Bella Ltd delivered inventories valued at FC200 000 to the foreign company on
30 September 20.21 when the exchange rate was R1 = FC1. The foreign company will settle
the amount outstanding in respect of the inventories sold to them on 31 December 20.23.
Bella Ltd has a 31 December year end. The relevant exchange rates are as follows:
31 December 20.21 R1 = FC0,80 or FC1 = R1,25
The selling price is cost plus 100%.
The journal entries in the records of Bella Ltd, will be as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
30 September 20.21
Debtor (SFP) (FC200 000/FC1 or × R1) 200 000
Sales (P/L) 200 000
Recognise sales on transaction date
30 September 20.21
Inventory (SFP) (R200 000 × 100/200) 100 000
Recognise cost of sales on transaction date
Example 12.4: Foreign exchange transaction – sales and a debtor (continued)

Dr Cr
R R
31 December 20.21
Debtor (SFP) [(FC200 000/FC0,8 or × R1,25) – R200 000] 50 000
Adjust balance of debtor to closing rate at year end
31 December 20.22
Debtor (SFP) [R250 000 – (FC200 000/FC1,00 or × R1,00)] 50 000
Adjust balance of debtor to closing rate at year end
31 December 20.23
Bank (SFP) (FC200 000/FC1,25 or × R0,80) 160 000
Foreign exchange difference (P/L) [FC200 000 × (R1,00 – R0,80)] 40 000
Debtor (SFP) (R200 000 + R50 000 – R50 000) 200 000
Adjust balance of debtor to closing rate at year end and account
for settlement by debtor
OR
Debtor (SFP) 40 000
Restate debtor to Rand amount before settlement
Bank (SFP) 160 000
Debtor (SFP) 160 000
Settlement by debtor
Comments:
¾ It is clear that it is to the advantage of the seller (Bella Ltd) if the Rand deteriorates as
the company will receive more Rand per FC.
¾ By contrast, it is to the disadvantage of Bella Ltd should the Rand appreciate, as the
company would then receive fewer Rand per FC.
¾ Also note the difference in notation of the Rand versus the foreign currency as provided
in this question, namely R1 = FC or FC1 = R. The notation has an impact on the
technique of translation: when using R1 = FC division is used, whereas FC1 = R requires
multiplication to be used (refer to Example 12.1).
Example 12.5: Loan denominated in foreign currency

A South African company with a financial year end of 31 December, borrows FC3 000 on
30 June 20.21 and receives R3 300. Interest on the loan is repayable in arrears at 10% per
annum. The capital is repayable on 30 June 20.23. The applicable exchange rates are as
follows:
30 June 31 December
FC1 = R FC1 = R
20.21 1,100 1,087
20.22 1,053 1,010
20.23 1,136 1,099
Example 12.5: Loan denominated in foreign currency (continued)

The foreign exchange differences arising on the capital will be calculated as follows:
Date FC Rate R
30.06.20.21 Receive 3 000 1,100 3 300
31.12.20.21 Foreign exchange difference (balancing) (39)
31.12.20.21 Balance 3 000 1,087 3 261
31.12.20.22 Balance 3 000 1,010 3 030
30.06.20.23 Payment (3 000) 1,136 (3 408)
30.06.20.23 Foreign exchange difference (balancing) 378
30.06.20.23 Balance – 1,136 –
The loan represents a financial liability in terms of IFRS 9, Financial Instruments, which will
initially be measured at fair value and subsequently at amortised cost. Assuming the 10%
interest rate is market-related, the amortised cost balance would be equal to the capital
outstanding as indicated in the table above. The amortised cost method requires that
interest must be recognised on a time-apportioned basis. Consequently, interest will be
accrued on a day-to-day basis and as IAS 21 requires transactions to be measured at the
spot rate applicable on the transaction date, an average exchange rate must be used to
translate the finance charges. The accrued interest represents a monetary liability that must
be remeasured to the spot rate at the reporting date.
The following finance charges and foreign exchange differences will arise:
Date FC Rate R
31.12.20.21 Interest expense 1501 1,09352 164
31.12.20.21 Balance 150 1,087 163
30.06.20.22 Interest paid (300) 1,053 (316)
30.06.20.22 Foreign exchange difference (163 + 161 – 316) (8)
31.12.20.22 Balance 150 1,010 152
30.06.20.23 Interest paid (300) 1,136 (341)
30.06.20.23 Foreign exchange difference (152 + 161 – 341) 28
30.06.20.23 Balance – 1,136 –
1. 3 000 × 10% × 6/12 = 150
2. (1,100 + 1,087)/2 = 1,0935 (average rate for 30 June 20.21 to 31 December 20.21)
3. (1,087 + 1,053)/2 = 1, 07 (average rate for 1 January 20.22 to 30 June 20.22)
4. (1,053 + 1,010)/2 = 1,0315 (average rate for 1 July 20.22 to 31 December 20.22)
5. (1,010 + 1,136)/2 = 1,073 (average rate for 1 January 20.23 to 30 June 20.23)
The journal entries for the loan will be as follows:
Dr Cr
30 June 20.21 R R
Bank (SFP) 3 300
Loan (SFP) 3 300
Recognise foreign loan at spot rate on transaction date
Example 12.5: Loan denominated in foreign currency (continued)

Dr Cr
R R
31 December 20.21
Loan (SFP) 39
Foreign exchange difference (P/L) 39
Restate loan (monetary item) to spot rate at year end
Interest accrued (SFP) 164
Recognise interest accrued for six months (30.06.20.21–31.12.20.21)
Restate interest accrued (monetary item) to spot rate at year end
30 June 20.22
Interest accrued (SFP) (164 – 1 + 161) 324
Bank (SFP) 316
Settle accrued interest at spot rate on settlement date
31 December 20.22
Loan (SFP) 231
Restate loan (monetary item) to spot rate at year end
Restate interest accrued (monetary item) to spot rate at year end
30 June 20.23
Loan (SFP) 378
Restate loan (monetary item) to spot rate on settlement date
Loan (SFP) (3 000 × 1,136) 3 408
Bank (SFP) 3 408
Settle loan payment at spot rate on settlement date
Interest accrued (SFP) (155 – 3 + 161) 313
Bank (SFP) 341
Settle accrued interest at spot rate on settlement date
6.3 Disclosure
IAS 21.51 to .57 requires the following disclosure:
The amount of foreign exchange differences recognised in the profit or loss section of
the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income except for those arising
on financial instruments measured at fair value through profit or loss in accordance with
IFRS 9. For financial instruments at fair value through profit or loss the foreign exchange
difference will be included in the total fair value adjustment and need not be separately
disclosed.
When the presentation currency is different from the functional currency, the following
must be disclosed:
– that fact;
– the functional currency; and
– the reason for using a different presentation currency.
When there is a change in the functional currency of the reporting entity, the following
must be disclosed:
– that fact; and
– the reason for the change in the functional currency.
Example 12.6: Foreign exchange transaction – journals and disclosure

On 1 January 20.23, Forex Ltd, a South African company, ordered inventories to the value of
FC100 000 from an overseas company. The inventories were shipped free-on-board (FOB)
on 1 March 20.23. The transaction is uncovered. The foreign creditor was paid on
30 June 20.23. The financial year end of Forex Ltd is 31 May.
Time-line:
1 Jan 20.23 1 March 20.23 31 May 20.23 30 June 20.23
____ / ___________________ / ___________________ / ___________________ /
Order Transaction date Year end Settlement date
R6,90 R7,10 R7,60 R7,80
The following exchange rates are applicable:
Date Spot rate
1 January 20.23 FC1 = R6,90
1 March 20.23 FC1 = R7,10
31 March 20.23 FC1 = R7,35
30 April 20.23 FC1 = R7,00
31 May 20.23 FC1 = R7,60
30 June 20.23 FC1 = R7,80
The journals in the records of Forex Ltd will be as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
1 March 20.23: Transaction date
[FC100 000 × R7,10]
Recognise inventories and creditor at spot rate on transaction date
31 May 20.23: Reporting date
[FC100 000 × (R7,60 – R7,10)]
Restate creditor to spot rate at year end
Example 12.6: Foreign exchange transaction – journals and disclosure (continued)

Dr Cr
R R
30 June 20.23: Settlement date
[FC100 000 × (R7,80 – R7,60)]
Restate creditor to spot rate on settlement date
Bank (SFP) 780 000
[FC100 000 × R7,80]
Settle foreign creditor
OR
Bank (SFP) [FC100 000 × R7,80] 780 000
Restate creditor to spot rate on settlement date and settle creditor
The disclosure in the financial statements of Forex Ltd will be as follows:
Forex Ltd
Extract from the statement of financial position as at 31 May 20.23
Note R
Assets
Current assets
Inventories 710 000
Current liabilities
Creditors 6 760 000
Forex Ltd
Extract from the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the year
ended 31 May 20.23
Other expenses (R50 000 + XXXX) XXXX
Forex Ltd
Notes for the year ended 31 May 20.23
1.1 Foreign exchange
Foreign exchange differences are recognised in the profit or loss section of the
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income as incurred.
Profit before tax is calculated after taking the following into account:
R
Expenses
Foreign exchange difference 50 000
Example 12.6: Foreign exchange transaction – journals and disclosure (continued)

3. Creditors
Inventories to the value of FC100 000 were purchased during the year. This
transaction was not hedged against negative foreign currency fluctuations. The
foreign creditor of R760 000 at year end will be settled on 30 June 20.23.
Applicable exchange rates:
Transaction date (1 March 20.23) FC1 = R7,10
31 May 20.23 FC1 = R7,60
Summary of foreign exchange transactions

Transaction date Reporting date Settlement date
Monetary item Recognise at spot Restate to spot rate Settle at spot rate on
rate on reporting date settlement date
Non-monetary Recognise at spot No adjustment No adjustment
item rate
Exchange No exchange Exchange profit/ loss Exchange profit/ loss on
difference difference on monetary item to monetary item to the
the profit or loss profit or loss section of
section of the the statement of profit
statement of profit or or loss and other
loss and other comprehensive income
7 Short and sweet

of foreign exchange transactions.
The exchange rate is the ratio at which the currencies of two countries are exchanged at
any given point in time.
The spot exchange rate is the exchange rate for immediate delivery of currencies to be
exchanged at a particular time.
The closing rate is the spot exchange rate at the reporting date.
The forward rate is the exchange rate available in terms of an FEC agreement for the
exchange of two currencies at a future date.
Presentation currency is the currency in which the financial statements are presented.
Functional currency is defined as the currency of the primary economic environment in
which an entity operates.
Foreign currency transactions are recorded in the functional currency using the spot
exchange rate ruling on the transaction date.
Monetary and non-monetary items must be clearly identified for the purposes of
converting foreign exchange transactions.
Foreign exchange differences as a result of the conversion of foreign exchange
transactions are recognised in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss
13
Impairment of assets
IAS 36
Contents
1 Evaluation criteria ......................................................................................... 351
2 Schematic representation of IAS 36 ............................................................... 352
3 Background................................................................................................... 352
4 Nature of impairment..................................................................................... 353
5 Measurement of recoverable amount and recognition of impairment loss ........... 355
5.1 Fair value less costs of disposal ............................................................ 356
5.2 Value in use ........................................................................................ 357
5.3 Recognition and measurement of an impairment loss ............................. 361
5.4 Measuring recoverable amount for an intangible asset with an indefinite
useful life ............................................................................................ 361
6 Reversal of an impairment loss ...................................................................... 361
7 Disclosure ..................................................................................................... 365
7.1 Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income: profit or
loss section ......................................................................................... 365
7.2 Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income: other
comprehensive income section ............................................................. 365
7.3 Notes to the financial statements .......................................................... 365
8 Short and sweet ............................................................................................ 369
Apply the prescribed principles to determine whether an asset is subject to impairment.
Apply the principles relating to the measurement of the recoverable amount of an asset.
Apply the principles relating to the measurement and recognition of impairment losses.
Apply the principles relating to the reversal of impairment losses.
Present and disclose impairment of assets in the financial statements of an entity.
Note: Cash generating units are outside the scope of this work.
351
Objective
Prescribe the recognition, measurement and disclosure of impairment of assets.
Prevent the overstatement of assets in the financial statements.
Nature of impairment
An impairment loss is the amount by which the carrying amount of an asset exceeds its
recoverable amount.
Impairment is an indication that the full carrying amount of the asset will probably not be
recovered in the future, either through sale or through use.
Only test for impairment if an indication exists from external or internal sources that the asset
may possibly be impaired.
Carrying amount Recoverable amount

This is the amount at which an asset is This is the higher of an asset’s fair value
recognised in the statement of financial less costs of disposal and its value in
position after deducting any accumulated use.
depreciation or amortisation and
accumulated impairment losses.
Fair value less costs of disposal Value in use

Fair value is the price that would be This is the present value of future cash
received to sell an asset or paid to flows expected to be derived from an
transfer a liability in an orderly asset.
transaction between market participants These cash flows include both those
at the measurement date (IFRS 13). derived from the continued use of the
Costs of disposal are the direct asset and the eventual disposal of the
incremental costs attributable to the asset at the end of its useful life.
disposal of the asset. Discount rate = current pre-tax market
rate.
Reversal of impairment loss

Assess at each reporting date whether there are indications that earlier impairment losses
recognised may have decreased or no longer exist.
If the recalculated recoverable amount now exceeds the carrying amount of the assets, the
carrying amount of the asset is increased to the new recoverable amount.
The reversal is limited to the carrying amount on reporting date as if no previous impairment
occurred.
3 Background
The main objective of IAS 36 is to provide procedures that the entity must follow to
ensure that its assets are not carried in the statement of financial position at values greater
than their recoverable amounts.
Impairment of assets 353
The qualitative characteristics as contained in The Conceptual Framework (refer to

chapter 1) forms the basis for the principles in the standard on impairment (IAS 36).
If an asset is carried at an amount greater than its recoverable amount, the full
carrying amount of the asset will probably not be recovered in the future, either through sale
or through use. As a result a relating impairment loss should be recognised.
IAS 36 also addresses when impairment losses must be recognised or reversed for
individual assets as well as the disclosure requirements for impairment losses, reversal
of impairment losses and impaired assets. IAS 36 applies both to assets carried at cost and
at a revalued amount.
IAS 36 applies mainly to:
tangible and intangible assets;
investments in subsidiaries;
joint ventures; and
associates,
although the last three items are financial assets.
IAS 36 is not applicable to assets such as:
inventories;
construction contracts;
deferred tax assets;
employee benefits;
investment property measured at fair value;
biological assets from agricultural activity carried at fair value less estimated point-of-
sale costs;
deferred acquisition costs;
intangible assets arising from IFRS 4;
non-current assets classified as held for sale under IFRS 5; and
financial assets within the scope of IFRS 9.
These items are excluded from the scope of IFRS 9, as their recoverability is dealt with in
the relevant standards.
4 Nature of impairment
IAS 36 contains a number of definitions, which are essential in explaining the impairment
approach.
Impairment loss is the amount by which the carrying amount of an asset exceeds its
recoverable amount.
Recoverable amount is the higher of an asset’s fair value less costs of disposal and its
value in use.
Fair value is the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a
liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date
(refer to IFRS 13, Fair Value Measurement).
Costs of disposal are the direct incremental costs attributable to the disposal of the
asset.
Value in use is the present value (PV) of future cash flows expected to be derived from
an asset. These cash flows include both those from the continuing use of the asset as
well as from the eventual disposal of the asset at the end of its useful life.
Carrying amount is the amount at which an asset is recognised in the statement of
financial position after deducting any accumulated depreciation or amortisation and
accumulated impairment losses thereon.
Fair value differs from value in use. Fair value is a reflection of the assumptions that
market participants would make when allocating a price to the asset, being a market value.
Value in use, in contrast to this, reflects entity-specific factors that may not be applicable to
entities in general, being an entity-specific value.
The above definitions imply that if the value in use or fair value less costs of disposal of an
asset is higher than the carrying amount of the asset, IAS 36 does not apply. Conversely, if
both the value in use and the fair value less costs of disposal of an asset are lower than the
carrying amount of the asset, the asset is impaired and the entity will not be able to recover
the carrying amount of the asset either through use or by selling the asset. It follows
logically that if the value in use of an asset is higher than its fair value less costs of disposal,
the entity will probably continue to use the asset as more value can be obtained through
use than by selling the asset. The opposite is also true. If the fair value less costs of
disposal is higher than the value in use it would be logical for the entity to sell the asset
immediately.
If an asset is impaired, the carrying amount of the asset is written down to its
recoverable amount.
A problem that arises with the application of IAS 36 is that it is not always easy to identify
which assets are impaired. It would also not be cost-effective to assess all assets for
impairment on an annual basis. Consequently, IAS 36 provides indicators to entities of
when assets are likely to be impaired.
An entity shall at the end of each reporting period assess whether or not there are
indications that assets may be impaired. If such indications exist, the entity must calculate
the recoverable amounts of the particular assets, provided the impact thereof is material.
Irrespective of whether there is any indication of impairment and whether it is material, an

entity shall also annually test the following assets for impairment:
an intangible asset with an indefinite useful life;
an intangible asset not yet available for use;
goodwill acquired in a business combination.
Note that the ability of an intangible asset to generate sufficient future economic benefits to
recover its carrying amount is usually subject to greater uncertainty before the asset is
available for use. The impairment test may be conducted at any time during the
year, provided it is performed at the same time every year. However, if such an
intangible asset is recognised initially during the current annual financial period, it must be
tested for impairment before the end of the current financial reporting period; and test
goodwill acquired in a business combination annually for impairment.
Note that the materiality of an item will not play a role when doing the compulsory
impairment tests, but it will play a role when looking at normal indications of impairment.
The entity should, as a minimum, consider the following indicators in assessing whether
assets are likely to be impaired (IAS 36.12):
External sources of information
There are observable indications that the asset’s value has declined significantly more
than would be expected as a result of the passage of time or normal use.
Significant changes with an adverse effect on the entity have taken place during the
period, or will take place in the near future, in the technological, market, economic or
legal environment in which the entity operates or in the market to which the products of
an asset are dedicated.
Market interest rates or other market rates of return on investments have increased
during the period, and those increases are likely to affect the discount rate used in
calculating an asset’s value in use, causing a material decrease in the asset’s recoverable
amount.
The carrying amount of the net assets of the reporting entity is more than its market
capitalisation (i.e. number of shares × quoted market price).
Internal sources of information
Evidence is available of obsolescence of, or physical damage to, an asset.
Significant changes with an adverse effect on the entity have taken place during the
period, or are expected to take place in the near future, to the extent to which, or
manner in which, an asset is used or is expected to be used. These changes include the
asset becoming idle, plans to discontinue or restructure the operation to which an asset
belongs, plans to dispose of an asset before the previously expected date and
reassessing the useful life of an asset as finite rather than indefinite.
Evidence is available from internal reporting that indicates that the economic
performance of an asset is, or will be, worse than expected.
If previous analyses have shown that the carrying amount of the asset is not sensitive to
the above indicators, it is not necessary to calculate the recoverable amount of the asset.
Once there is an indication that an asset may be impaired, the remaining useful life,
depreciation method or residual value of the asset may also be affected. These must
therefore be reviewed and adjusted even if no impairment loss is recognised.
As already mentioned in the definitions, the recoverable amount is the higher of the fair
value less costs of disposal or the value in use of the asset. The calculation of each of these
elements will now be considered individually. It is not always necessary to determine both
an asset’s fair value less costs of disposal and value in use. If either of these amounts
exceeds the carrying amount of the asset, there will be no impairment.
5 Measurement of recoverable amount and recognition of impairment loss
An asset is impaired when its carrying amount is higher than its recoverable amount.
In such instances, the carrying amount of the asset must be written down to its recoverable
amount and an impairment loss shall be recognised in the profit or loss section of the
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income, or through other
comprehensive income in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income,
against the revaluation surplus relating to the asset.
5.1 Fair value less costs of disposal
Fair value is the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a
liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date.
The term active market is often referred to in this context of measuring fair value and is
defined in Appendix A of IFRS 13 as “a market in which transactions for the asset or liability
take place with sufficient frequency and volume to provide pricing information on an
ongoing basis”. The fair value hierarchy established in IFRS 13 gives the highest priority to
quoted prices (unadjusted) in active markets for identical assets or liabilities. Therefore
quoted prices in an active market would be the best indication of measuring the fair value
of an asset when testing for impairment and specifically when calculating fair value less
costs of disposal. It may, however, be possible to measure fair value less costs of disposal
even if there is no quoted price in an active market for an identical asset, for example with
reference to quoted prices for a similar asset in an active market or with reference to
quoted prices for identical or similar assets in markets that are not active. IFRS 13 provides
detailed guidance on the measurement of fair value.
The costs of disposal are the incremental costs that are directly attributable to the
disposal of the asset. However, finance costs and income tax expenses are excluded.
The costs of disposal include costs such as:
legal costs;
stamp duty;
transaction taxes;
the cost of removing the assets; and
any direct incremental costs incurred to bring the asset into a condition for sale.
The costs of disposal exclude:
termination benefits;
costs associated with reducing or reorganising the entity as a result of the sale of the
asset; and
costs for which a provision has already been made.
Where an asset is held for disposal, the value in use will probably be less than the fair
value less costs of disposal, as the future cash flows from continuing use of the asset will be
negligible. In these instances it is not necessary to calculate the value in use, and the
recoverable amount is deemed to be the fair value less costs of disposal.
Example 13.1: Fair value less costs of disposal

At 31 December 20.24 Quantum Ltd owns a machine for which there is an active market,
with a carrying amount of R106 666. The machine can at this stage be disposed of to a
market participant for R108 500.
This machine initially cost R200 000 and is depreciated on a straight-line basis over
7,5 years. A total of 3,5 years of the useful life of the machine have already expired as at
31 December 20.24.
Example 13.1: Fair value less costs of disposal (continued)

Any broker involved in such a transaction will charge a fee of R2 000 and the current value of
the cost to dismantle and remove the asset will be R3 000 (assume no provision has been
recognised for these costs). Before considering the recoverable amount of the asset, the asset
was serviced to ensure that it was in good working order. The technician charged R1 500 for the
service. Assume that these costs were necessary to bring the asset into a condition suitable for
its sale.
To determine the fair value less costs of disposal of this asset, the following calculation is
done:
R
Selling price in an active market 108 500
Less: Brokerage (2 000)
Cost of service – bring asset into condition for its sale (1 500)
Cost of dismantling/removing the asset (3 000)
Fair value less costs of disposal 102 000
5.2 Value in use
The steps required to establish value in use generally correspond with the calculation
of the present value in an investment decision, i.e.:
estimate the future cash inflows and outflows to be derived from the continuing use and
eventual disposal of the asset; and
apply an appropriate discount rate to these future cash flows.
The calculation of value in use is more complex than the calculation of the fair value less
costs of disposal, as it involves predictions about future cash flows as well as an estimation
of the appropriate discount rate. In the case of the fair value less costs of disposal, reliable
external information usually exists, while the value in use is more subjective, relying on the
application of professional judgement.
5.2.1 Cash flow projections

Such cash projections must be performed with due care and accuracy and for all projections,
greater weight must be given to external evidence.
IAS 36.33 requires that cash flow projections:
be based on reasonable and supportable assumptions, based on management’s best
estimate of the economic conditions that will exist over the remaining useful life of
the asset;
be based on the most recent financial budgets or forecasts that have been approved by
management. These projections must cover a maximum of five years unless a longer
period is justified, and must exclude estimated future cash inflows or outflows expected
to arise from future restructurings or from improving or enhancing the performance of
the asset; and
beyond the period covered by the budgets or forecasts be estimated by extrapolating
the projections based on the budgets/forecasts with a steady or declining growth
rate, unless an increasing rate can be justified. The growth rate must not exceed the
long-term growth rate of the products/industry/country.
Management must assess the reasonableness of the assumptions on which its current cash
flow projections are based, by considering the causes of differences between past estimated
and actual cash flows. In addition, management must also consider whether the
assumptions on which current cash flows are based are consistent with past actual
outcomes, or whether they are adjusted appropriately.
The cash flows projections include:
cash inflows from the continuing use of the asset;
cash outflows incurred to generate the cash inflows from the continuing use of the asset,
including outflows that can be directly attributed or allocated on a reasonable basis (such
as the day-to-day servicing of the asset); and
net cash flows to be received or paid on the eventual disposal of the asset at the end of
its useful life.
The cash flow from the disposal of the asset at the end of its useful life is the amount
that the entity expects to obtain from the disposal of the asset in an arm’s-length
transaction between knowledgeable and willing parties, after deducting the estimated costs
of disposal.
The cash flows from disposal are based on prices prevailing at the date of the estimate for
similar assets that have already reached the end of their useful life and have operated
under conditions similar to those in which the asset will be used, which are then adjusted
for the effect of future price increases (due to general inflation or specific price increases).
It is important that the cash flows used in the calculation must only be those
attributable to the particular asset.
The cash flow projection also excludes:

future cash inflows or outflows from the future restructuring of the entity to which the
entity is not yet committed; or
future capital expenditure that will enhance or improve the performance of the asset.
The general rule is that the future cash flows must be estimated for the asset in its
current condition.
Irrespective of the general rule stated above, estimates of future cash flows shall include
future cash outflows necessary to maintain the level of economic benefits expected to arise
from the asset in its current condition (for example day-to-day servicing).
5.2.2 Discount rate

Estimates of future cash flows must also exclude cash flows from financing activities and
income tax receipts and payments.
The cash flows from the use of an asset must not be obscured by tax practices;
therefore, the cash flows before tax are used. The discount rate will consequently also be a
figure before tax.
The required discount rate, which is a pre-tax current market rate, is independent of the
entity’s capital structure.
Detailed guidance on the determination of the discount rate is provided in Appendix A to
IAS 36. The rate includes the time value of money and a provision for the particular type of
risk to which the asset in question is exposed. To avoid double counting, the discount rate
must not reflect risks for which the future cash flow estimates have already been adjusted,
and vice versa. Therefore, if the discount rate accommodates the effect of price increases
due to inflation, cash flows will be measured in nominal terms (i.e. be increased for
inflation). However, if the discount rate excludes the effect of inflation, the cash flows to be
discounted must be measured in real terms (i.e. not increased for inflation). In all material
respects, this asset-specific rate corresponds to the one used in the investment decision,
except that a pre-tax rate is required to determine impairment.
When an asset-specific rate is not available from the market, the entity uses its weighted
average cost of capital, its incremental borrowing rate and other market borrowing rates as
a starting point for developing an appropriate rate. These rates are adjusted to reflect the
specific risks of the projected cash flows and to exclude risks not relevant to the projected
cash flows or risks for which cash flows have been adjusted. These risks include country
risk, currency risk, price risk and cash flow risk. This pre-tax rate is then applied to
discount the expected cash flows from using the asset to establish its value in use.
Example 13.2: Recoverable amount

The asset mentioned in Example 13.1 about Quantum Ltd has a remaining useful life of four
years on 31 December 20.24. Quantum Ltd is of the opinion that this asset will generate
cash inflows of R60 000 per year, plus directly associated necessary cash outflows of
R20 000 per year over the next four years. This was confirmed in management’s most
recent cash flow budget. The asset will be disposed of at a net amount of R4 000 at the end
of its useful life.
An appropriate after-tax discount rate for this type of asset is 15,4% per annum, and the
current tax rate is 30%. Assume all amounts are material.
The value in use of this asset will be determined as follows:
Net cash inflows per annum (R60 000 – R20 000) R40 000
Period over which inflows will occur 4 years
Expected net cash inflow at disposal R4 000
Pre-tax discount rate (15,4%/70%) 22%
Present value of cash generated via usage and disposal:
PMT = R40 000
n = 4 years
i = 22%
FV = R4 000
Comp PV = R101 552
If the asset is impaired, the impairment loss that is recognised in the profit or
loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
will be calculated as follows:
(The recoverable amount is the higher of the fair value less costs of disposal and
the value in use of the asset under consideration).
R
Fair value less costs of disposal (from Example 13.1) 102 000
Value in use 101 552
Recoverable amount 102 000
Example 13.2: Recoverable amount (continued)

The impairment loss is calculated as the difference between the carrying amount
and the recoverable amount:
R
Recoverable amount (102 000)
Impairment loss to be recognised 4 666
Journal entry
Dr Cr
Impairment loss (P/L) 4 666
The depreciation charge for the year ended 31 December 20.24 is:
R200 000/7,5= R26 667
The depreciation charge for subsequent years is:
R102 000*/4 (remaining useful life) = R25 500
* New carrying amount
5.2.3 Value in use where the entity is committed to restructuring

Although it was stated under section 14.2.1 that a future restructuring to which an entity is
not yet committed must not impact on cash flows when calculating value in use, the
situation changes when an entity becomes committed to a restructuring.
Once an entity is committed to the restructuring, its estimates of future cash inflows and
cash outflows for the purpose of determining value in use, shall reflect the cost savings and
other benefits from restructuring resulting from the most recent budgets/forecasts approved
by management. Furthermore, estimates of future cash outflows for restructuring are
included in a restructuring provision in terms of IAS 37, Provisions, Contingent Liabilities
and Contingent Assets.
Example 13.3
A Ltd uses a manufacturing machine to manufacture product X that generates net cash
flows of R1 000 000 per annum. This machine is currently operated by two full-time
employees. However, the performance of product X is not as good as initially expected and
management is considering a restructuring plan in terms of which the machine will be used
to manufacture product Y instead. This will increase the annual cash flows of the machine
by R800 000 per annum.
However, one of the employees will be retrenched. In terms of the service termination
agreement entered into with the employee, the entity will make a termination payment of
R100 000 to the employee.
The expected costs to adjust the machine to manufacture product Y, is R120 000.
Once management is committed to the restructuring, the annual cash flows for the value in
use calculation will be R1 680 000 (1 000 000 + 800 000 – 120 000).
The termination costs of R100 000 will be raised as a provision, since there is a legal
present obligation to make the payment and should be ignored when calculating the value
in use.
Comment
¾ In terms of IAS 36.44(b), any cash flows resulting from future improvements to the asset
must be ignored when calculating the value in use.
5.3 Recognition and measurement of an impairment loss
If the impaired asset (other than goodwill) is accounted for on the cost model
(IAS 16), the impairment loss is immediately recognised in the profit or loss section of the
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income. The impairment losses for
assets (other than goodwill) that are accounted for on the revaluation model (IAS 16) are
treated as decreases of the revaluation surplus through the other comprehensive income
section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
Should the impairment loss exceed the revaluation surplus, the excess is recognised as an
expense in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income. The impairment loss of one revalued asset may not be adjusted against
a revaluation surplus of another revalued asset as surpluses and deficits are offset on an
item-for-item basis. The treatment of an impairment loss on a revalued asset is therefore
similar to the treatment of a revaluation deficit.
The depreciation charge in respect of an asset subject to impairment shall be adjusted

for future periods to allocate the asset’s revised carrying amount (net of the impairment
loss) less its residual value, on a systematic basis over its remaining useful life.
5.4 Measuring recoverable amount for an intangible asset with an indefinite useful life
It was noted earlier that some assets must be tested for impairment annually,
irrespective of whether there are indications of impairment or not. An intangible asset with
an indefinite useful life is an example of such an asset.
Due to the practical implications of testing for impairment on an annual basis, IAS 36 allows
an entity to use the most recent detailed calculation of such an asset’s recoverable amount
made in a preceding period to test for impairment in the current period, provided all the
following criteria are met:
the most recent recoverable amount calculation should have resulted in a recoverable
amount that exceeded the carrying amount of the asset now tested for impairment, by a
wide margin; and
based on an analysis of the circumstances surrounding the most recent recoverable
amount calculation, the likelihood that the current recoverable amount determination
would be less than the asset’s carrying amount, must be remote.
6 Reversal of an impairment loss
An entity must, at the end of each reporting period, assess whether there are
indications that earlier impairment losses recognised for assets, other than goodwill, may
have decreased or no longer exist. If such indications exist, the entity must calculate the
recoverable amounts of the particular assets, provided the impact thereof is material.
This does not imply that the recoverable amounts should automatically be calculated on all
previously impaired assets. The objective of IAS 36 is rather to look for indications that
these impairments may have reversed wholly or partially.
The recoverable amounts are calculated only on those assets where there are
indications that the impairment losses may have reversed.
The following are indications (similar to those indicating original impairment, but the inverse
thereof) that should be considered as a minimum:
External sources of information
There are observable indications that the asset’s value has increased significantly during
the period.
Significant changes with a favourable effect on the entity have taken place during the
period, or will take place in the near future, in the technological, market, economic or
legal environment in which the entity operates or in the market to which the products of
the asset is dedicated.
Market interest rates or other market rates of return on investments have decreased
during the period, and those decreases are likely to affect the discount rate used in
calculating the asset’s value in use and increase the asset’s recoverable amount
materially.
Internal sources of information
Significant changes with a favourable effect on the entity have taken place during the
period, or are expected to take place in the near future, to the extent to which, or
manner in which, the asset is used or is expected to be used. These changes include
capital expenditure that has been incurred during the period to improve or enhance an
asset’s performance or restructure the operation to which the asset belongs.
Evidence is available from internal reporting that indicates that the economic
performance of the asset is, or will be, better than expected.
If the recoverable amount of an identified impaired asset (other than goodwill) is

recalculated and it now exceeds the carrying amount of the asset, the carrying amount of the
asset is increased to the new recoverable amount, subject to a calculated maximum
amount.
This is a reversal of impairment losses which reflects, in essence, that due to a change in
circumstances, the estimated service potential through sale or use of the asset has
increased since the date (mostly in prior periods) on which the asset became impaired. The
reversal of an impairment loss may also indicate that the remaining useful life, depreciation
method and residual value of the particular asset must also be reviewed.
This reversal will only be recognised if there has been a change in the estimates used
to calculate the recoverable amount since the previous impairment loss was recognised.
Examples of changes in estimates that cause an increase in service potential include:

a change in the basis for determining the recoverable amount (say from fair value less
costs of disposal to value in use, or vice versa);
where the recoverable amount was based on value in use, a change in the amount or
timing of estimated future cash flows or the discount rate; or
if the recoverable amount was based on fair value less costs of disposal, a change in
estimate of the components of fair value less costs of disposal.
The impairment loss is reversed only to the extent that it does not exceed the carrying
amount (net of depreciation or amortisation) that would have been determined for the asset
(other than goodwill) in prior years, if there had been no impairment loss.
Any increase in the carrying amount of the asset above the carrying amount that would
have been calculated with no previous impairment loss, must be treated as a revaluation
in terms of the normal revaluation principles of IAS 16.
An impairment loss is not reversed because of unwinding of the discount rate used in the
calculation of value in use, as the service potential of the asset has not increased in such an
instance.
A reversal of an impairment loss is immediately recognised in the profit or loss

section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income if the asset (other
than goodwill) is accounted for according to the cost model. If the asset is accounted for
according to the revaluation model, the reversal of the impairment loss is treated as an
increase in the revaluation surplus, through other comprehensive income in the statement
In instances where the whole or part of the impairment loss of a revalued asset was
recognised as an expense in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and
other comprehensive income in prior periods, a reversal for that impairment loss (or part
thereof) is first recognised as income in the profit or loss section, until all prior recognised
impairment losses have been reversed, where after the remainder is shown as an increase
of the revaluation surplus, through other comprehensive income in the statement of profit
or loss and other comprehensive income. The treatment of a reversal of an impairment loss
on a revalued asset is therefore similar to the treatment of a revaluation surplus.
Example 13.4: Reversal of impairment loss – individual asset on cost model

The carrying amount of a machine belonging to Cheers Ltd at the end of the reporting
period, 30 June 20.25, is as follows:
R
Cost 50 000
Accumulated depreciation (calculated at 10% per annum, straight-line,
assuming no current estimated residual value) (25 000)
Carrying amount at the end of Year 5 25 000
The fair value less costs of disposal of the asset under consideration is R20 000. The
present value of the expected return from the use of the asset over its useful life amounts to
R15 000. The value in use for this item is therefore R15 000. Ignore taxation.
The recoverable amount, being the higher of fair value less costs of disposal (R20 000) and
value in use (R15 000), is thus R20 000. The carrying amount (R25 000) must therefore be
written down to the recoverable amount (R20 000) by R5 000. This amount will be
recognised as an impairment loss of R5 000, together with a depreciation charge of R5 000
(R50 000 × 10%), in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income for the year ended 30 June 20.25.
Assume that the recoverable amount for the machine is re-estimated on 30 June 20.27 as
follows:
Fair value less costs of disposal R14 000
Value in use R18 000
The revised recoverable amount is therefore R18 000 (the higher of the two).
Example 13.4: Reversal of impairment loss – individual asset on cost model

(continued)
The recoverable amount has increased above the carrying amount, thereby reversing a part
of the impairment loss recognised in prior years. The maximum increase in the recoverable
amount allowed is calculated as follows:
Depreciation for year 20.26 and 20.27
– Recoverable amount end of year 20.25 R20 000
– Remaining useful life 5 years
– Depreciation (R20 000/5) R4 000 per annum
The carrying amount at the end of 20.27 R
(50 000 – 25 000 – 5 000 (imp. loss) – 4 000 (20.26 depreciation)
– 4 000 (20.27 depreciation)) 12 000
Increase in recoverable amount/reversal of impairment loss
(15 000* – 12 000) 3 000
New carrying amount 15 000*
* The new carrying amount is limited to what the carrying amount would have been, had no
impairment loss been recognised for the asset in prior years (20.25). The recoverable
amount of R18 000 is thus ignored if the historical cost-carrying amount is lower.
Calculation of limitation on increased carrying amount:
Carrying amount had impairment loss not been recognised R15 000
Cost price (before recognition of impairment) 50 000
Accumulated depreciation at 30 June 20.27 (5 000 × 7) (35 000)
Journal entry
Dr Cr
30 June 20.27 R R
Reversal of impairment loss (P/L) 3 000
Comments:
¾ The reversal of the impairment loss to the amount of R3 000 is credited to the profit or
loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income, as the
machine is accounted for in accordance with the cost model in this example.
¾ The carrying amount after reversal of impairment loss (12 000 + 3 000) is R15 000. The
increased carrying amount is equal to what the carrying amount would have been, had
depreciation on historical cost been allocated normally over the years without taking
impairment into account, namely R50 000 – (7 × 5 000) = R15 000.
7 Disclosure
In the financial statements of an entity the following must be disclosed for each class of
assets (a class is a grouping of assets of similar nature and use):
7.1 Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income: profit or loss section
The amount of impairment losses recognised in the profit or loss section of the
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income during the period, and the
line item(s) of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income in which
those impairment losses are included.*
The amount of reversals of impairment losses recognised in the profit or loss section of
the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income during the period and
the line item(s) of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income in
which those impairment losses are reversed.*
* This information may also be presented in the Property, Plant and Equipment note as
required by IAS 16.
7.2 Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income: other comprehensive
income section
The amount of impairment losses, on revalued assets, recognised directly in other
comprehensive income during the period.*
The amount of reversals of impairment losses, on revalued assets, recognised directly in
other comprehensive income during the period.*
* This information may also be presented in the Property, Plant and Equipment note as
required by IAS 16.
7.3 Notes to the financial statements

If the impairment loss recognised or reversed on an individual asset, including goodwill, is
material, the following additional information is provided:
a description of the events and circumstances that led to the recognition or reversal of
the impairment loss;
the amount of the impairment loss recognised or reversed;
the nature of the asset;
whether the recoverable amount of the asset is its fair value less costs of disposal or its
value in use;
the basis used to measure fair value less costs of disposal (for example, whether fair
value was measured by reference to a quoted price in an active market for an identical
asset), if the recoverable amount is fair value less costs of disposal; and
the discount rate(s) used in the current estimate and previous estimate (if any) of value
in use, if the recoverable amount is value in use.
If impairment losses recognised (reversed) during the period are not individually material
to the financial statements of the reporting entity as a whole, an entity must disclose a brief
description of the following:
the main classes of assets affected by impairment losses (reversals of impairment
losses) for which no information is disclosed in terms of the above;
the main events and circumstances that led to the recognition (reversal) of these
impairment losses for which no information is disclosed in terms of the above; and
an entity is encouraged to disclose the assumptions used to determine the recoverable
amount of assets in the period.
Example 13.5: Accounting policy for impairment

The group assesses at each reporting date whether there is an indication that an asset may
be impaired. If any such indication exists, or when annual impairment testing for an asset is
required, the Group makes an estimate of the asset’s recoverable amount.
An asset’s recoverable amount is the higher of its fair value less costs of disposal and its
value in use, and is determined for an individual asset. Where the carrying amount of an
asset exceeds its recoverable amount, the asset is considered impaired and is written down
to its recoverable amount. In assessing value in use, the estimated future cash flows are
discounted to their present value using a pre-tax discount rate that reflects current market
assessments of the time value of money and the risks specific to the asset.
An assessment is made at each reporting date of any indication that previously recognised
impairment losses no longer exist or have decreased. If such an indication exists, the
recoverable amount is estimated.
A previously recognised impairment loss is reversed only if there has been a change in the
estimates used to determine the asset’s recoverable amount since the last impairment loss
was recognised. If so, the carrying amount of the asset is increased to its recoverable
amount. That increased amount cannot exceed the carrying amount that would have been
determined, net of depreciation, had no impairment loss been recognised for the asset in
prior years. Such reversal is recognised in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit
or loss and other comprehensive income unless the asset is carried at a revalued amount,
in which event the reversal is treated as a revaluation increase through other
comprehensive income in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
After such a reversal, the depreciation charge is adjusted in future periods to allocate the
asset’s revised carrying amount, less any residual value, on a systematic basis over its
remaining useful life.

Flamingo Ltd performed a review at 28 February 20.28 to assess whether there is any
indication that an asset may be impaired. The results of the review were as follows:
Machine A is adversely affected by technological changes. New-generation machinery is
available for the same purpose as machine A. This will compel Flamingo Ltd to replace
machine A soon in order to stay competitive. The amount obtainable from the sale of
machine A in an active market is R600 000 and the costs of disposal are R50 000.
The calculated value in use amounts to R300 000. The carrying amount of the asset at
28 February 20.28 (before considering impairment) was as follows:
R
Historical cost 4 000 000
Accumulated depreciation (after three years, 20% p.a. straight-line) (2 400 000)
1 600 000
An impairment loss amounting to R300 000 was recognised for machine B at
28 February 20.26. The last estimate of the recoverable amount was based on the asset’s
value in use. The actual cash flows for the year ended 28 February 20.28 were constantly
materially above those previously estimated, before any effect of discounting. The strongest
competitor of the product manufactured by machine B withdrew from South Africa during
20.27, resulting in an increase in cash flow. It is expected that this trend will continue.

The recoverable amount based on value in use was re-estimated on 28 February 20.28 as
R550 000 using a pre-tax discount rate of 14%. An amount for fair value less costs of
disposal could not be determined.
The following details relate to machine B:
Historical cost (commissioned on 1 March 20.25) R1 000 000
Depreciation 20% p.a.
Machine A and machine B are part of the manufacturing segment’s assets.
Impairment losses recognised or reversed in excess of R100 000 are considered to be
material.
Ignore any tax implications.
Flamingo Ltd
Notes for the year ended 28 February 20.28
20.28 20.27
2. Profit before tax R R
Expenses
Depreciation (925 000) (925 000)
Impairment loss on machinery (included in cost of sales) (1 050 000) –
Reversal of impairment loss on machinery (included in cost
of sales) 150 000 –
The impairment loss and reversal of impairment loss relate to machinery that is included in
the manufacturing segment’s assets.
The impairment loss resulted from adverse changes in the technological environment in
which machine A is used. The recoverable amount of this machine was its fair value less
costs of disposal that was measured with reference to a quoted price in an active market for
an identical asset.
The reversal of impairment loss resulted from material increases in the cash flows
arising from the use of machine B, when the strongest competitor for products
manufactured by this machine withdrew from the market. The recoverable amount of
this machine was its value in use and a pre-tax discount rate of 14% (the same rate used
in previous years) was used.
3. Property, plant and equipment 20.28 20.27
Machinery R R
Cost/Gross carrying amount (4 000 000 + 1 000 000) 5 000 000 5 000 000
Accumulated depreciation and impairment losses (2 225 000) (1 300 000)
Depreciation for the year (925 000) (925 000)
Impairment loss recognised in profit or loss (1 050 000) –
Reversal of impairment loss recognised in profit or loss 150 000 –
Carrying amount at end of year 950 000 2 775 000
Cost/Gross carrying amount 5 000 000 5 000 000
Accumulated depreciation and impairment losses (4 050 000) (2 225 000)
Remaining useful life (can also be shown in
accounting policy note) 2 years 3 years

Calculations
C1. Machine A
Fair value less costs of disposal = 600 000 – 50 000 = 550 000
Value in use = 300 000
Recoverable amount (the higher) = 550 000
Carrying amount 1 600 000
Recoverable amount (550 000)
Impairment loss 1 050 000
C2. Machine B Historical Adjusted for
impairment
R R
Historical cost (1 March 20.25) 1 000 000 1 000 000
Depreciation 20.26 (20% p.a.) (200 000) (200 000)
Impairment loss 20.26 (given) – (300 000)
800 000 500 000
Depreciation 20.27 (200 000) (125 000)a
Depreciation 20.28 (200 000) (125 000)
400 000 250 000
Reversal of impairment loss – 150 000b
400 000 400 000
a 500 000/4 (remaining useful life)
b Limited to R150 000 not to exceed historical carrying amount, even though actual
recoverable amount is R550 000
C3. Depreciation – machinery
20.28 20.27
R R
Machine A (4 000 000 × 20%) 800 000 800 000
Machine B (refer C2) 125 000 125 000
925 000 925 000
C4. Accumulated depreciation and impairment losses – beginning of year
Machine A R R
2 400 000/3 – 800 000
800 000 + 800 000 1 600 000 –
Machine B
20.26 200 000 200 000
Impairment loss 20.26 300 000 300 000
20.27 125 000 –
2 225 000 1 300 000
Comments:
¾ IAS 36 requires certain disclosures for significant impairment losses recognised or
reversed if they meet the criteria. The impairment loss and reversal must also be
disclosed in terms of IAS 1.86 and .87(a).
¾ Note that the disclosure required by IAS 36 may either be disclosed in the paragraph
following the property, plant and equipment note, or in the note relating to profit before
tax, should the entity make use of such a note to disclose separately disclosable items.
8 Short and sweet

of impairment of assets.
It prevents the overstatement of assets in the financial statements.
When is an asset impaired?
– Carrying amount > recoverable amount.
Recognition: carrying amount is written down to the recoverable amount.
Difference between recoverable amount and carrying amount = impairment loss.
Recoverable amount =
– HIGHER of fair value less costs of disposal and value in use.
Fair value is the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in
an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date.
Cost of disposal is the direct incremental costs attributable to the disposal of the asset.
Value in use is the future cash inflows and outflows associated with the asset, discounted at
an appropriate pre-tax discount rate.
Only test for impairment when internal and external sources indicate possible impairment.
Recalculate the recoverable amount for assets where an indication exists that earlier
impairment losses may have decreased or no longer exist.
If new recoverable amount > carrying amount:
– Reverse impairment loss.
– The reversal is limited to the carrying amount on reporting date as if no previous
impairment had occurred.
14
Provisions, contingent liabilities
and contingent assets
IAS 37; IFRIC 1
Contents
3 Background................................................................................................... 373
4 Relationship between provisions and contingent liabilities ................................. 373
5 Identification of liabilities, provisions and contingent liabilities........................... 375
6 Provisions ..................................................................................................... 376
6.1 Recognition ......................................................................................... 376
6.2 Measurement ...................................................................................... 380
6.3 Additional matters surrounding provisions ............................................. 383
6.4 Disclosure ........................................................................................... 385
7 Contingent liabilities ...................................................................................... 387
7.1 Measurement ...................................................................................... 387
7.2 Disclosure ........................................................................................... 387
8 Contingent assets .......................................................................................... 388
8.1 Disclosure ........................................................................................... 389
9 Changes in existing decommissioning, restoration and similar liabilities
(IFRIC 1) ...................................................................................................... 390
9.1 Accounting treatment in terms of the cost model ................................... 391
11 Short and sweet ............................................................................................ 394
Explain the difference between liabilities, contingent liabilities and provisions.
Know and apply the principles of legal and constructive obligations.
Analyse practical examples and determine whether the amounts must be classified as
provisions, contingent liabilities or contingent assets.
Account for provisions.
Present and disclose provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets in the annual
371

The following decision tree (slightly amended) is provided in the Implementation Guidance
to IAS 37 and forms a handy guideline for the accounting treatment of provisions and
contingent liabilities:
Provisions
and
Start
contingent
liabilities
Present No
No Is there a
obligation
possible
as the result of an
obligation?
obligating event?
Yes Yes
Is there a No Is the outflow Yes
probable of resources
outflow? remote?
Yes
IAS 37
Is there a No (rare)
reliable No
estimate?
Yes
Can obligation No
exist
independently
from entity’s
future actions?
Yes
Disclose a
Create a provision contingent
Do nothing
in the SFP liability
in a note
Possible asset, No
Contingent existence
assets confirmed
by uncertain
future event?
Yes
Is there a No
probable inflow?
Yes
Disclose a
contingent asset
in a note
Note: In rare cases, it is not clear whether there is a present obligation. In these cases, a
past event is deemed to give rise to a present obligation if, taking account of all available
evidence, it is more likely than not that a present obligation exists at the end of the
reporting period.
Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets 373
Recognise a contingent asset as an asset in the statement of financial position (not just a
note) only when the inflow is virtually certain.
3 Background
IAS 37 deals with the recognition, measurement and disclosure of provisions,

contingent liabilities and contingent assets in the financial statements.
It is often necessary to consider factual knowledge that only became available after the
reporting date.
IAS 37 is not applicable to provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets of:
executory contracts, except where the contract is onerous; and
items covered by other IFRSs such as:
– financial instruments that are within the scope of IFRS 9, Financial Instruments; and
– the rights and obligations arising from contracts with customers within the scope of
IFRS 15, Revenue from Contracts with Customers. However, as IFRS 15 contains no
specific requirements to address contracts that are or have become onerous, IAS 37
will apply to such cases; and
– leases addressed in IFRS 16, Leases. However, IAS 37 applies to any lease that
becomes onerous before commencement date, and short-term leases and leases
where the underlying asset is accounted for as low value and that have become
onerous.
4 Relationship between provisions and contingent liabilities

The 2018 Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting defines a liability as a present
obligation of the entity to transfer an economic resource as a result of past events.
However, no changes have been made to the definition of a liability in IAS 37, the IASB
preserved the reference to the definition of a liability in the 2001 Conceptual Framework.
The reference to a liability in IAS 37, refer to the definition of a liability as a present
obligation of the entity arising from past events, the settlement of which is expected to
result in an outflow from the entity of resources embodying economic benefits.
The accounting process is, inter alia, concerned with the identification, recognition
and disclosure of elements of financial statements (for example assets or liabilities):
Identification refers to the assessment of a particular item with a view to determine
whether it fulfils the definition of the element concerned.
Recognition comprises two facets: timing and measurement. This means at what
point in time and at what value the element must be recognised.
As soon as the element is recognised, it is disclosed appropriately. The disclosure may
be qualitative (description) or quantitative (figures) or both.
The above may be represented schematically as follows:
Recognition may possibly take place

Identification after identification. Disclosure
Two aspects are considered:
Whether Timing/Probability Measurement How
The characteristics of When there is How much is It is disclosed:
elements in terms of the sufficient probability the amount qualitatively,
2001 Conceptual Framework that there will be an that must be quantitatively,
are displayed. outflow of resources. disclosed? or both.
The fundamental difference between contingent liabilities and provisions is in the

degree of fulfilment of the requirements of identification.
In the case of a provision, no doubt exists regarding identification: a provision is a

liability because it has the characteristics of a liability, as stated in the 2001 Conceptual
Framework. It is recognised when the entity has a legal obligation or must inevitably
transfer resources to another party, although there may not be absolute certainty about
when it will happen. It is measured at an amount that represents at least a reasonable
estimate of the liability (i.e. there is no absolute certainty about the exact amount),
where after it is disclosed appropriately, qualitatively as well as quantitatively.
In the case of a contingent liability, there is a greater measure of uncertainty
about the fulfilment of the requirements of identification than is the case for a provision.
The uncertainty may already exist at identification, because the contingent liability is
described as a possible obligation (i.e. not an element of financial statements in
accordance with the Conceptual Framework) that arises from past events and whose
existence will be confirmed only by the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more
uncertain future events not wholly within the control of the entity.
A contingent liability may also exist at recognition in the form of a real (actual)
present obligation – not only a possible obligation – but one that may, however, not
be recognised, either because the “when” (timing/probability) or because the “how
much” (measurement) is not known, i.e. it fails the criteria for recognition of a liability.
Example 14.1: Contrasting a provision and a contingent liability

Guests at a function were catered for by a restaurant. Twelve people died as a result of food
poisoning contracted at the function. On 31 October 20.27, the relatives of the deceased
instituted a claim of R6 million against the entity. The year-end of the company is
31 December.
The following two possibilities exist as at 31 December 20.27 in respect of the accounting
treatment of the claim:
Option 1: Provision
Should the legal advisors of the restaurant be of the opinion that the claim will probably be
successful, and that the amount of R6 million represents a reasonable estimate of the
amount to be paid, the entity will recognise a liability, i.e. a provision. A provision, as defined,
is a liability of uncertain timing or amount. In this case, uncertainty exists about when the
amount will be paid, but sufficient certainty exists about both the fact that there is a liability
and the approximate amount that should be paid. The probability and measurement criteria
of the general recognition criteria are therefore met.
Example 14.1: Contrasting a provision and a contingent liability (continued)

Option 2: Contingent liability
If the legal advisors of the restaurant are of the opinion that it is merely possible that the
claim may be successful, but not probable, the matter will be disclosed as a contingent
liability. It will therefore not be recognised in the financial statements, but will only be
disclosed in the notes to the financial statements. In terms of the definition of a contingent
liability, the possible obligation arises from past events (the function with the contaminated
food) and the existence of the obligation will only be confirmed at the occurrence
(judgement against the entity) or non-occurrence (judgement in favour of the entity) of
uncertain future events.
To summarise:
A provision is a liability of which the amount or timing is uncertain (IAS 37.10).
A contingent liability is:
a possible obligation that arises from past events and whose existence will be confirmed
only by the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more uncertain future events not
wholly within the control of the entity; or
a present obligation that arises from past events but is not recognised because;
– it is not probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be
required to settle the obligation; or
– the amount of the obligation cannot be measured with sufficient reliability.
5 Identification of liabilities, provisions and contingent liabilities

The identification of an item as a contingent liability, a provision or a liability can be
considered on a continuum. It commences with the absence of the fulfilment of the
requirements for accounting treatment (nothing) and proceeds to the absolute and
complete fulfilment of all the requirements (a liability). Contingent liabilities, being located
somewhere on the continuum, might gradually transform into provisions and still later into
elements of financial statements (liabilities) that fulfil all the requirements for accounting
identification, recognition and disclosure, or they may never be recognised at all (depending
on the development of the transaction).
Example 14.2: Progression from a contingent liability to a provision

Suppose that Alfa Ltd provides and installs a factory plant for a customer and guarantees
that 80% capacity will be achieved within three months of the commencement of
production. If this target is not achieved, Alfa Ltd is liable for damages to the extent of the
lost production. Initially, there is a small (i.e. remote) possibility that Alfa Ltd will have to
perform, but no accounting recognition is required because the possibility of performance is
remote. After two weeks, it would appear that a liability may indeed materialise, but as it is
uncertain whether an outflow of resources will occur (possible, less likely than not), as well
as what the amount of such outflow will be, no liability is recognised, but the contingent
liability is explained by way of note. This treatment stays unchanged as long as either the
fact that there will be an outflow of resources, or the amount of such outflow, remains
uncertain. As soon as there is reasonable certainty of the fact that there will indeed be an
outflow of resources (probable, more likely than not), as well as the amount of such outflow,
a provision is created and a liability is recognised in the financial statements.
The following summary is provided in the Implementation Guidance to IAS 37 to illustrate

the relationship between provisions and contingent liabilities:
Where, as a result of past events, there may be an outflow of resources embodying

future economic benefits in settlement of: (a) a present obligation; or (b) a possible
obligation whose existence will be confirmed only by the occurrence or non-
occurrence of one or more uncertain future events not wholly within the control of the
entity.
There is a possible There is a possible
There is a present
obligation or a present obligation or a present
obligation that probably
obligation that may, but obligation where the
requires an outflow of
probably will not, require likelihood of an outflow of
resources.
an outflow of resources. resources is remote.
A provision is recognised. No provision is recognised. No provision is recognised.
Disclosure is required for the Disclosure is required for the
No disclosure is required.
provision. contingent liability.
Example 14.3: Application of the above table

Dingo Ltd is sued for R1 million for damages caused by a defective product that has been
manufactured and sold by Dingo Ltd.
(a) Dingo Ltd’s legal advisors are of the opinion that the claim against Dingo Ltd will
probably succeed.
A present obligation exists as a result of a past obligating event (the sale of a defective
product). An outflow of resources embodying future economic benefits is probable
(more likely than not). A provision must be recognised for the best estimate of the
amount (R1 million) required to settle the obligation.
(b) Dingo Ltd’s legal advisors are of the opinion that it is unlikely that Dingo Ltd will be found
liable.
Based on the opinion of Dingo Ltd’s legal advisors, a present obligation does not exist,
but it is possible (less likely than not) that Dingo Ltd may still have to pay. No provision is
recognised. A contingent liability must be disclosed, unless the possibility of an outflow of
resources embodying economic benefits is remote.
6 Provisions
It was indicated above that the accounting process, at least as far as quantitative aspects
are concerned, is in essence concerned with the identification of the elements of financial
statements, recognition thereof, and (finally), the disclosure thereof. Recognition, in its
turn, comprises two aspects, namely when (timing/probability) recognition occurs and at
what value (measurement) it is recorded. In the following paragraphs, provisions are
discussed within this framework.
6.1 Recognition
Provisions are not a separate element of financial statements; they form part of liabilities.
They are, however, distinguished from other liabilities, such as trade payables and accrued
amounts, by the element of uncertainty associated with them. This uncertainty takes the form
of uncertainty about the timing, or uncertainty about the amount at which the provision is
recognised. As indicated above, “timing” refers to the moment when there will be reasonable
certainty (when it will be probable) about the resources that the entity must transfer to
another party. Provisions are not recognised as an element of financial statements until
reasonable certainty exists / until the outflow is probable.
It is also important to take note that only those obligations that can exist independently
from an entity’s future actions (in other words, the future conduct of its business) are
recognised as provisions (IAS 37.19). An example of this principle would be the obligation to
replace the lining of a grain silo in future due to an Act requiring grain silo linings to be
replaced on a regular basis. Should the entity decide to rather utilise the silo for other
purposes, e.g. storing sugar rather than storing grain, the replacement of the lining
becomes unnecessary. This obligation is thus dependent on the fact that the entity who
owns the grain silo will still utilise the silo in exactly the same manner as they currently do.
Therefore the obligation does not exist independently from the entity’s future actions, and
may not be recognised as provision.
In terms of IAS 37.14, a provision is only recognised when:

the entity has a present legal or constructive obligation to forfeit economic benefits as a
result of events in the past (“whether it complies”);
it is probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required to
settle the obligation (“when”); and
a reliable estimate of the obligation can be made (“how much”).
Example 14.4: Meeting the requirements for recognising a provision

All three of the requirements in IAS 37.14 must be met before a provision can be recognised:
When an entity delivers assurance-type warranties to its clients, the following requirements
must be met before a provision is created:
An entity is normally liable for complying with the terms of the warranty contract. The
warranty contract creates a legal obligation for the entity to perform in terms of the contract
if the client claims in terms of the warranty. These contracts are concluded at a date in the
past, i.e. the date of the delivery of goods and services.
When the probability of the client claiming in terms of the warranty contract is assessed, one
must have reasonable certainty that the client will exercise his/her rights, if required.
The estimate of the number of clients likely to claim against warranty contracts will influence
the reliability of the estimate of the provision. It should be possible, based on historical
information and the costs related to performing on a warranty, to arrive at a reliable
estimate of the expected future outflows related to the warranty.
An assurance-type warranty contract should, because of the above reasons, thus result in a
provision in terms of IAS 37.
Comment:
¾ IFRS 15 should be considered when a contract with a customer includes a warranty. If the
warranty is sold separately or provides a customer with a service in addition to the
assurance that the product complies with agreed-upon specifications, the
warranty/promised service is a performance obligation (a service-type warranty) and should
be accounted for in accordance with IFRS 15. IAS 37 is only applicable to assurance-type
warranties. For more detail on service-type warranties, refer to the chapter on IFRS 15 as
well as IFRS 15.B28–B33.
Two types of obligations can exist in terms of a provision, namely:

legal obligations; and
constructive obligations.
6.1.1 Legal obligations

This category of obligations means that another party has the right to summons the entity
to perform. Such obligations are applicable, for example, when assurance-type warranties
are given to customers, as well as in the case of onerous contracts. The essential element in
such cases is therefore an obligation that can be enforced by law.
An example of a legal obligation is an onerous contract. An onerous contract is a
contract in which the unavoidable costs of meeting the obligations under the contract
exceed the economic benefits expected to be received under it. The present obligation as a
result of a past obligating event is the signing of the onerous contract, which gives rise to a
legal obligation. When the contract becomes onerous, an outflow of resources embodying
economic benefits becomes probable. As a result the present obligation in terms of the
onerous contract is recognised in the financial statements as a provision.
The provision for an onerous contract is the smaller of:
the loss that would be incurred by specific fulfilment of the contract; and
the loss incurred if the contract were to be cancelled and the payment of fines
associated with the cancellation enforced.
Probable impairment losses relating to assets under such a contract must be recognised
separately in terms of IAS 36, Impairment of Assets, and do not normally lead to any
obligations.
Example 14.5: Onerous lease contract

On 1 January 20.26, Alpha Ltd entered into a lease contract for computers. The computers
were determined as low value assets in accordance with IFRS 16.6. The lease is to run for a
period of three years (the contract expires on 31 December 20.28). As a result of several
factors, the board of directors decided on 31 October 20.27 to enter into a new lease
agreement with a different computer supplier, with a commencement date of
1 January 20.28. However, the original lease contract determines the following:
R
Lease payments per year (no escalation) 100 000
Fine payable on early cancellation of the contract 80 000
The computers cannot be sub-let.
The year-end of the company is 31 December.
The decision of the board of directors on 31 October 20.27 resulted in an onerous contract.
Assume that the time value of money does not play a material role here. Since the contract
represents a present legal obligation, a provision needs to be raised for the smaller of the:
R
Remaining lease payments from 1 January 20.28 until
31 December 20.28 100 000
Fine payable on cancellation 80 000
Consequently, a provision of R80 000 (the smaller figure) is accounted for as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
31 December 20.27
Fine on cancellation of onerous lease contract (P/L) 80 000
Provision for onerous contract (SFP) 80 000
Recognition of provision for onerous contract
Onerous contracts may therefore in some cases be regarded as an exception to the rule that
future losses may not be provided for. Losses from future activities are normally not provided for
before such activities have indeed occurred. However, in the case of a contractual obligation
which is in the form of an onerous contract, such obligation is accounted for immediately.
Executory contracts are contracts in terms of which not one of the parties involved has
performed, or both have performed to an equal extent. An example would be a normal
order placed for generally available inventories – an order that can be cancelled at any time.
From an accounting perspective, no recognition is given to the transaction, unless one of
the parties has performed. IAS 37 does not deal with executory contracts, unless they are
onerous (IAS 37.3).
Example 14.6: An executory contract resulting from an order

An order is placed for 10 000 units of raw material to be imported from the USA on a free-on-
board basis at a cost of $10 000. Up to the point where the goods are shipped in the USA, a
purchase transaction is not recognised, as this is an executory contract. As soon as the goods
have been shipped (free-on-board), the transaction is accounted for as purchased/goods in
transit, with a corresponding liability determined by using the R/$ exchange rate applicable
at that moment. Since one of the parties has performed, it is no longer an executory
contract.
6.1.2 Constructive obligations

Constructive obligations are those obligations that are not legally enforceable, but are
inescapable as a result of external factors or management’s policy and decisions that
create a valid expectation with third parties that the entity will act in a certain manner.
This means that the entity is left with no other realistic alternative than to incur the
obligation. Constructive obligations result from circumstances that have created a valid
expectation, in contrast to legal obligations, which arise from the operation of the law.
Example 14.7: Constructive obligation

An example of a constructive obligation is that of contaminated ground around a factory
plant where there is no legal obligation to decontaminate. Public opposition to such
contamination may be such that it is obligatory for the entity to incur costs to remove the
contamination, even if it does not necessarily have a legal obligation to do so. The mere
presence of environmental pollution does not, however, give rise to an obligation, even if it is
caused by the entity’s activities. Only when there is no realistic alternative than to
rehabilitate does the obligation arise. This can be on the date that the board makes a public
announcement that cleaning up will take place, or when production is inhibited by the
pollution or by a public demonstration to such an extent that cleaning up can no longer be
postponed.
It therefore appears that a constructive obligation does not necessarily arise when the
entity decides to accept the obligation, since it can simply be cancelled by another decision.
The inescapability arises when the entity is no longer able to ignore the obligation, for
instance when a public announcement has been made and the community now depends on
the entity to act in a certain manner. If the entity retains the discretion regarding whether or
not to accept the obligation, a constructive obligation does not arise.
It is not possible to state an absolute rule – professional judgement will have to be applied
to decide whether or not a constructive obligation has in fact already arisen.
Because a constructive obligation may lead to the creation of a liability in the financial
statements, it follows the characteristics of a liability as well as the recognition criteria
thereof. Broadly speaking, it means that there must be a present obligation that arises as
a result of events in the past that will lead to probable outflow of resources that
can be measured reliably.
What is particularly important is the requirement that it must have arisen as a result of
past events. Undertakings to incur certain expenses in the future do not fulfil this
requirement, and therefore cannot lead to the creation of a liability. The mere obligation to
periodically perform maintenance work to property does not presently qualify as a liability.
The maintenance work is necessitated by usage of the property in the future;
consequently the relevant future periods, not the present ones, shall be burdened with
these expenses. Refer also to executory contracts discussed under section 6.1.1.
Similarly, future operating losses cannot be recognised as provisions at present,

because they do not refer to events that have already taken place, but refer to events that
are still to occur in the future. If, however, it should appear that a contract that was
concluded earlier may lead to losses for the entity, and the entity is legally obligated to the
specific fulfilment of the contract, the result must now be provided for as an onerous
contract (refer to section 6.1.1).
6.2 Measurement
In accordance with IAS 37.36, a provision is measured in terms of the amount that
represents the best estimate of the amount required to settle the obligation at the reporting
date.
Uncertainty is an inherent part of provisions: the only certainty about a provision is that it is
a liability, but the precise extent of the eventual liability is not (yet) known. This implies that
estimates play a big role in the measurement of provisions. Where a single obligation is
being measured, the individual most likely outcome may be the best estimate.
Suppose Fouché Ltd has to rectify a serious fault in a major property it constructed for a
customer, the individual most likely outcome may be for the repair to succeed at the first
attempt at a cost of R500 000, but a provision for a larger amount will be made if there is a
significant chance that further attempts will be necessary.
Where there is a continuous range of possible outcomes, and each point in that range is
as likely as any other point, the mid-point of the range is used.
The technique of calculating an expected value may also be applied to determine an
appropriate amount at which to measure a provision.
Example 14.8: Measurement of a provision using expected values

The Truth, a newspaper with a daily circulation of 500 000 copies, publishes an article in
which it is alleged that a prominent politician is having an improper extramarital affair with
the wife of an opposition politician. The owner of the company, Truth Media Ltd, is
summonsed for alleged defamation amounting to R5 million. The company’s legal advisors
assessed the possible outcomes of the case as follows:
Probabilities:
15% that the claim will fail;
20% that an amount of R1 million will be granted;
25% that an amount of R1,5 million will be granted;
20% that an amount of R1,8 million will be granted; or
20% that an amount of R2 million will be granted.
The amount at which the provision will be measured, is calculated as follows: R
15% × 0 –
20% × R1 million 200 000
25% × R1,5 million 375 000
20% × R1,8 million 360 000
20% × R2 million 400 000
Expected value 1 335 000
An aspect that has achieved increasing prominence in accounting Standards is discounted

future cash flows when the effect of discounting is significant.
IAS 37.45 states that, if the effect of discounting is significant, the provision must be
measured at the present value of the expected future outflow of resources.
This applies to liabilities that have an effect over the long-term, as often occurs in the case
of environmental costs, for example rehabilitation of disturbed land in the mining industry.
Since the expenses in these cases may occur over a very long period or may only be
incurred after a long period has lapsed, it can present an unrealistic impression if the
expected expenses over these long periods are not discounted to present values for the
purposes of the provision. The discount rate and the cash flows must both be expressed in
either nominal terms (including the effect of inflation) or in real terms (excluding the effect
of inflation) and on a before-tax basis. The discount rate must recognise current market
evaluations of the time value of money, as well as the risks that are associated with the
particular obligation. Although IFRS 13.42 indicates that non-performance risk (including
own credit risk) shall be included in the discount rate for the measurement of the fair value
of a liability, IAS 37 is not clear with regards to an entity’s own credit risk. Clarity on this will
have to be provided as part of the Board’s project to replace IAS 37 with a new liabilities
standard. The discount rate shall not reflect risks for which future cash flow estimates have
been adjusted, and may be revised if changed circumstances warrant it.
When discounting is used in the measurement of a provision, the carrying amount of the
provision will increase with reference to the discount rate on an annual basis over time. The
debit leg of the increase in the provision is recognised as finance costs in the profit or loss
Example 14.9: Provisions and the time value of money

Charlie Ltd is a manufacturing company with a 31 December year-end. The company’s
manufacturing plant releases toxic substances that will contaminate the land surrounding
the plant unless they are collected and stored safely. The local authorities approved the
erection of the plant, provided that the entity undertakes to build safe storage tanks for the
toxic substances and to remove these after a period of 20 years and restore the
environment to its original condition.
On 1 January 20.27 (the day on which the plant was commissioned), it was determined that
it would cost approximately R20 million at future prices to remove the tanks and restore the
environment after 20 years had expired. It is expected that the cost involved would be tax
deductible (at 27% tax) and a nominal before-tax discount rate amounts to 15%. The actual
cost of decontamination in 20.46 amounted to R21 million.
The journal entries relating to the provision for 20.27, 20.28 and settlement in 20.46 are as
follows:
Dr Cr
R R
1 January 20.27
Manufacturing plant (asset) (SFP) (refer to IAS 16.16(c)) 1 222 006
Provision for environmental costs (SFP) 1 222 006
[20 000 000 × 1/(1,15)20]
OR [FV = 20 000 000; n = 20; i = 15%; COMP PV]
Initial recognition of discounted environmental costs
31 December 20.27
Finance costs (P/L) (1 222 006 × 15%) 183 301
Provision for environmental costs (SFP) 183 301
Accounting for the increase in the provision due to time value
of money
31 December 20.28
Finance costs (P/L) [(1 222 006 + 183 301) × 15%] 210 796
Provision for environmental costs (SFP) 210 796
Accounting for the increase in the provision due to time value
of money
31 December 20.46
Provision for environmental costs (SFP) 20 000 000
Environmental costs (P/L) 1 000 000
Bank (SFP) 21 000 000
Accounting for the actual environmental costs paid at the end
of 20 years
The following amounts will appear in the statements of financial position at the end of 20.27
and 20.28:
20.27 R
Provision [20 000 000 × 1/(1,15)19] or [1 222 006 + 183 301] 1 405 307
20.28
Provision [20 000 000 × 1/(1,15)18] or [1 405 307 + 210 796] 1 616 103
Future events that are reasonably expected to have an effect on the amount that the
entity will eventually need, to settle the provision, may be taken into account in the
measurement process.
In IAS 37.49, the example is used of new technology that may become available later and
may influence the rehabilitation of contaminated land. It would be acceptable to include the
appropriate cost reductions that are expected as a result of the application of the new
technology in the calculation of the provision, and therefore to measure the provision at an
appropriately lower value.
As in the case of all elements of financial statements, provisions, like liabilities, must be
assessed continually to ensure that the amount against which they are measured is still
acceptable in the light of the normal measurement principles. If an adjustment is required,
it is made through the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other
Naturally, provisions may only be used for the purposes for which they were originally
created (IAS 37.61). If the provision is not utilised it should be written back to the
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income (or asset, if capitalised) as a
reversal of a provision. Provisions can therefore not be utilised for some other purpose.
6.3 Additional matters surrounding provisions

6.3.1 Right of recovery against a third party
IAS 37.53 states that where an entity has a right of recovery against a third party in
respect of a provision or a part of a provision, the part that can be recovered from the third
party must be recognised as a separate asset if it is virtually certain that the amount will be
received.
The related provision and asset in the statement of financial position will thus each be
shown separately and will not be offset against each other. In the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income however, the expense leg of the provision and
the income leg of the related reimbursement may be offset against each other (IAS 37.54).
The amount to be recognised for the reimbursement of the provision is limited to the
amount of the provision to which it is related and an asset in respect of the recovery may
only be raised when it is virtually certain that the amount will be received. The following
summary is provided in the Implementation Guidance to IAS 37 to explain these matters:
If some or all of the expenditure required to settle a provision is expected to be
reimbursed by another party.
The obligation for the amount The obligation for the amount
The entity has no
expected to be reimbursed expected to be reimbursed
obligation for the part
remains with the entity and it is remains with the entity and the
of the expenditure to
virtually certain that reimbursement is not virtually
be reimbursed by the
reimbursement will be received certain if the entity settles the
other party.
if the entity settles the provision. provision.
The reimbursement is recognised as
a separate asset in the statement of
financial position and may be offset
The entity has no
against the expense in the statement
liability for the amount The expected reimbursement is not
of profit or loss and other
to be reimbursed by the recognised as an asset.
comprehensive income. The amount
other party.
recognised for the expected
reimbursement does not exceed the
liability.
The reimbursement is disclosed
No disclosure is The expected reimbursement is
together with the amount recognised
required. disclosed as a contingent asset.
for the reimbursement.
Example 14.10: Right of recovery in respect of provisions

A retailer sells electrical appliances subject to a two-year warranty (assurance-type). Given
the above information, the following scenarios, inter alia, are possible:
Case 1
The manufacturer of the electrical appliances does not provide a warranty on the items sold.
In this case, the retailer will have to provide for the total warranty provision, and the amount
(say R100 000) involved will be raised as a liability and a corresponding expense. The
journal entry in the retailer’s records will be as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
Warranty expense (P/L) 100 000
Warranty provision (SFP) 100 000
Accounting for the warranty provision
Case 2
The retailer provides the warranty which is backed up fully by the manufacturer on a Rand-
for-Rand basis.
In this case, the retailer will raise a warranty provision with a corresponding warranty
expense. Since the manufacturer is prepared to accept responsibility for the warranty
offered by the retailer, the retailer may raise a corresponding asset in respect of the
anticipated reimbursement, provided the retailer is virtually certain the manufacturer will
and can fulfil its undertaking to back the retailer’s warranty. The journal entries in the
retailer’s records will be as follows (assuming an amount of R100 000):
Dr Cr
R R
Warranty expense# (P/L) 100 000
Warranty provision* (SFP) 100 000
Accounting for the warranty provision
Reimbursement asset on warranty* (SFP) 100 000
Warranty reimbursement (income)# (P/L) 100 000
Accounting for reimbursement asset on warranty
# These two amounts may be offset in the statement of profit or loss and other
* The asset and liability may not be offset in the statement of financial position.
Comment:
¾ If the reimbursement is not virtually certain, but probable, the reimbursement will be
disclosed as a contingent asset in a note.
6.3.2 Future operating losses

Future operating losses cannot be recognised as provisions at present because they do not
refer to events that have already taken place (no past event), but to events that are still to
occur in the future (i.e. future losses do not represent a present obligation as the obligating
event has not occurred yet, IAS 37.64). Future losses can only be recognised with reference
to an onerous contract (see par 6.1.1).
Gains that may arise on the future sale of assets are not provided for, as doing so will
amount to the premature recognition of income. Losses on the sale of assets, for example
as a result of restructuring, could however be recognised. Future operating losses are not
provided for as doing so will amount to the premature recognition of losses.
6.3.3 Joint and several liability

If an entity is jointly and severally liable for an obligation, the obligation is disclosed as a
contingent liability to the extent that it is expected that other parties will settle the liability. The
total obligation will thus be carried partly as a liability and partly as a contingent liability.
6.3.4 Restructuring provisions

A specific form of provision that is discussed in IAS 37, is where a plan for restructuring is
communicated to the affected parties and is put into operation. Restructuring is defined in
IAS 37.10 as a programme that is planned and controlled by management and that brings
about material change to either the extent of the entity’s operations; or the way in which
business is done.
This type of provision is, however, beyond the scope of this publication.
6.4 Disclosure
Provisions are presented as a separate line item on the face of the statement of financial
position.
No detailed disclosure is required in the extremely rare cases where the disclosure of
information, as stated below, may prejudice the position of the entity in negotiations (in
respect of a dispute) with other parties about the matter for which the provision is required.
Such instances should seldom arise. It does not, however, imply that the provision cannot
be created: it is still done, but only its general nature and the reason why it is not disclosed
more comprehensively, are stated. An example of the required disclosure in this regard
appears in Example 3 of the disclosure examples of IAS 37.
The following must be disclosed for each category of provisions (IAS 37.84–85):
a brief description of the nature of the obligation and the expected timing of any outflow
of economic benefits associated therewith;
any significant uncertainty about the amount or timing of the expense must be stated.
Where it is necessary for a better understanding of the financial statements, the main
assumptions about future events must be disclosed. Such future events may for instance
be related to proposed legislation, technological development, etc.;
where there is an anticipated reimbursement of a provision, the amount of the expected
recovery must be stated, as well as the amount of any asset that has been recognised in
respect of it;
the carrying amount at the beginning and the end of the period; and
movements in each category of provision must be reflected separately, with an indication
of:
– additional provisions made in the period and increases in existing provisions;
– amounts incurred (utilised) and offset against the provision during the period;
– amounts reversed during the period (unused); and
– the increase in the amount of the provision during the period due to the passage of
time, or a change in the discount rate.
Comparative information is not required.
Example 14.11: Disclosure of a provision

Beta Ltd manufactures and installs alarms. All alarms are sold with a one-year assurance-
type warranty. Beta Ltd has a 31 December year-end.
Based on the company’s past experience, it is clear that approximately 15% of the alarms sold
are returned with defects to be repaired. As a result, a provision for expected repair costs of
R250 000 was raised on 31 December 20.28. Repair costs incurred for the year on alarms
under warranty (sold during the previous financial period) amounted to R195 000. The
warranty provision on 31 December 20.27 was R150 000. Disclosure will be as follows:
Beta Ltd
Profit before tax is stated after the following are taken into account:
R
Repair costs in respect of warranty sales*# 45 000
Warranty provision # 250 000
* Although the total costs incurred in 20.28 amount to R195 000, only
R45 000 will be shown here as the provision at the beginning of the
year only amounted to R150 000. The excess of R45 000 (195 000
– 150 000) will be recognised directly in the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income as an expense.
# Assume both these amounts are material and separately disclosable
in terms of IAS 1.86.
3. Warranty provision R
Balance at the beginning of the year 150 000
Repair costs incurred during the year (195 000)
Change in accounting estimate 45 000
(during 20.28, the provision of R150 000 proved to be insufficient to
cover the actual repair costs, based on the new information obtained
during 20.28) (refer to section 5.5 of the chapter on IAS 8)
Provision for the year 250 000
Balance at the end of the year 250 000
A provision of R250 000 has been recognised at the end of the year for expected
warranty claims in respect of alarms sold and installed during the current financial year.
It is expected that all of this expenditure will be incurred in the following financial year.
The following journal entries regarding the warranty provision would have been recognised
in the retailer’s records for the year ended 31 December 20.28:
Dr Cr
R R
Repair cost in respect of warranty sales (cost of sales) (P/L) 45 000
(195 000 – 150 000)
Bank (SFP) 195 000
Recognition of repair costs incurred in respect of warranty sales
Warranty expense (P/L) 250 000
Accounting for the warranty provision at year-end
7 Contingent liabilities
A contingent liability is a condition or circumstance at the end of the reporting period

of which the eventual result (be it beneficial or prejudicial) will only be confirmed upon the
occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more uncertain future events that are beyond the
control of the entity.
A contingent liability may take the form of either a possible obligation or an actual present
obligation.
In the form of a possible obligation, there is uncertainty about whether the obligation
actually exists. Such uncertainty will later be removed by the occurrence or non-
occurrence of future events that are not completely under the control of the entity.
In the form of an actual present obligation, the uncertainty manifests itself either in
the improbability of resources being utilised to settle the obligation, or in the inability to
measure the amount reliably.
Contingent liabilities are never recognised as an element of financial statements,

although they are usually disclosed by way of a note, because it is only a possible obligation
or the recognition criteria for elements (the “when” and/or the “how much”) are not
sufficiently met.
7.1 Measurement
Contingent liabilities are measured at the best estimation of the amount that will be
required to settle the liability at the end of the reporting period, should it indeed materialise.
The risks and uncertainties that are associated with the contingent liability are taken into
consideration during the estimation process. Should the effect of the time value of money
(for instance) be material, say because the contingent liability would only be settled after a
long period has lapsed, the expected expense is discounted to its present value. The
discount rate is a pre-tax rate that would reflect the risks associated with the particular
contingent liability.
The same rules that apply to the measurement of provisions also apply to the
measurement of contingent liabilities, but obviously the associated finance cost is not
7.2 Disclosure
The following disclosure requirements apply in the case of contingent liabilities (IAS 37.86–
88):
for each class of contingent liability, a brief description of its nature is given, as well as,
where practicable to obtain the information:
– an estimate of its financial effect (refer to section 7.1 above);
– an indication of the uncertainties relating to the amount or timing of any outflow; and
– the possibility of any reimbursement;
where a provision and a contingent liability relate to the same set of circumstances, the
disclosure for the contingent liability is cross-referenced to the disclosure for the
provision to clearly illustrate the relationship;
where the disclosure of the above information does not take place due to impracticability,
that fact must be stated.
The above disclosure requirements do not apply when the possibility of any outflow of
resources is remote – then no disclosure is required.
No specific disclosure is required in cases where the disclosure of information, as set out
above, may prejudice the position of the entity in negotiations (in respect of a dispute) with
other parties about the matter to which the contingency relates. IAS 37.92 does, however,
indicate that these circumstances are extremely rare. The general nature of the
circumstances and the fact that the information is not disclosed, as well as the reason why
it is not disclosed, must be stated.
Example 14.12: Contingent liability – measurement and disclosure

Delta Ltd has established that it has a contingent liability in respect of a summons and
related court case for breach of contract amounting to R2 million at 31 December 20.28
(the year-end). The court case will, due to the backlog in court cases currently evident in the
justice system, only be finalised in three years’ time. An appropriate pre-tax discount rate
associated with this company would be 12% per annum. Disclosure will be as follows:
Delta Ltd
11. Contingent liability
A court case in respect of a claim for breach of contract to the amount of R2 million, has
been instituted against the company. Since the trial will only be finalised in three years’
time, due to a backlog in the allocation of cases, the estimated present value of the
anticipated payment that may be required is calculated as R1 423 561 (2 000 000 ×
1/(1,12)³). There is no possibility of claiming this amount from a third party resulting in
reimbursement.
8 Contingent assets
A contingent asset is a possible asset that arises from past events, the existence of
which will be confirmed only by the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more uncertain
future events not wholly within the control of the entity.
A contingent asset may (for instance) be associated with a claim instituted by the entity that
may lead to the realisation of income for the entity. The recognition of income is usually
postponed until its realisation is virtually certain.
Contingent assets are therefore not recognised in the financial statements, because such
reflection may lead to the recognition of income that may never realise. However, when the
realisation of income is virtually certain, such income is no longer merely a contingency, and
it is appropriate to recognise the income and the related asset.
The following summary is provided in the Implementation Guidance to IAS 37 to explain
the accounting treatment of contingent assets:
Where, as a result of past events, there is a possible asset whose existence will be
confirmed only by the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more uncertain future
events not wholly within the control of the entity, the following apply:
If the inflow of economic
If the inflow of economic If the inflow is not
benefits is probable, but not
benefits is virtually certain. probable.
virtually certain.
No asset is recognised. No asset is recognised.
The asset is not contingent
and is recognised. Disclosures are required in a
note. No disclosure is required.
Example 14.13: Accounting treatment – contingent and other assets

Delta Ltd summonsed Echo Ltd on 30 April 20.28 for breach of copyright. The court case is
in progress at the moment, and Delta Ltd’s lawyers expect that the court will award an
amount of R900 000 to the company. Echo Ltd is a financially sound company and will be
able to pay the R900 000. Delta Ltd’s year-end is 30 June.
In view of the above information, there are two possibilities for the accounting treatment on
30 June 20.28 of the income that would accrue to Delta Ltd should the case be decided in
the company’s favour:
On 30 June 20.28, the outcome of the court case is uncertain, but it is probable that
Delta Ltd will win the case:
Delta Ltd does not recognise the expected income of R900 000, but discloses a contingent
asset by way of a note.
On 30 June 20.28, it is virtually certain that Delta Ltd will receive R900 000 in damages for
breach of copyright:
Delta Ltd recognises an asset and the related income of R900 000 in the statement of
financial position and statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
respectively. The statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income item will, in all
probability, be disclosed in the notes to the financial statements.
8.1 Disclosure
Should an inflow of economic benefits be probable, the following disclosure requirements
apply to contingent assets (IAS 37.89–91):
a brief description of the nature of the contingent asset;
an estimate of the financial effect of the contingent asset, measured in accordance with
the same principles that apply to provisions and contingent liabilities, provided it is
practicable to obtain this information; and
where the disclosure of the above information does not take place, as it would be
impracticable, and is not disclosed for this reason, the fact must be disclosed.
No specific disclosure is required in cases where the disclosure of information, as set out
above, may prejudice the position of the entity in negotiations with other parties about the
matter to which the contingency relates. IAS 37.92 does, however, indicate that these
circumstances are extremely rare. The general nature of the circumstances and the fact that
the information is not disclosed, as well as the reason why it is not disclosed, must be
stated.
Example 14.14: Disclosure of a contingent asset

Beta Ltd manufactures and installs alarms. All alarms are sold with a one-year assurance-
type warranty. Beta Ltd has a 31 December year-end.
Beta Ltd sued a competitor during the year for R850 000 for an infringement of a right of
patent. Legal fees up to the reporting date amounted to R35 000. The company’s legal
advisors are of the opinion that Beta Ltd’s claim will probably succeed. Disclosure will be as
follows:
Beta Ltd
Profit before tax is shown after taking the following items into account:
R
Legal fees# 35 000
# Assume that this amount is material and disclosable in terms of IAS 1.86.
4. Contingent asset
A claim for the alleged infringement of a right of patent was instituted against a
competitor during the year. The company’s legal advisors are of the opinion that the
claim will probably succeed. If the claim were to be successful, the company would
receive compensation of R850 000.
9 Changes in existing decommissioning, restoration and similar liabilities

(IFRIC 1)
The elements of cost of property, plant and equipment as listed in IAS 16.16 include an
initial estimate of the cost of dismantling and removing the item and restoring the site on
which it is located, provided these costs were raised via an associated provision.
The obligation related to the provision could arise either when the item is acquired, or as a
consequence of having used the item during a particular period for purposes other than
producing inventories during that period. If the item is used to manufacture inventories, the
debit leg of the provision entry will be capitalised as part of the cost of inventories.
Although IAS 16, Property, Plant and Equipment, was clear on what to do at initial
recognition with such costs and the related provision, there was a lack of guidance
regarding what would happen if the amount of the initial estimate included in the cost of
the property, plant and equipment item were to change at a later stage, i.e. when the
estimate is revised.
IFRIC 1 deals only with the accounting treatment relating to changes in the measurement
of any decommissioning, restoration or similar liabilities that form part of both property, plant and
equipment and provisions.
Since the provisions associated with the abovementioned costs generally relate to amounts
to be paid at some date in the future, these items are mostly discounted to present value at
date of recognition. The subsequent unwinding of the discount factor would result in an
increase in the related provision and a debit against finance cost in the statement of profit
or loss and other comprehensive income, as is the case with any provision where the time
value of money played a role (refer to section 6.2). IFRIC 1.8 prohibits the capitalisation of
finance costs arising from this source, and the unwinding of the discount rate does not
constitute a change in accounting estimate.
Changes in the measurement of an existing decommissioning, restoration or similar
liability arise from:
a change in the estimated cash flows (timing or amount) required to settle the
obligation;
a change in the current market-based discount rate used to calculate the present value
of the obligation; and
an increase that reflects the passage of time (unwinding of discount rate).
Since the unwinding of the discount rate does not represent a change in accounting
estimate, IFRIC 1 only covers the impact of the first two items listed above.
Changing the carrying amount of a property, plant and equipment item will also change
the depreciable amount of the asset involved. This adjusted depreciable amount will be
depreciated over the asset’s remaining useful life. Once the related asset has reached the
end of its useful life, all subsequent changes in the value of the liability will be recognised in
the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
as they occur.
For purposes of this chapter, only the cost model will be discussed. An example on the
revaluation model is available in the illustrative examples of IFRIC 1.
9.1 Accounting treatment in terms of the cost model

An adjustment must be made to the cost of the asset that corresponds to the changes in
the estimates relating to the amount of decommissioning, restoration or similar costs
capitalised onto the cost of property, plant and equipment, subject to the following
conditions:
If the related liability decreases (i.e. liability is debited), this amount (the
reduction) will be offset against the asset, but cannot create a net credit balance on the
item of property, plant and equipment. Any excess beyond the carrying amount of the
affected asset shall be recognised immediately in the profit or loss section of the
If the related liability increases (i.e. liability is credited), the carrying amount of
the item of property, plant and equipment will increase. Under these circumstances an
entity must consider whether there is an indication that the increased carrying amount
may not be recoverable in full. Consequently, if an indication of impairment exists, the
asset must be subjected to impairment testing. The increase in the carrying amount of the
asset does not go hand-in-hand with an increase in the expected economic benefits from
the asset; therefore recovery of the carrying amount of the asset could be problematic.
Example 14.15: Changes in estimates of decommissioning costs – cost model used

for property, plant and equipment
Excom Ltd has a nuclear power station and a related decommissioning provision. The
nuclear power station was available for use on 1 January 20.21 and has a useful life of
40 years. Its initial cost was R60 million, which included R5 million for decommissioning
costs in terms of IAS 16.16(c). The R5 million was calculated by discounting cash outflows in
respect of decommissioning costs of R108,623 million over 40 years, using an appropriate
discount rate of 8% per annum. The entity’s year-end is 31 December.
On 31 December 20.29, the power station is nine years old and accumulated depreciation
amounts to R13,5 million (60 million × 9/40). Because of the unwinding of the discount rate
over the nine years since 1 January 20.21, the decommissioning liability (provision) now
stands at R9,995 million. On 31 December 20.29, the entity estimates that the present
value of the decommissioning liability has increased by R8 million, due to technological
difficulties, while the 8% per annum discount rate is still appropriate.
Example 14.15: Changes in estimates of decommissioning costs – cost model used

for property, plant and equipment (continued)
The required journal entry for the change in the provision is:
Dr Cr
R’000 R’000
31 December 20.29
Cost of the asset (SFP) 8 000
Decommissioning provision (SFP) 8 000
Increase in decommissioning provision due to change in estimate
This will have the following effect:
The carrying amount of the asset is now R54,5 million (60 – 13,5 + 8), which must be
tested for impairment if there is an indication of impairment and will be depreciated over
the remaining useful life of 31 years at R1,758 million (54,5/31) per annum (from
20.30) if no impairment loss has been identified at this point.
The decommissioning provision is increased to R17,995 million (9,995 + 8,000) and the
finance cost in the next year (20.30) will be R1,44 million (17,995 × 0,08). If the change
in estimate of the provision came about as a result of a change in the discount rate, the
accounting treatment would be the same, except that finance cost in the next year and
thereafter will be calculated using the revised (new) discount rate.

Sami Ltd has a reporting date of 28 February 20.29.
On 1 December 20.28, a customer fell on a slippery floor and broke his ribs, both arms and
an ankle. On 3 March 20.29 the customer’s attorney filed a claim against Sami Ltd for
R750 000 and the company immediately counter-claimed R750 000 against the company
that does the cleaning of the floors.
The attorney of Sami Ltd is of the opinion that there is an 80% chance that only R500 000
of the claim of the customer will probably be successful and that only 60% thereof will
probably be successfully claimed against the company doing the cleaning of the floors.
The claims are not yet finalised at the date when the financial statements were authorised
for issue.
The first question to answer is when the obligating event took place. Is it on
1 December 20.28 or 3 March 20.29. The obligating event is when the entity became liable
and that is 1 December 20.28. On 28 February 20.29, the past event already occurred and
the obligating event complies therefore with the definition of a liability.
It is probable (80%) that R500 000 of the R750 000 will be successful and therefore
R500 000 will be provided as a provision. The amount can also be reliably measured at
R500 000, which is evidenced by the attorney of Sami Ltd. Both the probability and the
measurement criteria of recognition are therefore met.
The required journal entry is:
Dr Cr
R R
28 February 20.29
Claim for injuries (P/L) 500 000
Provision for claim for injuries (SFP) 500 000
Recognising provision for claim

Notes to consider:
The difference between R750 000 (the original claim) and R500 000 (recognised as a
provision) of R250 000 will be regarded as a contingent liability as the outflow is only
possible i.e. less likely than not (Probability of only 20% (100% – 80%)). The R250 000
will be disclosed in a note to the financial statements as a contingent liability.
The claim against the company that does the cleaning of the floors will constitute a
contingent asset as the outcome is only probable and not virtually certain. The recovery
from the company that does the cleaning of the floors is only probable and therefore an
asset will not be recognised for the R300 000 (R500 000 × 60%). Only a contingent
asset will be disclosed in a note to the financial statements.
If the recovery from the company that does the cleaning of the floors however, was
virtually certain, the R300 000 would have been recognised separately as an asset and
not deducted from the provision.
The disclosure in the notes to the financial statements will be as follows:
Sami Ltd
Notes to the financial statements for the year ended 28 February 20.29
Profit before tax is stated after the following are taken into account:
R
Claim for injuries 500 000
3. Provision for injuries

Balance at the beginning of the year –
Provision for the year 500 000
Balance at the end of the year 500 000
A provision of R500 000 has been recognised at the end of the year for an expected claim in
respect of injuries caused to a customer that fell on a slippery floor during the current
financial year. The total claim was for R750 000 of which R250 000 was regarded a
contingent liability (see note 4 below). It is expected that all of this expenditure will be
incurred in the following financial year. There is a probability that R300 000 of this amount
may be reimbursed by a third party that does the cleaning of the floors (see note 5 below).
4. Contingent liability
A claim of R750 000 in respect of injuries caused to a customer that fell on a slippery floor,
has been filed against the company. Of this amount, R500 000 was regarded as probable
and recognised as a provision (see note 3 above) and R250 000 as contingent upon future
events, which is regarded as a contingent liability.
5. Contingent asset
A claim of R750 000 in respect of injuries caused to a customer that fell on a slippery floor
was instituted against a third party that does the cleaning of the floors. The company’s legal
advisors are of the opinion that the claim will probably succeed. If the claim would be
successful, the company would probably receive compensation of R300 000.
11 Short and sweet
IAS 37 discusses the recognition, measurement and disclosure of provisions,

contingent liabilities and contingent assets.
A provision is a liability of uncertain timing or amount.
A provision is recognised when the following criteria are met:
– the entity has a present legal or constructive obligation as a result of a past event;
– it is probable that an outflow of economic benefits will be required; and
– a reliable estimate of the amount can be made.
Provisions are measured at the present value of:
– the most probable amount in the instance of a once-off event; or
– the weighted average probability amount (refer to Example 14.8) for a large
population (for example, guarantees, etc.).
The measurement of a provision must be reviewed annually.
The debit entry could be an expense or an asset (for example, restoration costs).
Provisions may only be used for the purpose for which they were created.
Provisions are not created for future operating losses.
Provisions are recognised for onerous contracts.
A contingent liability is:
– a possible obligation, the existence of which will be confirmed by the occurrence or
non-occurrence of an uncertain future event not wholly within the control of the entity;
or
– a present obligation, the settlement of which is unlikely or the amount of which
cannot be reliably measured.
A contingent asset is a possible asset as a result of past events and whose existence will
be confirmed by the occurrence or non-occurrence of an uncertain future event not
wholly within the control of the entity.
Contingent assets or contingent liabilities are not recognised but are disclosed in a note.
15
Intangible assets
IAS 38
Contents
3 Background................................................................................................... 398
4 Nature of intangible assets ............................................................................. 399
5 Recognition and initial measurement ............................................................... 400
5.1 Recognition ......................................................................................... 400
5.2 Separate acquisitions ........................................................................... 401
5.3 Exchanges of intangible assets ............................................................. 402
5.4 Acquisition by way of a government grant ............................................. 403
6 Internally generated intangible assets ............................................................. 403
6.1 Internally generated goodwill ............................................................... 404
6.2 Internally generated intangible assets – other than goodwill ................... 404
7 Subsequent measurement .............................................................................. 408
7.1 The cost model.................................................................................... 408
7.2 The revaluation model ......................................................................... 409
7.3 Intangible assets with finite useful lives ................................................. 409
7.4 Intangible assets with indefinite useful lives ........................................... 412
8 Impairment ................................................................................................... 413
9 Derecognition................................................................................................ 413
10 Disclosure ..................................................................................................... 414
11 Short and sweet ............................................................................................ 418
Define and explain the nature of intangible assets.
Calculate the following amounts:
– cost price (purchased intangible assets and internally generated intangible assets);
– amortisation amount;
– residual value; and
– carrying amount.
395
Understand the recognition and measurement of internally generated intangible assets

and apply those to practical situations.
Understand the recognition and measurement of research and development costs and
apply those to practical situations.
Distinguish between intangible assets with a finite useful life and intangible assets with
an indefinite useful life.
Account for all the abovementioned items.
Present and disclose intangible assets in the annual financial statements.
Objective
Prescribe the recognition, measurement and disclosure of intangible assets.
In particular, addressing the timing of recognition of the assets, determining the carrying
amount and the related amortisation.
Recognition
Intangible assets are recognised when they meet the definition of an intangible asset and:
it is probable that the future economic benefits associated with the intangible asset will flow to
the entity; and
the cost of the intangible asset can be measured reliably.
Purchased intangible assets Internally generated intangible assets
Initial measurement
All costs related to intangible assets are written off unless:
the cost of the intangible asset meets the recognition criteria and can therefore be capitalised.
THEN:
Recognise initially at cost.
Cost includes all costs that can be allocated to the creation, manufacturing and preparation of
the asset for its intended use.
Subsequent measurement
Intangible assets should subsequently be measured using one of two models:
the cost model: cost less accumulated amortisation and accumulated impairment losses; or
the revaluation model: revalued amount less subsequent accumulated amortisation and
b l d l
continued
Intangible assets with indefinite useful Intangible assets with finite useful
lives lives
These intangible assets are not amortised; These intangible assets are amortised
and over their useful lives.
are tested for impairment annually.
Revaluation Amortisation
Intangible asset is shown at revalued Amortisation of intangible assets is
amount (fair value). based on the same principles as the
Determine fair value with reference to an depreciation of items of property,
active market. plant and equipment.
Intangible assets without an active market
will not qualify for revaluation.
Recoverability of carrying amount

The carrying amount should be tested for impairment in terms of IAS 36.
Derecognition
The intangible asset is removed from the statement of financial position
on disposal or when withdrawn from use and there are no expected future
benefits from its disposal.
The gain or loss is recognised in the statement of profit or loss and other
Internally generated intangible assets
Internally generated goodwill Internally generated intangible

Does not meet the definition and assets – other than goodwill
recognition criteria.
Is therefore not recognised as an
intangible asset.
Research costs Development costs

Uncertainty regarding inflow of future May be CAPITALISED when they meet:
economic benefits. – normal recognition criteria; and
Written off as an EXPENSE in the – specific recognition criteria as
statement of profit or loss and other contained in IAS 38.
comprehensive income. Development costs are amortised.
3 Background
IAS 38 provides criteria for the identification of intangible assets and provides
guidance on the recognition, measurement and disclosure of these assets.
The accounting treatment of intangible assets has always been a controversial issue.
Although there is a measure of unanimity as to the nature, characteristics and causes of
intangible assets such as goodwill, the accounting treatment remains a bone of contention.
Everyone agrees that goodwill, patents, trademarks and so forth contribute to the value of
an entity’s profits, even to the extent of realising super-profits.
Proponents of the free market system argue that the ability to perform at a super-profit
level is in theory only temporary, as competition will gradually result in a decline in the
performance of the entity to an average or slightly below average level.
The assumed temporary nature of the ability to perform above the average should result
in goodwill and other intangible assets being treated in the same manner as any other
non-current assets for accounting purposes. This implies that these assets have a limited
useful life and should be amortised.
There is however, an opposing viewpoint that suggests that as long as the factors that
originally gave rise to goodwill and other intangible assets continue to exist or continue to
be supplemented, it is unnecessary to amortise these assets. This apparent maintenance of,
or even increase in, the value of these assets does not arise from them having an indefinite
useful life; instead, it is the cost of purchase of those intangible assets that is progressively
being replaced by the value of internally generated goodwill.
IAS 38 provides guidance on the recognition, measurement and disclosure of intangible
assets to ensure that these assets are accounted for consistently from year to year and
between different entities.
IAS 38 does not apply to:
intangible assets held by an entity for sale in the ordinary course of business (IAS 2,
Inventories);
deferred tax assets (IAS 12, Income Taxes);
leases of intangible assets accounted for in accordance with IFRS 16, Leases;
assets arising from employee benefits (IAS 19, Employee Benefits);
financial assets as defined in IAS 32, Financial Instruments: Presentation;
goodwill acquired in a business combination (IFRS 3, Business Combinations);
insurance contracts within the scope of IFRS 17, Insurance Contracts;
non-current intangible assets classified as held for sale (IFRS 5, Non-current Assets Held
for Sale and Discontinued Operations);
assets arising from contracts with customers that are recognised in accordance with
IFRS 15, Revenue from Contracts with Customers;
the recognition and measurement of exploration and evaluation assets (IFRS 6,
Exploration for and Evaluation of Mineral Resources); or
expenditure on the development and extraction of, minerals, oil, natural gas and similar
non-regenerative resources.
Rights held by a lessee under licensing agreements for items such as motion picture films,
video recordings, plays, manuscripts, patents and copyrights that are within the scope of
IAS 38, are excluded from the scope of IFRS 16.
4 Nature of intangible assets
IAS 38 defines intangible assets as being:

without physical substance;
identifiable; and
non-monetary.
With reference to the generic definition of an asset, IAS 38 defines intangible assets as a
resource:
being controlled by an entity as a result of past events; and
from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity.
An intangible asset may sometimes be contained in a physical substance such as a CD for

software, or a legal document for patents or film. This definition may therefore result in
confusion about what asset or part of an asset is tangible and should be treated in
accordance with IAS 16, Property, Plant and Equipment and what asset or part of an asset is
intangible, and should thus be treated in accordance with IAS 38. In such instances,
professional judgement is required, and the relationships between assets and the outcome
of processes should be considered in order to determine which element is the most
significant (IAS 38.4).
Example 15.1: Classification of intangible assets

The operating system of a computer (such as Windows), forms an integral part of the
hardware and should for accounting purposes be treated as property, plant and equipment.
Other software applications and packages (such as MS Office), qualify as intangible assets.
In the case of research and development activities, the development of a prototype is the
result of a process through which knowledge is created; therefore both the process and
prototype should be treated as intangible assets.
The identifiability requirement of the definition is used to distinguish goodwill from

intangible assets.
An asset meets the identifiability criterion when it:
is separable (it is capable of being separated or divided from the entity and sold,
transferred, licenced, rented or exchanged, either individually or together with a related
contract, asset or liability); or
arises from contractual or other legal rights, regardless of whether those rights are
transferable or separable from the entity or from other rights and obligations.
Goodwill is a payment made by an acquirer in a business combination, in anticipation of future

economic benefits from assets that cannot be individually identified. It represents future
economic benefits arising from the synergy between identifiable assets, or from intangible
assets that do not meet the criteria for recognition as intangible assets.
When an entity controls an asset, it has the power to obtain the future economic
benefits flowing from the underlying resource and can also restrict the access of others to
those benefits.
The ability to exercise control over intangible assets usually arises from a legal right. To
illustrate: An entity may only control the technical knowledge used to ensure future economic
benefits for the company if it is protected through copyright, a restraint of trade agreement
or a legal duty of employees to maintain confidentiality. However, an entity does not usually
have sufficient control over a team of skilled staff to recognise those as intangible assets.
Note that the absence of legal rights to protect or otherwise control relationships with
customers would usually indicate insufficient control; therefore the definition of an intangible
asset is not met. However, in the absence of such legal rights, exchange transactions for
similar customer relationships will provide evidence that an entity has sufficient control over
such an asset to meet the definition of an intangible asset (such exchange transactions also
provide evidence that the customer relationships are separable).
The future economic benefits expected to flow to the entity from the intangible asset
include revenue from the sale of goods and services, as well as cost savings and other
benefits resulting from the use of the asset.
Knowledge of the efficient structuring of production facilities may, for example, result in cost
savings rather than in an increase in revenue.
Examples of intangible assets include:
computer software patents copyrights motion picture films

customer lists mortgage servicing rights fishing licences import quotas
franchises customer or supplier customer loyalty market share
relationships
marketing rights trademarks other licences publishers’ titles
production quotas models prototypes recipes and formulae
Each group of intangible assets with a similar nature and use in the entity is identified as a
class of intangible assets that is disclosed separately in the financial statements.
5 Recognition and initial measurement

5.1 Recognition
IAS 38.68 requires that all costs incurred for intangible assets be recognised as an
expense when they are incurred, unless those costs:
form part of the costs of an intangible asset that meet the recognition criteria in IAS 38.21
and are therefore capitalised (refer to section 5.2).
In some cases, expenditure is incurred to provide future economic benefits to an entity, but
no intangible or other asset is acquired or created that can be recognised. Such expenditure
is recognised as follows:
Supply of goods: recognise the expenditure as an expense when the entity has a right
to access the goods. An entity has a right to access the goods when it owns them. It
also has a right to access goods when they have been constructed by a supplier in
accordance with the terms of a supply contract and the entity could demand delivery of
the goods in return for payment.
Supply of services: recognise the expenditure as an expense when the services are
received. Services are received when they are performed by a supplier in accordance
with a contract to deliver them and not when the entity uses them to deliver another
service.
Examples of costs which are normally expensed include:
pre-opening costs start-up costs opening costs for new facility

legal costs and secretarial costs training costs pre-operating costs
associated with incorporating an advertising and other reorganisation costs
entity promotional activities
(including mail order
catalogues)
restructuring costs relocation costs
The above does not preclude raising a prepayment asset when payment for the goods has
been made in advance of the entity obtaining a right to access those goods or receiving
those services.
Costs incurred to acquire or generate an intangible item that were initially recognised as
an expense by the reporting entity should not be reinstated once the criteria for recognition
as part of the cost of an intangible asset are met at a later date.
Generally speaking, subsequent expenditure in the case of intangible assets will be incurred
to maintain expected future economic benefits embodied in such an asset. Consequently,
such expenditure will be expensed. Furthermore, consistent with IAS 38.63, subsequent
expenditure on brands, mastheads and similar items, whether externally acquired or
internally generated, will also be expensed in the profit or loss section of the statement of
profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
5.2 Separate acquisitions
To recognise an item as an intangible asset in the financial statements of an entity, it

should be proven that the item meets the definition of an intangible asset, as well as the
recognition criteria for an intangible asset.
The recognition criteria for an intangible asset consist of two main aspects.
In terms of the first criterion it should be probable that future economic benefits
specifically attributable to the asset will flow to the entity. If an intangible asset is
acquired separately, the probability criterion is deemed to be satisfied automatically and
the effect of probability is reflected in the cost of the asset. The determination of the
probability of future economic benefits is based on professional judgement, using
reasonable and supportable assumptions. These represent management’s best estimate
of the probable economic conditions that will exist over the useful life of the asset.
Evidence supporting the probability of receiving future economic benefits includes market
research, feasibility studies, comprehensive business plans and the like. Greater weight will
however, be given to external evidence.
The second criterion requires that the costs of the intangible asset can be measured
reliably. When an intangible asset is acquired, the purchase price, plus costs such as
import duty, professional and legal fees, the cost of employee benefits arising directly
from bringing the asset to its working condition, the costs of testing whether the asset is
functioning properly, and non-recoverable taxes that are incurred in preparing the asset
for its intended use, form part of the cost of the asset. Any trade discounts and rebates
are deducted when calculating the cost. If the intangible asset is acquired through the
issue of shares, and the fair value of the intangible asset acquired cannot be determined
reliably, the cost of the asset is the fair value of the shares issued plus associated costs
as discussed above. If the payment for the intangible asset is deferred beyond normal
credit terms, its cost is deemed to be the cash price equivalent, with the interest
expense being recognised over the full period of the credit terms.
Example 15.2: Cost of a separately acquired intangible asset

Delta Ltd acquired a broadcasting licence for a local radio station. The following additional
costs were incurred in connection with this acquisition:
R
Fees of professional broadcasting consultant 10 000
Legal fees 5 000
Allocation of cost of time spent by management (employee benefit costs) 30 000
It was agreed that the purchase price would be settled by issuing 200 000 shares in
Delta Ltd. The shares were trading at R2,00 per share when settlement was effected. The
fair value of the broadcasting licence could not be determined reliably.
Taking the above into account, the broadcasting licence should be capitalised at an amount
R
Fair value of shares at settlement date (200 000 × R2) 400 000
Professional fees 10 000
Legal fees 5 000
Management salaries allocated 30 000
Broadcasting licence capitalised/recognised at 445 000
Expenses not forming part of the cost of intangible assets are set out in IAS 38.29(a) to (c)
and are similar to those listed in respect of property, plant and equipment.
The recognition of costs in the carrying amount of an intangible asset ceases when
the asset is in a condition necessary for it to be capable of operating in the manner intended
by management.
Therefore, costs associated with redeploying an intangible asset, such as:

costs incurred while an asset capable of being operated as management intended has
not been brought into use; and
initial operating losses, such as those incurred while demand for the asset’s output builds
up,
are not included in the carrying amount of the asset.
Incidental costs of intangible assets are treated in the same manner as the incidental
costs on property, plant and equipment (refer to the chapter on IAS 16).
5.3 Exchanges of intangible assets

The accounting treatment for exchanges of intangible assets is exactly the same as for
property, plant and equipment (refer to the chapter on IAS 16).
Example 15.3: Intangible asset acquired in an exchange transaction

Axis Ltd is the manufacturer of specialised machinery. Breeze Ltd is, however, the registered
owner of the only two licences to produce product Z, the product that is manufactured by the
machinery produced by Axis Ltd. Breeze Ltd does not have the expertise or capacity to
manufacture the specialised machinery to produce product Z.
Example 15.3: Intangible asset acquired in an exchange transaction (continued)

Axis Ltd and Breeze Ltd enter into the following agreement that benefits both parties:
Axis Ltd will deliver two of the specialised machines to Breeze Ltd in exchange for one of
Breeze Ltd’s licences. The licence is valid for a term of five years whereafter it can be
renewed at a significant cost.
Assume the fair value of the licence is available, and that the value is R500 000. The fair
value of a machine is estimated at R300 000 and the cost to Axis Ltd to manufacture one
machine is R200 000.
In this instance the transaction has commercial substance and the fair value of both the
asset acquired and the asset given up can be determined. The licence will be recognised in
the records of Axis Ltd at R600 000 in terms of IAS 38.45.
The exchange transaction will be accounted for as follows in the records of Axis Ltd:
Dr Cr
R R
Intangible asset – Licence (SFP) (R300 000 × 2) 600 000
Initial recognition of licence
Cost of sales (P/L) (R200 000 × 2) 400 000
Exchange of machines for licence
Comment:
¾ If the fair value of neither the licence nor the machinery can be determined, IAS 38.45
determines that the asset that will be acquired is recognised at the carrying value of the
asset that is given up. In this instance, the licence would have been recognised at
R400 000 (R200 000 × 2).
¾ If the fair value of the asset received was more clearly evident than the fair value of the
asset given up, IAS 38.47 determines that the fair value of the asset received
(R500 000) would then be used.
5.4 Acquisition by way of a government grant

Where an intangible asset is acquired free of charge or for a nominal consideration by way
of a government grant, an entity may choose to recognise both the grant and the intangible
asset at fair value or at a nominal amount (i.e. a minimal amount). If the asset is recognised
at a nominal value, the expenditure directly attributable to preparing the asset for its
intended use is capitalised. If the asset is recognised at fair value, the expenditure will not
be capitalised, because the resultant carrying amount will exceed its fair value.
6 Internally generated intangible assets

Although the previous paragraphs apply to both purchased and internally generated assets,
specific problems arise with the recognition and measurement of internally generated
intangible assets.
6.1 Internally generated goodwill
In terms of IAS 38 and the Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting (Conceptual
Framework), internally generated goodwill is not recognised as an internally generated
intangible asset because:
it does not meet either the definition of an asset or the recognition criteria, as it is not a
separately identifiable source that is controlled by the entity that will generate specific future
economic benefits that can be measured reliably.
The accounting treatment thereof is, however, addressed in IAS 38.48 to 50.
It may be argued that the difference between the carrying amount of the net identifiable
assets of an entity and the entity’s market value represents internally generated goodwill. This
difference may arise from a wide range of factors and may therefore not be deemed to
represent the cost of an intangible asset controlled by the entity.
6.2 Internally generated intangible assets – other than goodwill

It is sometimes difficult to establish whether other internally generated intangible assets
comply with the definition and the recognition criteria of an intangible asset. The difficulties
with the recognition criteria specifically arise from problems in:
identifying whether and when there is an identifiable asset that will generate expected
future economic benefits; and
determining the cost of the internally generated intangible asset reliably.
6.2.1 Research and development costs
IAS 38 identifies two phases in the development of internally generated intangible

assets, namely a research phase and a development phase. This is done in an attempt to
alleviate the problems associated with internally generated intangible assets other than
internally generated goodwill.
Although research and development are related, there is nevertheless a distinct difference
between the two.
Research is the original and planned investigation undertaken with the prospect of
gaining new scientific or technical knowledge and understanding.
Examples of research activities include:
activities to gain new knowledge;
the search for, selection and application of research findings;
the search for alternatives for materials, devices, products, processes, systems or
services; and
the formulation, design, evaluation and final selection of possible alternatives for new or
improved materials, devices, products, processes, systems or services.
Development is the application of research findings or other knowledge through the
development of a plan or design aimed at the production of new or substantially improved
materials, devices, products, processes, systems or services, prior to the commencement of
commercial production or use.
Examples of development activities include the:
design, construction and testing of pre-production or pre-use prototypes;
design of models;
design of tools, jigs, moulds and dies;
design, construction and operation of a pilot plant; and
design, construction and testing of a selected alternative for materials, devices, products,
processes, systems or services.
The accounting treatment of research and development costs is different due to the
difference in the likelihood of the specific item generating probable future economic
benefits. If it is probable that economic benefits will flow to the entity, it is conceptually
correct to raise an asset that will be written off against the future benefits.
The nature of research is such that there is a low level of certainty that future economic
benefits will flow to the entity. Consequently, IAS 38 requires that research costs be
expensed in the period incurred.
Development activities indicate, however, that the internal project has advanced beyond the
research phase and that the entity may already be able to estimate the future economic
benefits.
Therefore, development costs should be capitalised when all the following criteria, over
and above the normal recognition criteria are met (IAS 38.57):
The technical feasibility of completing the intangible asset is of such a nature that it will
be available for use or sale.
The entity has the intention to complete the intangible asset, and use or sell it.
The entity has the ability to use or sell the intangible asset.
The entity can demonstrate how the intangible asset will generate probable future
economic benefits. The entity should demonstrate the existence of a market for the
output of the intangible asset or the intangible asset itself or, if it is to be used internally,
the usefulness of the intangible asset. An entity assesses the future economic benefits to
be obtained from an asset using the principles contained in IAS 36, Impairment of
Assets, including the principles associated with cash-generating units.
The entity has adequate technical, financial and other resources to complete the
development, and to use or sell the intangible asset. This is proven by, for example, a
business plan showing the resources required and the entity’s ability to secure those
resources.
The entity can reliably measure the expenditure attributable to the intangible asset during
its development.
When uncertainty exists about the economic benefits that may be expected from the
development activities, these costs will be written off as they are incurred, as with research
costs. If an intangible asset has been raised that is not yet in use, the carrying amount of
the intangible asset should be tested for impairment at least annually, and where applicable,
written off to the recoverable amount.
If an entity cannot distinguish between the research and the development phases of a
project, IAS 38 requires that all the expenditure be allocated to the research phase and be
written off as incurred.
Usually the cost of internally generated intangible assets can be determined by the cost
systems of the entity, and can therefore be measured reliably. In some cases, intangible
assets cannot be measured reliably, as the costs may not be directly attributable to these
intangible assets and may rather be related to internally generated goodwill. If this is the
case, an asset is not recognised.
The research and development of internally generated intangible assets
normally require the incurring of costs such as:
salaries and wages;
raw materials and service costs;
depreciation on equipment;
the amortisation of patents and licences; and

legal costs to register legal rights.
The following normally do not qualify as research and development costs:
general administrative expenses;
training expenses;
selling expenses;
inefficiencies; and
initial operating losses.
The costs forming part of internally generated intangible assets recognised as assets
are those costs which are directly attributable, or can be allocated on a reasonable basis, to
the creation, production and preparation of the asset for its intended use.
Only costs related to development may qualify for capitalisation. The costing system of the
entity is usually capable of measuring the costs of internally generated intangible assets
reliably. The cost of these assets is the total expenditure incurred from the date the asset
first met the recognition criteria, while costs incurred before that point are expensed.
All research costs are immediately recognised as an expense in the profit or loss
Costs that were initially written off as expenses in the profit or loss section of the statement
of profit or loss and other comprehensive income cannot subsequently be reinstated and
recognised as an asset. Consequently, the initial carrying amount of such an intangible asset
is the sum of the costs incurred from the date on which the asset qualified as an
asset for the first time.
Internally generated brands, newspaper mastheads, publishing titles, customer lists and
items similar in substance are not recognised as other internally generated intangible assets;
instead, they form part of internally generated goodwill. This is because the cost of these
items cannot be distinguished from the cost of developing the business as a whole.
Example 15.4: Research and development costs

Alpha Ltd, a motor vehicle manufacturer, has a research division that worked on the
following projects during the year:
Project I – The design of a steering mechanism that does not operate like the conventional
steering wheel, but reacts to impulses from the driver’s fingers. Vehicle
manufacturers are very sceptical about this project.
Project II – The design of a welding apparatus that is controlled electronically rather than
mechanically. Several large plants have enquired about this development and
are very enthusiastic. This project has met all the recognition criteria for
intangible assets since the beginning of this year.
Example 15.4: Research and development costs (continued)

The following is a summary of the expenses of the different departments:
General Project I Project II
R’000 R’000 R’000
Material and services 128 935 620
Labour
Direct labour – 630 320
Departmental head 400 – –
Administrative personnel 725 – –
Overheads
Direct – 340 410
Indirect 270 110 60
The departmental head spent 15% of his time on Project I and 10% on Project II.
The capitalisation of development costs for the financial year is as follows:
R’000
Project I: The activity is classified as research and all costs are recognised as
expenses –
Project II: (620 + 320 + (10% × 400) + 410 + 60) 1 450
1 450
Comment:
¾ Assume that, in respect of Project II, an amount of R200 000 was written off in the
previous year (or interim period) because the development costs did not qualify for
recognition as an asset before the beginning of the current year. This amount cannot be
reinstated as part of the cost of development in the current year, or later. Only costs from
the date on which the intangible asset first qualified as an asset in terms of the
recognition criteria for intangible assets may be capitalised as internally generated
intangible assets.
The amortisation of an internally generated intangible asset is similar to the process

of depreciation used for property, plant and equipment and amortisation of other intangible
assets, and is recognised on a systematic basis in order to reflect the pattern in which the
related economic benefits are recognised. Amortisation commences once the intangible
asset is available for use as intended by management and not when it is put into use.
The amortisation period is often limited as a result of technological and economic ageing
and the uncertainties inherent in estimating future costs and expenses. As with depreciation,
the amortisation of the internally generated intangible assets can be allocated to another
asset account, from where it will be written off with the other components of that asset.
At the end of each financial year, the expected future economic benefits of the asset as
compared to the asset’s carrying amount should be assessed. Internally generated
intangible assets that are not yet available for use are compared to their recoverable
amounts at least annually, even if no indication of impairment exists. If any of the
abovementioned criteria for the capitalisation of development costs no longer apply, the
balance on the account should be written off immediately. However, when such an asset
has been written down and there is subsequently persuasive evidence that the
circumstances that resulted in the write-down no longer exist, the asset may be reinstated.
The reinstatement takes into account the amortisation in accordance with the original plan
of amortisation for the period of the write down. The reinstatement is recognised and
disclosed in accordance with IAS 36 on the impairment of assets.
7 Subsequent measurement
IAS 38 allows two accounting policies for measuring intangible assets subsequent to
initial recognition:
An entity will, after initial recognition, make a choice between the cost model and the
revaluation model.
IAS 38 does not indicate any preference in respect of the two models (cost or revaluation
model) used for measurement after initial recognition. However, in terms of IAS 8, an entity
should choose and consistently apply one of the available policies. This consistent treatment
will ensure comparability between financial statements from year to year.
7.1 The cost model
The cost model allows an entity to carry the intangible asset at its cost less any
accumulated amortisation and accumulated impairment losses.
Example 15.5: Carrying amount of an intangible asset according to the cost model
Harry Ltd developed a new product and correctly capitalised an amount of R150 000 as
development costs between 31 July 20.22 and 31 December 20.22. The product was
completed on 31 December 20.22. On 1 January 20.23, the useful life of the development
costs is estimated at five years, as the expected useful life of the product arising from the
development costs is expected to be five years. Harry Ltd expects to benefit evenly from the
development costs. Therefore, the development costs are amortised on the straight-line
basis.
The journal entries for the development costs will be as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
31 July 20.22 – 31 December 20.22
Intangible asset – Development costs (SFP) 150 000
Bank (SFP) 150 000
Recognise development costs as an intangible asset
31 December 20.23
Amortisation (P/L)* (150 000/5) 30 000
Accumulated amortisation (SFP) 30 000
Amortisation of development costs for 20.23
* The amortisation of the development costs can also be debited to the cost of inventories (SFP)
and subsequently, on sale of the inventories, debited to the line item cost of sales (P/L) since it
relates to the manufacturing of the new product.
The carrying amount of the intangible asset at the end of 20.23 will be calculated as follows:
R
Development costs capitalised 150 000
Amortisation (30 000)
Carrying amount at the end of 20.23 120 000
7.2 The revaluation model
The revaluation model allows an entity to revalue the intangible asset to fair value.
The carrying amount of the revalued asset is therefore the fair value on the date of
revaluation, less any subsequent accumulated amortisation and subsequent accumulated
impairment losses.
An intangible asset can only be revalued if the fair value can be measured reliably. Fair
value can usually only be determined reliably if an active market in that type of intangible
asset exists.
An active market is a market in which transactions for the asset take place with sufficient
frequency and volume to provide pricing information on an ongoing basis (IFRS 13
Appendix).
As active markets will not exist for customised and unique intangible assets, intangible
assets such as trademarks, brands, newspaper mastheads, music and film publishing rights
and patents cannot be revalued. Active markets may, however, exist for certain types of
licences and quotas.
When intangible assets are revalued, the revaluation should take place at regular intervals
so that the carrying amount does not differ substantially from the fair value. Certain
intangible assets whose fair values are volatile or fluctuate substantially should be revalued
more regularly, probably annually. In contrast, intangible assets with relatively stable fair
values can be revalued on a less frequent basis.
The change from cost model to revaluation model constitutes a change in accounting
policy in terms of IAS 8, Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors –
which states that the change must be accounted for in accordance with IAS 38 and not in
accordance with IAS 8 (IAS 8.17).
The revaluation method cannot be used in the following instances:
where intangible assets have not previously been recognised as assets; and
on the date of initial recognition of intangible assets, when all assets should be
recognised at cost.
7.3 Intangible assets with finite useful lives
Intangible assets with finite useful lives shall be amortised over their useful lives.
Amortisation is the systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an intangible asset
over its useful life. The depreciable amount is the cost of the asset or other amount
substituted for cost less the residual value. Amortisation commences as soon as the asset is
available for use.
7.3.1 Useful life
The useful life of an asset is defined in terms of the asset’s expected utility to the
entity, while the economic life of an asset refers to the total life of an asset while in
possession of one or more owners.
Several factors may influence the useful lives of intangible assets, including the
following (IAS 38.90):
the expected use;
the useful life of similar assets;
technological or other types of obsolescence;

maintenance expenditure;
actions by competitors;
legal or similar contractual limits on the use of the asset;
whether the useful life is dependent on the useful life of other assets;
the stability of the industry in which the asset operates; and
changes in market demand for services or products generated by the intangible asset.
IAS 38 also notes that due to rapid changes in technology, computer software and other
similar intangible assets will have fairly short useful lives.
In instances where the useful life of an intangible asset arises through contractual or
other legal rights granted for a finite period, the useful life of the intangible assets should
not exceed the period granted by the contract or legal right, unless renewal of the rights can
be supported by evidence and will not lead to significant costs for the entity. If the cost of
renewal is significant, the “renewal cost” will represent the cost of a new intangible asset at
the renewal date.
IAS 38.96 contains a list of factors that would indicate that rights can be renewed without
significant cost.
7.3.2 Amortisation method
The amortisation method selected will reflect the pattern in which the asset’s
economic benefits are expected to be consumed by the entity.
Amortisation commences from the date on which the asset becomes available for use, and
is applied consistently unless there is a change in the expected pattern of use.
Amortisation may be calculated using a variety of methods, such as the:

straight-line method; or
diminishing-balance method; or
units of production method.
Where the pattern is not clearly discernible, the straight-line method is used.
Amortisation ceases at the earlier of the date:
on which the asset is classified as held for sale in terms of IFRS 5; or
on which the asset is derecognised; or
on which the asset is fully amortised.
The fact that an asset is no longer used does not cause amortisation to cease.
Note that amortisation based on the units of production method will obviously only
commence once production has started, even though the intangible asset may be available
for use before then.
The amount of amortisation for the period is an expense that is usually written off in the
profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income. In
certain instances, the amortisation amount may form part of the cost of other assets, such
as inventories.
7.3.3 Residual value
The residual value of an intangible asset with a finite useful life is deemed to be Rnil,
unless:
there is a commitment by a third party to purchase the asset at the end of its useful life; or
there is an active market for the asset and the residual value can be determined by reference
to that market and the market will probably still exist at the end of the asset’s useful life.
The residual value can be determined reliably in these instances.
A residual value larger than Rnil therefore indicates that the intangible asset will be sold
before the end of its economic life.
An estimate of an asset’s residual value is based on the amount that can currently be
obtained from the disposal of a similar asset at the end of its useful life that had been
operated under similar conditions as the asset under review. Residual value is reviewed at
least annually. A change in residual value is a change in accounting estimate and should be
accounted for in terms of IAS 8.
The residual value of an intangible asset may sometimes increase to an amount equal to
or greater than the carrying amount. Should this happen, the amortisation charge would
obviously be Rnil, until the residual value subsequently decreases to below the asset’s
carrying amount, in which case amortisation will once again commence.
Both the amortisation period and the amortisation method of an asset with a finite
useful life should be reassessed at each reporting date. When the expected useful life of an
intangible asset changes substantially as a result of (for example) the incurring of
subsequent costs that increase the useful life, the amortisation period is adjusted
accordingly. The pattern of expected future economic benefits resulting from the use of an
asset may change, and another amortisation method may be more appropriate. In both
instances, the change in the amortisation method and the amortisation period is a change in
an accounting estimate, which is adjusted prospectively in the current and future periods in
terms of IAS 8.
Example 15.6: Intangible asset with a residual value

On 1 January 20.23, Avery Ltd acquired a licence to use computer software to manage
inventories at a cost of R27 000. The licence has no time limit. It is, however, the policy of
the entity to upgrade computer systems every three years with the latest available software.
Assume that there is an active market for these types of second-hand software licences. The
estimated current residual value of the software licence is R6 000.
The amortisation for the first year of use of the licence is calculated as follows:
R
Estimated residual value (6 000)
Amount to be amortised 21 000
Useful life 3 years

Amortisation (R21 000/3) 7 000
During 20.24, there were significant increases in the price of second-hand software
licences.
The residual value of the software licence of Avery Ltd was revised to R11 000.
Example 15.6: Intangible asset with a residual value (continued)

The amortisation for the second year of use of the licence will be as follows:
R
Carrying amount (R27 000 – R7 000) 20 000
New estimated residual value (11 000)
New amount to be amortised 9 000
Useful life (remaining) 2 years
Amortisation (R9 000/2) 4 500
7.4 Intangible assets with indefinite useful lives

An intangible asset is regarded as having an indefinite useful life when there is no
forseeable limit to the period over which the asset is expected to generate net cash inflows
for the entity. Note that the term “indefinite” should not be confused with “infinite”.
Whereas intangible assets with finite useful lives are amortised over their useful lives,
intangible assets with indefinite useful lives are not amortised, but:
are tested for impairment annually in terms of IAS 36, by comparing their carrying amounts
with their recoverable amounts on an annual basis; and
are tested more often than annually where there is an indication that the intangible asset
may be impaired.
For an intangible asset with an indefinite useful life, an annual review should be conducted
to determine whether events and circumstances still continue to support an indefinite useful
life assessment for it. Should an indefinite useful life no longer be appropriate, the useful life
of the asset changes to finite. This will be accounted for as a change in accounting estimate
in terms of IAS 8. Changing the useful life of an asset from indefinite to finite is an
indication that the asset may be impaired. Therefore, if the useful life of an asset is changed
from indefinite to finite, the entity should test the asset for impairment.
Example 15.7: Intangible asset with an indefinite useful life

Abby Ltd developed a new innovative product, Product P. The entity incurred development
costs of R500 000 evenly throughout 20.22. The development process is completed on
31 December 20.22. On this date, there was no limit to the expected future cash flows that
the development would generate for the entity, as the product was the only one of its kind in
the market and there was no indication of competition.
On 1 January 20.23, the product had an indefinite useful life.
IAS 38.109 requires that, where the useful life is indefinite, it should be assessed on an
annual basis.
If a competitor were to enter the market two years after Abby Ltd incurred the development
costs, it may cause the nature of the useful life of the asset to change from an indefinite
useful life to a finite useful life. In this event, the development costs will be amortised.
IAS 38 states that this change is an indication that the asset may be impaired. Abby Ltd will
test the asset for impairment by comparing its carrying amount with its recoverable amount.
8 Impairment
The standard on impairment of assets, IAS 36, is used as the basis for writing down
intangible assets to a recoverable amount.
The recoverable amount is the higher of:

fair value less costs of disposal; and
value in use.
The carrying amount of an intangible asset is usually recovered on a systematic basis over
the useful life of the asset. If the usefulness of the item declines as a result of damage,
technical obsolescence or other economic factors, the recoverable amount can be lower
than the carrying amount of the asset. In such circumstances, a write-down of the carrying
amount to the recoverable amount is required (an impairment loss).
For a comprehensive discussion on impairment, refer to the paragraph in the chapter on
IAS 36 dealing with, amongst others, intangible assets with an indefinite useful life and
intangible assets not yet available for use.
A subsequent increase in the recoverable amount should be reversed when the
circumstances and events resulting in the impairment no longer exist and there is persuasive
evidence that the new circumstances and events are likely to continue in the foreseeable
future. The amount that is reversed should be net of the amount of amortisation that would
have been recognised if the impairment adjustment had not been made. If the intangible
asset is accounted for under the cost model, the reversal of impairment is credited to the
profit or loss section in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income. An
impairment loss recognised for goodwill is not reversed in a subsequent period. This rule
applies to both annual financial statements and interim financial statements.
9 Derecognition
An intangible asset is removed from the statement of financial position (i.e.

derecognised) when:
it is sold (disposed of); or
when no future economic benefits are expected from its use or disposal.
Gains or losses from the derecognition of intangible assets are determined as the difference
between the net proceeds from disposal and the carrying amount of the asset on the date of
disposal. This difference is recognised in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit
or loss and other comprehensive income as a gain or a loss. When an intangible asset is
retired from use, it will still be amortised, unless the retirement can be equated to
derecognition, as discussed above. For a detailed discussion of this matter, also refer to
derecognition of property, plant and equipment.
Example 15.8: Retirement of an intangible asset

Lima Ltd holds a patent with a carrying amount of R2 000 000 as at 31 December 20.22.
The patent was acquired four years ago at a cost of R4 000 000, and a useful life of eight
years had been estimated at that point. On 1 September 20.23, the production process in
respect of which the patent was required was terminated, and it was consequently decided
to retire the patent from active use. At 31 December 20.23, the year-end, there were
internal indications of impairment and it was established that the value in use of this patent
was Rnil, while it could be disposed of for R1 200 000 (gross), provided that selling costs of
R100 000 were incurred. Disposal is not planned at this stage, as the asset may perhaps be
modified for other use.
Example 15.8: Retirement of an intangible asset (continued)

Amortisation for 20.23 of retired asset (not to be derecognised)
R’000
Cost at initial recognition 4 000
Amortisation per year (R4 000 000/8) 500
Amortisation on this asset for the whole year (R4 000 000/8) 500
Carrying amount of patent on 31 December 20.23
R’000
Cost (given) 4 000
Accumulated amortisation until 31 December 20.23 (R500 000 × 5 years) (2 500)
Carrying amount as at 31 December 20.23 1 500
Carrying amount and impairment loss on 31 December 20.23, after testing for impairment
R’000
Carrying amount on 31 December 20.23 before impairment testing 1 500
Recoverable amount and carrying amount at year-end
(Higher of Rnil and R1 100 000 (R1 200 000 – R100 000) 1 100
Impairment loss recognised in 20.23 400
Comments:
¾ Amortisation will continue since the asset has not met the criteria for derecognition.
¾ The impairment loss is recognised in the profit or loss section of the statement of
comprehensive income for 20.23, and amortisation for 20.24 onwards will change to
R1 100 000/(8 – 5 years) = R366 667 per year.
10 Disclosure
In terms of IAS 38, the following information distinguishing between internally generated
intangible assets and other intangible assets should be disclosed in the financial statements:
Accounting policy:
– the accounting policy used for measuring intangible assets after recognition, i.e. the
cost model or revaluation model;
– the amortisation methods used for each class of intangible assets with finite useful
lives;
– whether the useful lives are indefinite or finite; and
– if the useful lives are finite, the useful lives or amortisation rates used for each class
of such intangible assets.
Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income and notes:
– the total amortisation charge recognised in the profit or loss section of the statement
of profit or loss and other comprehensive income in terms of IAS 1, Presentation of
Financial Statements;
– the line item(s) in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income in
which amortisation of intangible assets is included;
– the effect of significant changes in accounting estimates in terms of IAS 8, arising
from changes in:
• useful life;
• esidual value; and
• amortisation method; and
– costs recognised as expenses in the profit or loss section in the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income for the following categories:
• research; and
• development.
Statement of financial position and notes:
– the gross carrying amount and accumulated amortisation (including accumulated
impairment losses) at the beginning and end of the reporting period for each class of
internally generated intangible assets and other intagible assets (examples of separate
classes can be found in IAS 38.119);
– a reconciliation of the carrying amount at the beginning and end of the reporting
period for each class of internally generated intangible assets and other intangible
assets. The reconciliation consists of:
• carrying amounts at the beginning and end of the reporting period;
• additions, indicating separately additions through business combinations, separate
acquisitions and internal development;
• the removal of assets (or assets that form part of a disposal group) classified as
held for sale (refer to IFRS 5) and other disposals;
• increases and decreases resulting from revaluations and from impairment losses
recognised or reversed in equity via other comprehensive income;
• impairment losses recognised in the profit or loss section in the statement of profit
or loss and other comprehensive income;
• impairment losses reversed in the profit or loss section in the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income;
• amortisation recognised during the period;
• net exchange differences arising on the translation of financial statements of a
foreign operation to the presentation currency of the entity, or translating the
financial statements of an entity from its functional currency to a different
presentation currency;
• other movements in carrying amounts during the period under review; and
• comparatives to the reconciliation.
– the carrying amount of an asset with an indefinite useful life, and the reasons
supporting the assessment of an indefinite useful life as well as details of the factor(s)
(refer to section 7.3.1) that proved significant in determining that the asset has an
indefinite useful life;
– a description, the carrying amount and remaining amortisation period of any individual
intangible asset whose carrying amount is material to the entity’s financial statements;
– the existence and the amounts of intangible assets whose titles are restricted and the
carrying amounts of intangible assets pledged as security for liabilities; and
– the amount of contractual commitments for the acquisition of intangible assets.
Where intangible assets are revalued, the following additional information should also be
disclosed:
the effective date of the revaluation for each class of intangible asset;
the carrying amount of revalued intangible assets for each class of intangible asset;
the carrying amount if the assets were accounted for using the cost model for each class
of intangible asset; and
the amount of the revaluation surplus that relates to intangible assets at the beginning
and end of the period showing the movements for the period and any restrictions on the
distribution of the balance to shareholders.
It is also recommended that the following be disclosed:

a brief description of significant intangible assets that did not meet the recognition
criteria for intangible assets; and
a description of fully amortised intangible assets still in use.
Further disclosure includes the following:
the disclosure requirements of IAS 36 on impairment of assets; and
the disclosure requirements of IFRS 13 for revalued intangible assets.

Quatro Ltd is a company that holds several intangible assets as its main business. The
following information in respect of these intangible assets is available on 31 December 20.22:
(a) Patents with a cost of R6 000 000 were purchased on 1 January 20.20. The expected
useful life of the patents was established as 30 years on the date of acquisition. Patents
are amortised on a straight-line basis over their useful lives, with residual values that
are negligible. Residual values will not change during the useful lives of the assets.
(b) Copyright of several publications was acquired on 1 July 20.22 for R9 800 000. Legal
costs and other professional costs to complete the transaction amounted to R200 000.
On 1 July 20.22, it was estimated that the copyright will have a useful life of 20 years
and the assets were amortised over that period on a straight-line basis. Residual value
is negligible and will not change during the useful life of the assets.
The following additional information is available:
1. On 1 January 20.22, it was established that the remaining useful life of the
abovementioned patents was 16 years, while that of the copyrights did not change.
2. On 31 December 20.22, there was an indication of impairment because the estimated
revenue that will be earned during the remaining period of the patent is significantly
lower than was originally expected. The following information was collected:
– The market value of the patents, if sold, would be R4 000 000. Brokers indicated
that a fee of 2,5% would be charged on such sales transactions.
– The value in use of the patent at 31 December 20.22 amounted to R4 675 000.
3. Accept all amounts as material and round amounts to the nearest R1 000.
The financial statements of Quatro Ltd for the year ended 31 December 20.22, drafted in
accordance with IFRS (ignore comparative figures), will be as follows:
Quatro Ltd
Assets R’000
Non-current assets
Intangible assets 14 425
Quatro Ltd
1.1 Intangible assets
Intangible assets are shown at cost less accumulated amortisation and accumulated
impairment losses. The amortisation methods are as follows:
Patents – straight-line @ 6,25% per annum (total useful lives may also
be provided here – being 16 years).
Copyrights – straight-line @ 5% per annum (total useful lives may also be
provided here – being 20 years).

2. Intangible assets
Other intangible assets
Copyrights Patents Total
R’000 R’000 R’000
Carrying amount as at 31 December 20.21 – 5 600 5 600
Cost – 6 000 6 000
Accumulated amortisation (1) – (400) (400)
Additions – purchased (2) 10 000 – 10 000
Amortisation (3) and (4) (250) (350) (600)
Impairment loss recognised in profit or loss (5) – (575) (575)
Carrying amount as at 31 December 20.22 9 750 4 675 14 425
Cost 10 000 6 000 16 000
Accumulated amortisation and impairment (6) (250) (1 325) (1 575)
Remaining useful life at 31 December 20.22 19.5 years 15 years
(1) 6 000 000/30 = R200 000 per year × 2 years = R400 000
(2) 9 800 000 + 200 000 = R10 000 000
(3) 10 000 000/20 × 6/12 = R250 000
(4) 5 600 000/16* = R350 000
(5) Refer to calculation 1
(6) 400 000 + 350 000 + 575 000 = R1 325 000
* 16 years at the beginning of 20.22, and therefore the remaining useful life to use
when calculating the amortisation for 20.22.
Profit before tax is calculated after the following:
Expenses R
Amortisation (250 000 + 350 000)
(included in other expenses) 600 000
Change in estimate: The remaining useful life of the patents
was revised. This resulted in an increase in the amortisation
expense of R150 000 (R350 000 – R200 000) in the current
year and a decrease in the amortisation expense of R150 000
in the future.
Impairment loss on patents (included in other expenses) 575 000
The impairment loss arose because the estimated revenue that will be earned over the
future use of the patent is significantly lower than was originally expected. The recoverable
amount is based on value in use, and the discount rate is 20% per year.

Calculations
1. Patent – Testing for impairment
Fair value less costs of disposal
R
Market value 4 000 000
Selling costs (4 000 000 × 2,5%) (100 000)
3 900 000
Value in use – given in question 4 675 000
Recoverable amount is the higher of R3 900 000 and
R4 675 000, therefore R4 675 000.
Impairment loss
R
Carrying amount of patents at 31 December 20.22:
Cost (given) 6 000 000
Amortisation 20.20 (R6 000 000/30 years) (200 000)
Amortisation 20.21 (200 000)
Carrying amount on 31 December 20.21 5 600 000
Amortisation 20.22 (5 600 000/16 years) (350 000)
Carrying amount on 31 December 20.22 5 250 000
Alternative: [(R6 000 000 × 28/30) – R350 000]
Recoverable amount (4 675 000)
Impairment 575 000
11 Short and sweet

of intangible assets.
Intangible assets are recognised when they meet the definition of an intangible asset as well
as the recognition criteria.
Intangible assets are initially measured at cost.
Cost includes all costs that can be allocated to the creation, manufacturing and preparation
of the asset for its intended use.
Intangible assets are subsequently measured under either the revaluation model (only if an
active market exists) or the cost model.
The carrying amount is determined by subtracting amortisation and impairment losses from
the historical cost or revalued amount.
Amortisation is calculated using one of the following methods: straight-line, diminishing-
balance, or units of production.
Internally generated goodwill is not recognised as an asset.
Research costs are written off in the period incurred.
Development costs should be capitalised when they meet the specific recognition criteria as
contained in IAS 38, over and above the normal recognition criteria.
(continued)
Intangible assets with finite useful lives should be amortised over their useful lives.
Intangible assets with indefinite useful lives are not amortised, but are tested for impairment
annually.
The carrying amount of all intangible assets should be tested for impairment in accordance
with the principles of IAS 36.
Intangible assets are derecognised when disposed of or when no future economic benefits
are expected from its use or disposal.
16
Investment property
IAS 40
Contents
3 Background................................................................................................... 424
4 Nature of investment property ........................................................................ 424
5 Recognition and initial measurement............................................................... 425
5.1 Recognition ......................................................................................... 425
5.2 Initial measurement ............................................................................. 426
6 Subsequent measurement .............................................................................. 426
6.1 Fair value model .................................................................................. 427
6.2 Cost model.......................................................................................... 430
6.3 Subsequent expenditure....................................................................... 430
6.4 Derecognition ...................................................................................... 431
7 Disclosure ..................................................................................................... 431
9 Short and sweet ............................................................................................ 437
Know and render the definitions.
Explain when land and buildings must be classified as investment property in terms of
IAS 40.
Account for investment properties in accordance with the cost or fair value models.
Present and disclose investment properties in accordance with the cost or fair value
models.
Note: An interest in property held by a lessee under an operating lease and transfers will
not be discussed in this chapter.
421
DEFINITIONS EXAMPLES
Investment property is property (land and Investment property
buildings, or part of a building, or both) that Land held for long-term capital
is held: appreciation;
to earn rentals; or land held for a currently undetermined
for capital appreciation; or future use;
both. building leased out under an operating
lease;
Owner occupied property is held for use in
the production or supply of goods or services building that is vacant but is held with the
or for administrative purposes. intention of letting it under an operating lease;
property being constructed or developed
for future use as investment property.
RECOGNITION INITIAL MEASUREMENT

It is probable that future economic Cost (including transaction costs);
benefits will flow to the entity; and including: any directly attributable
the cost of the investment property can expenditure such as legal services,
be measured reliably. property transfer taxes and other
transaction costs;
excluding: start-up costs, initial operating
losses, wasted material, or unproductive
labour costs.
SUBSEQUENT MEASUREMENT Subsequent expenditure

Fair value model Only capitalised when it meets the
All investment property valued at fair requirements for subsequent recognition as
value. an asset.
Fair value adjustments recognised in Derecognition
profit or loss (no depreciation). On disposal or when the property is
Cost model permanently withdrawn from use and no
All investment property measured using further economic benefits are expected at
the cost model in IAS 16 on property, disposal.
plant and equipment.
Investment property carried at cost less
accumulated depreciation and impairment
losses.
Investment property 423
Classification of property
Start
Is the property held for Yes

sale in the ordinary course Use IAS 2, Inventories
of business?
No
Use IAS 16, Property,
Is the property owner- Yes plant and equipment
occupied? (cost model or
revaluation model)
No
Use IAS 40 cost model

Is the property being Yes
until fair value can be
constructed or developed?
determined
No
Completed
The property is an
investment property
Does the investment

property meet the No
Defer recognition
recognition
requirements?
Yes
Measure the investment

property initially at cost
(use IAS 40, Investment
property)
Subsequently Cost model Use IAS 16 (cost model)

measure the investment with disclosure from
property choosing either: IAS 40, Investment
property
Fair value
model
IAS 40, Investment
property
3 Background
Investment property is property held by the owner or by the lessee as a right-of-use asset
to earn rentals or for capital appreciation or both.
IAS 40 does not deal with:
biological assets related to agricultural activity and
mineral rights and mineral reserves such as oil, natural gas and similar non-regenerative
resources.
4 Nature of investment property
Investment property is property that is held:

to earn rentals;
for capital appreciation; or
both.
“P
Property” includes land and buildings, or part of a building, or both. Undeveloped land may
also meet the definition of investment property.
Investment property is therefore not property held for use in the production or supply of
goods or services or for administrative purposes, nor is it property held for sale in the
ordinary course of business. Owner-occupied property does not qualify as
investment property.
In practice, the classification of property into either owner-occupied property or
investment property may be problematic. A property may, for example, be used for dual
purposes, i.e. to earn rentals, and to serve as an administrative head office.
In order for a property to be classified as an investment property, it must generate

cash flows that are largely independent of the other assets held by the entity. If the property
is used for dual purposes, the issue to consider is whether these portions can be sold or
leased separately as a right-to-use asset. If the answer is affirmative, the entity accounts for
the portions separately as investment property and owner-occupied property.
The intention is that the asset must only be split into two classification categories if the
portions of the asset can be sold or leased separately. If the property cannot be sold
separately, it is only classified as an investment property if an insignificant portion is used
for production or supply of goods or services or for administrative purposes, either by the
owner or the lessee. What constitutes “an insignificant portion” is left to the discretion of
management.
IAS 40.14 notes that judgement is required to determine whether a property qualifies as
investment property. It is suggested that entities must develop their own criteria to ensure
that the exercise of judgement in classifying investment and owner-occupied properties is
consistent. Where classification is particularly difficult, disclosure of the criteria is required.
In some instances, the classification of property as either investment property or owner-
occupied property is further complicated in lease agreements by ancillary services that the
lessor company may provide to the lessee or occupants. The significance of such ancillary
services to the arrangement determines whether the property qualifies as an investment
property or not. If the lessor provides security and maintenance services, for example, it
may be insignificant to the lease arrangement as a whole, and the property would qualify as
an investment property. If the services comprise a more significant component, such as
where the company manages a hotel and provides extensive services to guests, the
property qualifies as owner-occupied property.
If a company in a group owns a property that is leased to or occupied by a parent or a
subsidiary, the property may qualify as an investment property from the perspective of the
reporting company. However, from the perspective of the group as a whole, the property
will be owner-occupied. Appropriate consolidation journals will then be required to reflect
the economic reality of the different reporting entities.
IAS 40 provides a number of examples of investment property, namely:
land held for long-term capital appreciation;
land held for a currently undetermined future use;
a building let under operating leases;
a building that is vacant but is held with the intention of letting it under an operating
lease; and
property that is being constructed or developed for future use as investment property.
The following are examples of items that are not investment property:
property held for sale in the ordinary course of business or in the construction or
development for such sale (IAS 2);
property being constructed or developed on behalf of third parties (IAS 11);
owner-occupied property, including property held for future use or held for future
development and subsequent use as owner-occupied property;
property occupied by employees (regardless of whether the employees pay rent at
market rates);
owner-occupied property awaiting disposal (IAS 16); and
property leased out to another entity in terms of a finance lease agreement.
5 Recognition and initial measurement

5.1 Recognition
Investment property is recognised when the recognition criteria of the Conceptual

Framework are met, i.e. when:
it is probable that future economic benefits will flow to the entity; and
the cost of the investment property can be measured reliably.
It is usually the first criterion that may delay the recognition of the investment property,
namely where the level of certainty regarding the flow of future benefits is too low to meet
the “probable” requirement. The measurement is usually determined by means of a purchase
agreement, or (if the property was constructed by the entity) by the record of accumulated
costs.
Investment property under construction should be accounted for by applying IAS 40.
This implies that investment property under construction should be measured using either
the cost model or the fair value model (refer to section 6 below).
If an entity cannot reliably determine the fair value of this investment property under
construction, but expects to be able to determine the fair value reliably once construction is
complete, it shall measure that property at cost until either its fair value becomes reliably
determinable or construction is complete (whichever comes first).
5.2 Initial measurement
On initial recognition, the investment property is measured at cost, including

transaction costs.
Cost comprises the purchase price and any directly attributable expenditure such
as legal services, property transfer taxes and other transaction costs. Costs such as start-up
costs, initial operating losses, wasted material or unproductive labour costs are not included in
the cost of investment property. Start-up costs may only be capitalised if they are necessary
to bring the property to its working condition in order to be operated in the manner intended
by management. The cost of self-constructed investment property is the cost incurred by the
company to the date the construction or development is substantially completed as intended by
management.
If payment for an investment property is deferred, its cost is the cash price equivalent.
This is determined in exactly the same way as for property, plant and equipment (PPE). The
difference between cost and the proceeds is recognised as interest over the period of credit.
The initial measurement of investment properties acquired in terms of an exchange
transaction is also exactly the same as that used for PPE.
Example 16.1: Initial measurement of investment property

On 1 January 20.28 Beta Ltd acquired an investment property at R900 000. The full
acquisition price was payable on 1 January 20.28, but as Beta Ltd was experiencing cash flow
problems, the seller agreed that 50% of the amount be paid immediately and the remainder
at 1 July 20.28, without charging any interest. This prolonged period exceeds normal credit
terms. Beta Ltd also paid transfer taxes of R55 000, while unproductive labour costs
amounted to R25 000. A discount rate of 12% per annum (before tax), compounded annually,
is regarded as appropriate.
The cost of the investment property is as follows: R
Cost paid 1 January 20.28 (900 000 × 50%) 450 000
Cash price equivalent (n = 1; i = 6; FV = 450 00; Comp PV) 424 528
Transfer taxes 55 000
Unproductive labour (excluded from cost of investment property) –
929 528
6 Subsequent measurement
All investment properties, subsequent to initial measurement, are measured using:

the cost model; or
the fair value model.
A change from the cost model to the fair value model constitutes a change in accounting
policy in terms of IAS 8 (see also the transitional provisions in IAS 40.80 to .82). IAS 40
mentions, however, that it is unlikely that a change from the fair value model to the cost
model will result in a more appropriate presentation of events (a specific requirement in
IAS 8). Such a change in accounting policy is, in effect, discouraged, if not prohibited.
6.1 Fair value model
If an entity chooses to adopt the fair value model, all of its investment property shall
be valued at fair value. The gains and losses from changes in the fair value of the
investment property are recognised in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income, in the period in which they arise.
Fair value is defined as the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a
liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date
(refer to IFRS 13 Fair value measurement).
The fair value reflects, in terms of IAS 40.40:
rental income from current leases; and
other assumptions that market participants would use when pricing the investment
property under current market conditions.
When a lessee uses the fair value model to measure an investment property that is held as
a right-of-use asset, that asset, and not the underlying property, is measured at fair value.
In measuring fair value, assets or liabilities that are recognised as separate assets or
liabilities should not be reflected in the fair value measurement, as this may result in double
accounting, for example:
equipment such as lifts or air-conditioning is often an integral part of a building and is
generally included in the fair value of the investment property, rather than recognised
separately as property, plant and equipment;
if an office is leased on a furnished basis, the fair value of the office generally includes
the fair value of the furniture, because the rental income relates to the furnished office –
therefore the entity does not recognise the fair value of the furniture as a separate
asset;
the fair value of investment property excludes prepaid or accrued operating lease
income, because the entity recognises it as a separate liability or asset; and
the fair value of investment property held by a lessee as a right-to-use asset reflects
expected cash flows (including variable lease payments expected to be payable). It will
be necessary to add back any recognised lease liability to arrive at the fair value of the
investment property.
Example 16.2: Fair value model for measuring investment property

Chelsea Ltd owns an office building that is let to Zoe Ltd under an operating lease
agreement. As the building is used to generate rental income, it can be classified as an
investment property in terms of IAS 40.
Chelsea Ltd has adopted the fair value model as its accounting policy for measuring
investment property. The building has a useful life of 40 years.
The following fair values apply: R
On acquisition (1 January 20.27) cost 400 000
31 December 20.27 600 000
31 December 20.28 500 000
On 1 January 20.27, Chelsea Ltd recognised the building at a cost of R400 000.
On 31 December 20.27, Chelsea Ltd had to remeasure the building at fair value. The
remeasurement is recognised in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and
other comprehensive income.
Example 16.2: Fair value model for measuring investment property (continued)
Dr Cr
Investment property (SFP)(600 000 – 400 000) 200 000
Fair value adjustment (P/L) 200 000
Remeasurement of investment property at fair value
No depreciation is provided on investment property measured at fair value.
On 31 December 20.28, Chelsea Ltd once again remeasured investment property to fair
value with the loss being recognised in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income.
Dr Cr
Fair value adjustment (P/L)
(500 000 – 600 000) 100 000
Investment property (SFP) 100 000
Investment property held as a right-of-use asset

If a lessee leases a property and earns rental income by leasing the property to another
lessee (sublease), the resulting right-of-use asset should be accounted for as an investment
property. The asset accounted for as an investment property is not the physical property,
but the right-of-use asset (the lease interest in the property). The physical property will still
be accounted for as an asset in the owner’s financial statements. If the fair value model is
applied, the right-of-use asset should be measured at fair value and not the underlying
property.
Example 16.3: Right-of-use asset

Chelsea Ltd leases land with a fair value R1 000 000 for a period of 3 years at an annual
market-related rental of R100 000 (payable in arrears). The land was the leased to Alpha
Ltd for the same period under an operating lease at R125 000 per annum (payable in
arrears). Both lease agreements were entered into on 1 January 20.23. Chelsea Ltd
accounts for the lease liability by using an incremental borrowing rate of 6% per annum.
Assume a fair discount rate of 4% on 31 December 20.23.
The following journal entries are required:
Dr Cr
1 January 20.23 R R
(PMT=100 000; n=3; i=6; PV=267 301)
Recognition of investment property
Example 16.3: Right-of-use asset (continued)

31 December 20.23
Finance lease liability (SFP) (100 000 – 16 038) 83 962
Interest paid (P/L) (267 301 x 6%) 16 038
Bank (SFP) 100 000
Payment of instalment
Bank (SFP) 125 000
Rental income (P/L) 125 000
Receipt of instalment
Fair value adjustment (P/L) (267 301 – 235 762) 31 539
(PMT=125 000; n=2; i=4; PV=235 762)
Remeasurement investment property to fair value
Inability to measure fair value
There is a rebuttable presumption that an entity can reliably measure the fair value of
investment property on a continuing basis.
In exceptional circumstances, where it is clear (when the property is first acquired) that the
entity will not be able to determine the fair value of the investment property reliably on a
continuing basis, the entity measures that investment property using the cost model in
IAS 16 until its disposal date. The residual value of such an investment property is assumed
to be nil. All other investment property (including investment property under construction) is
measured at fair value. (IAS 40.53)
IAS 40.78 requires extensive and separate disclosure of investment properties that cannot
be valued at fair value due to exceptional circumstances. IAS 40 suggests that exceptional
circumstances are only likely to arise when comparable market transactions are infrequent,
and when alternative estimates of fair values, such as discounted cash flow projections, are
not available.
The exemption only applies to investment property when it is first acquired or is first
classified as investment property. If a company has previously measured an investment
property at fair value, it must be consistent and continue to measure such a property at fair
value, even if the market becomes less active and market prices are not readily available.
Example 16.4: Construction of investment property

On 1 July 20.28 Beta Ltd acquired land at a cost of R400 000, with the intention to build an
office block on it at a total cost of R600 000. At year end (31 December 20.28) the
construction of the office block was not completed. Construction costs incurred to date
amounted to R450 000. On 31 December 20.28 the fair value of the investment property
under construction (including land) amounted to R900 000.
On 31 December 20.28 Beta Ltd recognises a fair value adjustment (gain) of R50 000
(900 000 – (400 000 + 450 000)) in profit or loss in order to reflect the investment property
under construction at its fair value. If the fair value of the investment property under
construction could not be determined reliably at that date, no fair value adjustment would
have been recognised and the property would have been reflected at its cost of R850 000
(400 000 + 450 000).
6.2 Cost model
If the cost model is selected, all the investment property must be measured using the
cost model in IAS 16 Property, plant and equipment. Investment property is therefore carried
at cost less accumulated depreciation and impairment losses.
If investment property is classified as held for sale, it is measured in terms of IFRS 5, and is
Example 16.5: Cost model for measuring investment property

Shivas Ltd commenced erecting a building on 1 January 20.27. It is the intention of the
entity to rent the building to third parties on completion. The following erection costs were
incurred during the year ended 31 December 20.27:
R
Material 300 000
Labour 200 000
Other professional services 50 000
Total cost 550 000
Shivas Ltd adopted an accounting policy to measure investment property using the cost
model. The useful life of the building is 55 years from date of completion. The property was
completed on 30 June 20.27. It will therefore be depreciated from 1 July 20.27, since it was
ready for its intended use on this date. On 31 December 20.27, the market value of the
property is R800 000.
The following journal entries are required for the year ended 31 December 20.27:
Dr Cr
30 June 20.27 R R
Bank/liability (SFP) 550 000
Recognise investment property under construction at costs
incurred to date of completion
31 December 20.27
Depreciation (P/L) (550 000/55 × 6/12) 5 000
Provide depreciation on investment property
Note that the investment property under construction was accounted for by applying the
cost model because the entity adopted the cost model as its accounting policy for
measuring investment property. Should the entity have adopted the fair value model, it
would measure the investment property under construction at cost until the fair value
becomes reliably determinable.
6.3 Subsequent expenditure
Subsequent expenditure incurred in relation to recognised investment property is only

capitalised when it meets the requirements for subsequent recognition as contained in
IAS 16.16 and IAS 40.16.
If subsequent expenditure does not meet these criteria, these expenses are recognised as
repairs and maintenance in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and
other comprehensive income. This treatment is similar to that followed for property, plant
and equipment in IAS 16 – refer to chapter 3. Subsequent expenditure that is incurred to
bring the asset to its working condition after purchase, such as the renovation of a building,
is also capitalised, provided it meets the recognition criteria of the Framework.
6.4 Derecognition
The derecognition (elimination from the statement of financial position) of investment

property takes place on disposal of or when the property is permanently withdrawn from use
and no further economic benefits are expected at disposal. The difference between the net
disposal proceeds and the carrying amount of the asset is recognised in the profit or loss
section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income as a profit or a
loss.
Example 16.6: Derecognition of investment property

On 1 July 20.28 Beta Ltd acquired an investment property at R600 000. On
31 December 20.28 (year-end) the fair value of the investment property amounted to
R700 000. On 2 January 20.29 the investment property was sold for R725 000.
The following journal entries are required:
Dr Cr
1 July 20.28 R R
Bank/liability (SFP) 600 000
Recognition of investment property
31 December 20.28
Fair value adjustment (P/L) 100 000
2 January 20.29
Bank 725 000
Profit on sale of investment property (P/L) 25 000
Investment property 700 000
Derecognition of investment property
7 Disclosure
In terms of IAS 40.74 to .79, the following information on investment property shall be
disclosed:
whether the entity applies the fair value or cost model;
criteria developed to distinguish investment property from other asset-classes when
classification is difficult;
methods and significant assumptions used in determining the fair value of property and
whether it is supported by market evidence or other factors;
the extent to which fair value of investment property has been determined by an
independent valuer with the necessary qualifications and recent experience and where
no such valuation was done, a statement to that effect;
the existence and amounts of restrictions on the realisability of investment property or
the remittance of income and proceeds of disposal;
material contractual obligations to purchase, construct or develop investment property or
for repairs or enhancement to the property; and
investment property pledged as security for liabilities.
In the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive
income, the following amounts must be disclosed:
rental income;
direct operating expenses applicable to investment property that generated rental
income;
direct operating expenses applicable to investment property that did not generate rental
income; and
the cumulative change in fair value that results when an investment property is sold
from a portfolio where the cost model is used to a portfolio where the fair value model is
used.
Where an entity adopts the fair value model, a reconciliation of the carrying amount of
investment property at the beginning and end of the period is required, showing the
following:
additions resulting from acquisitions or from capitalised subsequent expenditure;
additions resulting from acquisitions through business combinations;
disposals and assets classified as held for sale in terms of IFRS 5;
net gains or losses from fair value adjustments;
the net exchange differences arising on the translation of foreign entities;
transfers to and from inventories and owner-occupied property; and
other movements.
Example 16.7: Disclosure of the fair value model

Notes to the financial statements
Investment properties
Investment properties are initially measured at cost, including transaction costs. The carrying
amount includes the cost of replacing part of an existing investment property at the time
that cost is incurred, if the recognition criteria are met, and excludes the costs of day-to-day
servicing of an investment property. Subsequent to the initial recognition, investment
properties are stated at fair value, which reflects market conditions at the end of the
reporting period. Gains or losses arising from changes in the fair values of investment
properties are included in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and
other comprehensive income in the year in which they arise.
Investment properties are derecognised when they have either been disposed of, or when
the investment property is permanently withdrawn from use and no future economic benefit
is expected from its disposal. Any gains or losses on the retirement or disposal of an
investment property are recognised in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income in the year of retirement or disposal.
Example 16.7: Disclosure of the fair value model (continued)

If the property occupied by the group as an owner-occupied property becomes an investment
property, the group accounts for such property in accordance with the policy stated under
property, plant and equipment up to the date of change in use. For a transfer from
inventories to investment property, the difference between the fair value of the property on
that date and its previous carrying amount is recognised in the profit or loss section of the
2. Investment property Land and buildings
20.25 20.24
R’000 R’000
Opening balance as at 1 January 7 983 7 091
Additions 1 216 1 192
– acquisitions 500 542
– subsequent expenditure capitalised 716 650
Net loss from a fair value adjustment (306) (300)
Closing balance as at 31 December 8 893 7 983
Investment properties are stated at fair value, which has been determined based on valuations
performed by Qualified Surveyors & Co as at 31 December 20.25 and 31 December 20.24
for the current and previous years respectively. Qualified Surveyors & Co is an industry
specialist in valuing these types of investment properties. The fair value represents the
amount at which the assets could be exchanged between a knowledgeable, willing buyer
and a knowledgeable, willing seller in an arm’s-length transaction at the date of valuation, in
accordance with international standards.
If, in exceptional circumstances, the entity is unable to establish a reliable fair value for an
investment property, a separate reconciliation of that investment property’s carrying amount
shall be prepared, in addition to disclosing the following:
a description of the investment property;
an explanation why the fair value cannot be measured reliably;
if possible, the range of estimates of the fair value;
and on disposal of such investment property:
– the fact that the asset that was not carried at fair value was disposed of;
– the carrying amount at time of sale; and
– the gain or loss recognised.
Where a company adopts the cost model, the following information similar to that required
in IAS 16, shall be disclosed:
the depreciation methods;
the useful lives or depreciation rates;
the gross carrying amount and accumulated depreciation at the beginning and end of
the period;
a reconciliation of the carrying amount of investment property at the beginning and end
of the period, showing:
– additions resulting from acquisitions and from capitalised subsequent expenditure;
– depreciation;
– the amount of impairment losses recognised or reversed;
– the net exchange differences arising from the translation of foreign entities; and
– other movements.

An extract from the financial records of Alpha Candles Ltd, a company that manufactures
candles, contains the following information:
Property R
1 Land: Stand 152 Garsfontein 500 000
Building thereon (acquired 1 January 20.25) 1 250 000
(The property is used to house the manufacturer’s operations and was
immediately available for use as intended by management)
2 Land: Stand 181 Hatfield 800 000
Buildings thereon (acquired 30 June 20.25 and immediately available for
use as intended by management) 2 100 000
Improvements to the building to extend rented floor capacity (completed
on 31 December 20.25) 400 000
Repairs and maintenance to investment property for the year 50 000
(The property is used as the company’s administrative head office (approximately 6% of the
floor space). The remainder of the building is leased out under operating leases. The company
provides lessees with security services.)
The company values investment property using the fair value model. Owner-occupied
property is valued at cost in terms of IAS 16, and the building is depreciated at 5% per
annum on a straight-line basis. On 31 December 20.25, the financial year end of
Alpha Candles Ltd, Mr Matchbox (a sworn appraiser) valued the two properties based on
market evidence at the following fair values:
Property 1
– Land R500 000
– Buildings R1 100 000
Property 2
– Land R1 000 000
– Buildings R2 600 000
Properties 1 and 2 can only be sold as two complete units. Any decline in value in Property 1
is attributable to the building and is deemed to be an impairment loss. Alpha Candles Ltd
received rental for Property 2 amounting to R160 000. Assume all amounts are material.
To account for the property in the financial statements of Alpha Candles Ltd for the year
ended 31 December 20.1520.25, the property must first be classified as either investment
property or owner-occupied property.
Property 1 is an owner-occupied property and is accounted for in terms of the cost model of
IAS 16. The property is occupied by the owner to manufacture candles.
Property 2 is classified as an investment property and is accounted for in terms of the fair
value model in IAS 40. The motivation is that the portion occupied by Alpha Candles Ltd for
administrative purposes is insignificant (6%), and the portions of the property cannot be sold
separately. In addition, the majority of the property’s floor space is used to generate rental
income and the security services rendered to lessees are insignificant.

Calculations
Property 1
Land Buildings
R R
Cost 500 000 1 250 000
Depreciation: (1 250 000 × 5%) (62 500)
1 187 500
Fair value 500 000 1 100 000
Impairment loss attributable to the building – 87 500
Property 2
Land and
buildings
R
Cost (R800 000 land + R2 100 000 buildings) 2 900 000
Improvements to building 400 000
2 500 000
Fair value (R1 000 000 land + R2 600 000 buildings) 3 600 000
Increase in value recognised in profit or loss section of the statement of profit
or loss and other comprehensive income
(R200 000 land + R100 000 buildings) 300 000
The accounting treatment and disclosure of the properties in the financial statements of
Alpha Candles Ltd are as follows:
Alpha Candles Ltd
Assets Note R
Non-current assets
Property, plant and equipment 3 1 600 000
Investment Property 4 3 600 000
1.1 Property plant and equipment
Buildings are shown at cost less accumulated depreciation. Land is shown at cost and is
not depreciated. Buildings are depreciated at 5% per annum on a straight-line basis.
1.2 Investment property
Investment property is property held to earn rentals. Such property is stated at fair value.
The profit before tax includes the following: R
Income
Rent received for investment property 160 000
Surplus from fair value adjustment 300 000
Expenses
Depreciation 62 500
Impairment loss on building (included in other expenses) 87 500
Direct operating expenses – investment property generating rental
income 50 000

The following information about the impairment loss must also be disclosed in terms of
IAS 36.130 to .131:
events and circumstances that led to recognition of loss;
amount of loss;
segment in which asset is reported;
whether recoverable amount is fair value less costs to sell or value in use;
if recoverable amount is fair value less costs to sell, the basis used to determine
amount, and
if recoverable amount is value in use, discount rate used to calculate value in use
amount.
3. Property, plant and equipment Land Buildings
R R
Carrying amount at beginning of year – –
Cost – –
Accumulated depreciation – –
Movements for the year: 500 000 1 100 000
Additions 500 000 1 250 000
Depreciation – (62 500)
Impairment loss – (87 500)
Carrying amount at end of year 500 000 1 100 000

Cost 500 000 1 250 000
Accumulated depreciation and impairment losses – (150 000)
4. Investment property Land and

buildings
R
Carrying amount at beginning of year –
Movements for the year: 3 600 000
Additions: cost on acquisition (2 100 + 800) 2 900 000
Additions: subsequent expenditure capitalised 400 000
Fair value adjustment 300 000
Carrying amount at end of year 3 600 000

The fair value was determined by an independent sworn appraiser using current market
values on 31 December 20.25. The appraiser holds a recognised and relevant
professional qualification and has recent experience in the location and category of the
investment property being valued.
9 Short and sweet
Investment property is:

Property (land and/or buildings or part of the buildings) that is held to earn rental income,
property that is held for capital appreciation, or both.
Examples of investment property include: land held for long-term capital growth, or land
where the decision about future use has not yet been taken.
Owner-occupied property, used as a factory for example, is not investment property.
Investment property is initially measured at cost including transaction costs.
Subsequent measurement is made using either the fair value model or the cost price model
(refer to IAS 16).
Investment property is derecognised upon disposal of the asset or when the asset is
withdrawn from use and no further benefits are expected from its future disposal.
17
Financial instruments
IFRS 9; IAS 32; IFRS 7
Contents
1 Background................................................................................................... 440
2 Accounting standards .................................................................................... 440
2.1 Applicable accounting standards ........................................................... 440
2.2 Scope exclusions ................................................................................. 440
2.3 Structure of chapter ............................................................................. 441
3 Definitions related to the background of financial instruments........................... 442
3.1 Financial instruments .......................................................................... 442
3.2 Financial asset .................................................................................... 443
3.3 Financial liability .................................................................................. 443
3.4 Equity instrument ................................................................................ 443
3.5 Derivative instrument ........................................................................... 444
3.6 Types of financial instruments ............................................................. 445
3.7 Interest, dividends, gains and losses .................................................... 448
3.8 Offsetting ........................................................................................... 448
4 Recognition of financial instruments ................................................................ 448
4.1 Initial recognition................................................................................. 448
4.2 Regular way contracts ......................................................................... 449
5 Measurement of financial instruments ............................................................. 449
5.1 Definitions related to measurement....................................................... 449
5.2 Classification of financial assets and financial liabilities ........................... 454
5.3 Initial measurement of financial assets and financial liabilities ................. 457
5.4 Subsequent measurement of financial assets ......................................... 459
5.5 Subsequent measurement of financial liabilities...................................... 464
5.6 Impairment of financial assets .............................................................. 467
5.7 Summary ............................................................................................ 470
6 Derecognition of financial instruments............................................................. 470
6.1 Derecognition of a financial asset.......................................................... 470
6.2 Derecognition of a financial liability ....................................................... 471
7 Presentation.................................................................................................. 472
7.1 Liabilities and equity ............................................................................ 472
7.2 Interest, dividends, losses and gains, and transaction costs .................... 473
7.3 Offsetting of a financial asset against a financial liability ......................... 474
8 Further examples .......................................................................................... 474
8.1 Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss ................................. 474
8.2 Financial assets and financial liabilities at amortised cost ........................ 477
8.3 Financial assets at fair value through other comprehensive income ......... 484
439
9 Disclosure ..................................................................................................... 492

9.1 Statement of financial position.............................................................. 493
9.2 Disclosures in respect of income, expenses, gains or losses .................... 493
9.3 Accounting policies .............................................................................. 493
9.4 Impairment and credit risk ................................................................... 493
10 Short and sweet ............................................................................................ 494
1 Background
Global financial markets worldwide have in recent times changed dramatically and even now
experience rapid change. A range of larger and more sophisticated financial instruments,
used by all types of business entities, exists. The wide use of these instruments is facilitated
by enhanced information technology.
Banks and other financial institutions are no longer the sole participants in the active
trading of financial instruments. Businesses are forced more and more to compete in
international marketplaces, not only in respect of their primary operating activities, but also
in terms of their capital financing, investment and risk management activities.
Consequently, a large number of corporations are forming treasury divisions whose primary
responsibility is the management of these activities.
The successful management of financial risks in a global environment has become a highly
dynamic activity, requiring careful and continuous monitoring. An entity can substantially
change its financial risk profile virtually instantaneously, by entering into certain financial
arrangements.
The potential for large losses resulting from the use of financial instruments has been well
demonstrated in the highly publicised financial disasters of some prominent organisations.
These disasters have heightened public concern about accounting and disclosure, as well as
management controls over financial instruments.
2 Accounting standards
2.1 Applicable accounting standards
Three accounting standards govern the accounting treatment and disclosure in respect of
financial instruments, namely:
IAS 32, Financial Instruments: Presentation;
IFRS 7, Financial Instruments: Disclosures; and
IFRS 9, Financial Instruments.
IAS 32 addresses the classification of financial instruments as assets, liabilities or equity
and the classification of the related interest, dividends, gains and losses (thus
presentation). IAS 32 also deals with the offsetting of financial assets and financial
liabilities.
IFRS 7 deals only with disclosures of financial instruments.
IFRS 9 addresses the classification, recognition, measurement and impairment of
financial instruments. IFRS 9 also addresses hedge accounting, but hedge accounting falls
2.2 Scope exclusions

All three financial instruments standards should be applied by all entities to all financial
instruments, except for:
interests in subsidiaries, associates and joint ventures that are consolidated or equity
accounted;
Financial instruments 441
rights and obligations under leases in terms of IFRS 16, Leases, except with regard to:
– finance lease receivables and operating lease receivables (in the lessor’s financial
statements) that are subject to the derecognition and impairment provisions of
IFRS 9;
– lease liabilities that are subject to the derecognition provisions of IFRS 9; and
– derivatives that are embedded in leases;
employers’ rights and obligations under employee benefit plans in terms of IAS 19,
Employee Benefits;
equity instruments that are classified as shareholders’ equity by the issuer in terms of
IAS 32*;
rights and obligations arising under a contract within the scope of IFRS 17, Insurance
Contracts;
forward contracts between an acquirer and selling shareholder in terms of IFRS 3,
Business Combinations; and
contracts and obligations under share-based payment transactions in terms of IFRS 2,
Share-based Payment, except for contracts that fall within the scope of IAS 32;
rights and obligations within the scope of IFRS 15, Revenue from Contracts with
Customers that are financial instruments (except those where IFRS 15 specifies that they
are accounted for in terms of IFRS 9).
* In the scope of IAS 32 and IFRS 7, but excluded from the scope of IFRS 9.
2.3 Structure of chapter

Financial instruments are discussed in this chapter in the following sequence:
FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS
IAS 32
DEFINITIONS
Financial instruments
Financial asset
Financial liability
Equity instrument
Derivative instrument
Types of financial instruments
IFRS 9
DEFINITIONS RELATED TO FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS
RECOGNITION
Initial recognition
Regular way contracts
CLASSIFICATION
Financial assets:
Financial asset classified as subsequently measured at fair value through profit or loss
Financial asset classified as subsequently measured at amortised cost
Financial asset classified as subsequently measured at fair value through other comprehensive
income
Financial liabilities:
Financial liability classified as subsequently measured at amortised cost
Financial liability classified as subsequently measured at fair value through profit or loss
MEASUREMENT
Initial measurement
Subsequent measurement (financial assets)
– Fair value through profit or loss
• Mandatory
continued
MEASUREMENT – continued
Designated
– Amortised cost
– Fair value through other comprehensive income
• Mandatory: Investment in debt instruments
• Designated: Investment in equity instruments
Subsequent measurement (financial liabilities)
– Amortised cost
– Fair value through profit or loss
• Meet definition of held for trading
Designated
IMPAIRMENT OF FINANCIAL ASSETS
DERECOGNITION
IAS 32
PRESENTATION
Liabilities and equity
Related interest, dividends, gains and losses
Offsetting of financial assets and liabilities
IFRS 7
DISCLOSURES
Income, expenses, gains or losses
Accounting policies
Impairment and credit risk
3 Definitions related to the background of financial instruments

IAS 32 deals with the presentation of financial instruments in the financial statements,
specifically relating to the presentation as financial assets, financial liabilities and equity
instruments. The standard also deals with the classification of interest, dividends, gains and
losses on financial instruments. The offsetting of financial assets and financial liabilities is
also dealt with in IAS 32.
3.1 Financial instruments

A financial instrument is a contract that gives rise to a financial asset of one entity and a
financial liability or equity instrument of another entity.
Primary instruments such as receivables, payables and equity, as well as derivative
instruments such as futures, options and swaps are included in this definition.
A contract is an agreement between two or more parties with clear economic results.
The parties have limited discretion to avoid their contractual obligations and the contract is
usually enforceable by law.
Example 17.1: Illustration of the substance of a financial instrument

An example of a primary instrument (financial asset and financial liability) is illustrated by
using a debtor (receivable) which is an example of a contract that will give rise to a financial
asset in the accounting records of one entity (seller), while giving rise to a financial liability
(payable) in the accounting records of the other entity (purchaser).
An example where a financial asset and a corresponding equity instrument are raised in
terms of a contract is illustrated by a share investment. One entity takes up a share in the
other by contributing cash and the other entity issues an equity instrument. The share
investment in the accounting records of the entity taking up the share is a financial asset,
while the share issued by the entity receiving the cash represents an equity instrument.
3.2 Financial asset

A financial asset is:
cash (for example a deposit at a bank);
an equity instrument of another entity (for example an investment in shares of another
entity);
a contractual right to receive cash (for example debtors and loans receivable) or another
financial asset from another entity or to exchange financial assets or financial liabilities
with another entity under conditions that are potentially favourable to the entity; or
a contract that will or may be settled in the entity’s own equity instruments, which falls
Physical assets such as inventories, and intangible assets such as patents, are not financial
assets. Although these assets create opportunities to generate cash inflows (future economic
benefits – refer to the Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting), they do not give rise to
a contractual right to receive cash or another financial asset. Using the same principle, prepaid
expenses will clearly not be financial assets as they do not give rise to a contractual right to
receive cash or other financial assets, but rather to receive the benefits for which the advance
payment was made.
Example 17.2: Financial asset

Titan Ltd holds 100 000 ordinary shares in Marico Ltd. The investment represents equity
instruments of another entity. Consequently, the investment in ordinary shares of Marico Ltd
will be classified as a financial asset in the statement of financial position of Titan Ltd.
3.3 Financial liability

A financial liability is any liability that is:
a contractual obligation to deliver cash (for example creditors and loans repayable) or
another financial asset (for example a loan repayable in government stocks) to another
entity;
a contractual obligation to exchange financial assets or financial liabilities with another
entity under conditions that are potentially unfavourable; or
a contract that will or may be settled in the entity’s own equity instruments, which falls
Liabilities imposed by statutory requirements, such as income taxes, do not represent
financial liabilities, since such liabilities are not contractual in nature.
Example 17.3: Financial liability

Falcon Ltd borrowed R500 000 from Bank B. Interest is payable annually and the capital
amount is repayable after two years. The loan represents a contractual obligation to pay
cash (principal and interest) and will be classified as a financial liability in the statement of
financial position of Falcon Ltd.
3.4 Equity instrument

An equity instrument is any contract that evidences a residual interest in the assets of an
entity after deducting all of its liabilities (it is thus a residual interest in the net assets).
When an entity issues ordinary shares into the market, the entity receives a fixed amount of
cash and delivers a fixed number of ordinary shares. These ordinary shares that were issued
are classified as equity instruments of that issuing entity.
If there is a contract to deliver as many of an entity’s ordinary shares as are equal (based
on their market value) to a fixed value, the contract provides for the issue of a variable
number of the entity’s own shares, to settle a fixed amount – this contract to be settled will
be classified as a financial liability.
Example 17.4: Equity instrument

Alpha Ltd issues 10 000 ordinary shares for cash. Consequently, Alpha Ltd’s own issued
ordinary shares would be an equity instrument in Alpha Ltd.
3.5 Derivative instrument

A derivative is a financial instrument or other contract where all three of the following
characteristics are present:
Its value changes in response to the change in a specified underlying item, such as:
– a specified interest rate (for example interest rate swap);
– security price (for example equity option);
– financial instrument price (for example commodity future);
– foreign exchange rate (for example currency option);
– index of prices or rates (for example financial future);
– a credit rating or credit index (for example credit derivative); or
– a similar variable, provided (in the case of a non-financial variable) that the variable is
not specific to a party to the contract. (A non-financial underlying that is specific to a
party in the contract, for example the occurrence or non-occurrence of water damage
to buildings owned by one party to the contract, will probably be an insurance
contract and not a derivative instrument.)
It requires no or little initial net investment (for example in the case of an option to
buy a share, the initial premium is usually significantly less than the amount required to
purchase the underlying asset (the share itself)).
It is settled at a future date.
Derivative contracts may be settled on a gross physical basis or on a net basis. If it is the
intention of the entity to settle a contract to buy or sell a non-financial underlying asset on a
gross basis and the entity does not have a past practice of settlement on a net basis, it will
fall outside the scope of IFRS 9 and will not be accounted for as a derivative financial
instrument. These contracts are often referred to as "own use" contracts and the exemption
that excludes them from the scope of IFRS 9 is referred to as the "own use exemption".
These contracts are accounted for in the same way as normal sales or purchase contracts,
which means that they are executory contracts (see the chapter on IAS 37 for more detail
on executory contracts). However, if it is the intention of the entity to settle the contract on
a net basis, the contract will fall inside the scope of IFRS 9 and will thus be accounted for as
a derivative financial instrument.
Example 17.5: Gross and net basis

On 1 January 20.25, Alpha Ltd entered into a contract with Echo Ltd, to purchase 10 000 of
Echo Ltd’s ordinary shares on 30 June 20.25 at R5 per share. On 30 June 20.25, the
ordinary shares of Echo Ltd were trading at R7,50 per share. On 30 June 20.25, the contract
between Alpha Ltd and Echo Ltd can be settled on a gross or a net basis, depending on the
agreement between the two parties.
If the contract has to be settled on a gross basis, Alpha Ltd will receive the 10 000 ordinary
shares and pay R50 000 (R5 per share). Alpha Ltd could immediately sell the shares in the
market at R7,50 per share and realise a gain of R25 000. Echo Ltd effectively made a loss, as
the company could have issued the shares in the market and could have received R75 000.
If the contract has to be settled on a net basis, Echo Ltd will pay the difference between the
contract price (R5) and the market value (R7,50) to Alpha Ltd in cash – R25 000 [10 000
shares × (R7,50 – R5)] in total. The effect of the net settlement is the same as the effect of
the gross settlement as Alpha Ltd has made a profit of R25 000 and Echo Ltd has made a
loss of R25 000.
3.6 Types of financial instruments

An understanding of the types of instruments and related terms listed hereunder is of
importance.
Types of instruments:
Bond/Debenture:
A certificate of debt issued by the government or a company in order to raise funds. It
carries a fixed rate of interest and is repayable with or without security at a specified future
date (maturity date). Bonds can be listed. In South Africa, listed bonds are traded on the
Bond Exchange of South Africa (BESA). Visit BESA on www.bondexchange.co.za.
Loan:
A grant of the temporary use of a sum of money on condition that the principal amount will
be repaid with interest. The issuer of the loan might require security.
Ordinary share:
A share that can receive dividends after the dividends on preference shares are paid out. In
the event of liquidation of the company, ordinary shareholders receive their claim on the
assets after the liabilities were settled and after the preference shareholders have been
paid. The ordinary share also entitles the holder to vote at all meetings of members.
Ordinary shares carry the highest risk of ownership, but also have the potential for the
highest return.
Share/Equity:
A proportionate claim against the capital and reserves (i.e. the net assets) of a company. It
entitles the holder to receive dividends if dividends are declared. The terms and conditions
associated with the share are generally contained within the company's articles of
association. In the past, the holder received a physical paper share certificate that indicated
the number of shares held. Today, electronic records of ownership are held. The term
equity is also used to refer to shares as it means "ownership". Shares can be listed or
unlisted instruments. In South Africa, listed shares are traded on the Johannesburg Stock
Exchange (JSE). Visit the JSE on www.jse.co.za.
Preference share:
A share that receives dividends before dividends on ordinary shares are paid out. In the
event of liquidation of the company, preference shareholders receive their claim on the
assets after the liabilities were settled, but before the ordinary shareholders receive their
share. The types of preference shares are:
cumulative, for which undeclared dividends for a particular year accumulate to the
following year;
non-cumulative, for which undeclared dividends are not accumulated and therefore
lost;
participating, which give the holder fixed dividends plus extra earnings based on
certain conditions;
convertible, which can be exchanged for a number of ordinary shares based on certain
conditions;
redeemable, for which the capital is repayable to the shareholder at a specified time;
and
non-redeemable, for which the capital is only repayable on liquidation (also referred to
as a "perpetual preference share").
Related terms:
Corporate actions:
An event initiated by a public company that affects the instruments (equity or debt) issued
by the company, for example, dividend declarations (shares), coupon payments (bonds),
share splits, and mergers and acquisitions. Corporate actions are typically proposed by a
company's board of directors and authorised by the shareholders.
Capitalisation issue:
Shares are issued to existing shareholders proportionally to their shares as a percentage of
the total shares in issue prior to the capitalisation issue, without the issuer receiving any
consideration.
Implications for the investor:
Additional shares are received for no additional consideration.
The number of shares held increases, but the total Rand value of the investment in the
shares remains constant.
Therefore, the value per share decreases (more shares for the same Rand value).
Effect on disclosure:
– the number of shares held increases; and
– the amount per share decreases.
Implications for the issuer of the capitalisation shares:
Reserves are converted into share capital.
There is no inflow of capital/resources into the entity.
Journal entry to recognise a capitalisation issue:
Dr Reserve (equity) (SCE)
Cr Share capital (equity) (SCE)
Last date to register (LDR):
The date on which the holder of a share or bond is designated to receive a dividend or a
coupon payment. For bonds this date is also known as the “book-closed” date. Registration
as the new owner in the register takes place on the settlement date of the trade
transaction.
Cum dividend (or cum div)/ex dividend (ex div):
When a share is said to be “cum dividend”, it means that it is offered for sale with an
entitlement to the next dividend payment. Thus, if the shares are held on the LDR then the
holder is entitled to receive a dividend, but if the shares are sold after the declaration date
but before the LDR, the new holder will be entitled to the dividend. The new holder will
acquire the shares “cum dividend”. After the LDR, the shares will be offered for sale “ex
dividend”.
Cum interest/ex interest:
A bond will trade “cum interest” if the trade settlement date occurs before the LDR and
before the next coupon payment date (i.e. the buyer will receive the next coupon payment).
It means that the all-in price paid by the buyer for the bond will equal the clean price
(without interest) plus the accrued interest between the previous coupon payment date and
the trade settlement date. The purpose is to compensate the seller for the interest accrued
before the trade settlement date that will be received by the buyer as part of the next
coupon payment. A bond will trade “ex interest”, if the trade settlement date occurs after
the LDR but before the next coupon payment date (i.e. the seller will receive the next
coupon payment). It means that the all-in price paid by the buyer for the bond will equal
the clean price (without interest) minus the accrued interest between the trade settlement
date and the next coupon payment date. The purpose is to compensate the buyer for the
interest accrued after the trade settlement date that will be received by the seller as part of
the next coupon payment.
Dividends:
A proportion of the profits of the company paid out to the shareholders. The amount to be
distributed is proposed by the board of directors and authorised by the shareholders (after
which the dividend is now “declared”).
Holder:
The party that holds an instrument. It would imply that the party either subscribed or
purchased the instrument.
Interest:
The amount paid over and above the principal as compensation for the use of the sum of
money over a period of time. It compensates for the decrease in the time value of money of
the principal amount over the period the money is used, as well as the risk that the
outstanding amount might not be repaid (credit risk). It is typically expressed as an annual
percentage of the principal amount. There are two types of interest rates, not defined in
IFRS, relevant to this chapter: coupon, the interest rate stipulated in an instrument (for
example a bond) and can be either a fixed or a variable rate; and market, the interest rate
that market participants require from an instrument given its remaining life and its risk. In
an arms-length transaction, the coupon interest rate will equal the market interest rate
when the instrument is first issued. After that, the market interest rate might change as the
view that market participants have of the instrument changes.
Issuer/Writer:
The party that gave, sold or issued an instrument.
Principal/capital/nominal/face value:
The amount borrowed under a loan, bond or debenture, excluding interest. The principal
amount of a bond is called its “nominal value” or its “face value”.
Rights issue:
A rights issue is a method an entity (issuer) can apply to receive additional funds. In terms
of a rights issue, rights to new shares are issued to existing shareholders, based on their
existing shareholding. The rights are presented to the shareholders for no consideration
and provide those shareholders with the right to acquire additional shares in the company,
within a specified period. The issue price (price at which the shareholders can acquire the
additional shares) is usually lower than the current market price, to ensure that the
shareholders will exercise their rights (and thus take up the shares). Where such an issue
takes place, an advantage is given to existing shareholders because they can acquire the
shares at less than fair value (the shareholders can take up the shares, and immediately sell
them at a higher price, thus realising a profit). If the existing shareholder does not want to
exercise his rights, the rights can be sold to other investors, otherwise they will expire.
After the company has announced the proposed rights issue, the market, and therefore
the share price, reacts. Once the rights issue has been made, the shareholder no longer
only owns shares; he also holds rights certificates that can be traded separately. The
shareholder acquires that right for no consideration and therefore the right does not have a
cost. That, however, does not mean that the right does not have a value. The right is a
derivative financial asset (similar to a call option) that must be accounted for.
Before the rights certificates are issued, the shares trade cum-rights (the rights and the
shares are still connected). Assume for simplicity that as soon as the rights certificates are
issued, the shares are trading at an ex-rights value, and the rights are trading separately.
The cum-rights value is split between the ex-rights value and the value of the right. The
value of the shares in the financial records must be allocated to the portion attributable only
to shares and the portion attributable to the rights.
The above-mentioned values can be determined by using a shareholder’s interest

approach. This method assumes that the equity (shareholder’s interest) of a company
represents the value of the shares. The method used most of the time, however, is to refer
to the current market value of the shares. This method assumes that the market price of
the shares correctly reflects the value. The market value of the shares is not necessarily
equal to the carrying amount of the equity of the entity, since buyers and sellers attach
certain goodwill to the shares. If the latter method is used, it is necessary to adjust the
shares to the fair value immediately before the rights certificates are issued. This value is
then split between the ex-rights value and the value of the right.
After the rights certificates have been issued, the holder of the rights can exercise the
rights by paying the issue price and therefore taking up the shares. The rights can also be
sold to other investors, who can then acquire shares in the company, by exercising subject
to the conditions of the rights issue. If the rights are not exercised, they will expire on the
date determined in the rights issue agreement.
A right is an example of a derivative instrument, as
its value is derived from the underlying item, the existing share;
it requires no initial investment, as the rights are issued for no consideration to the
existing shareholders in relation to their existing shareholding; and
it can be settled at a future date, for example by exercising the rights.
The right is a derivative financial instrument and also falls in the category at fair value
through profit or loss. It also has to be adjusted to fair value on subsequent measurement.
All rights that have not been exercised at year-end and have not expired will be presented
at fair value in the statement of financial position. The fair value adjustment is recognised in
the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
Any rights that have not been exercised and are also not sold will expire, and will then
need to be written off in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and
other comprehensive income.
3.7 Interest, dividends, gains and losses
Interest, dividends, gains and losses relating to a component that is a financial liability must
be recognised as income or an expense in profit or loss. Distributions to holders of an equity
instrument must be recognised by the entity directly in equity.
3.8 Offsetting
A financial asset and a financial liability can only be offset and the net amount reported in
the statement of financial position when an entity:
currently has a legally enforceable right to set off the recognised amounts; and
intends to settle on a net basis, or to realise the asset and settle the liability
simultaneously.
If the conditions mentioned above are met, the liability would be deducted from the value
of the asset, and only the net asset would be presented in the statement of financial
position.
4 Recognition of financial instruments

4.1 Initial recognition
Recognition generally refers to when items would be accounted for in the financial records,
therefore initial recognition specifically refers to the timing of the recognition of financial
instruments.
An entity recognises a financial asset or financial liability on its statement of financial

position when, and only when, it becomes a party to the contractual provisions of the
instrument.
4.2 Regular way contracts

A regular way purchase or sale is a purchase or sale of a financial asset under a contract
whose terms require delivery of the asset within the time frame generally established by
regulation or convention in the marketplace concerned.
An example of a regular way purchase contract is when an entity purchases a call option
in a public market. If an entity exercises its option, it may have, for instance, three days to
settle the transaction according to regulation. The settlement by delivery of the shares
within three days is therefore a regular way transaction because the settlement is governed
by regulation in the marketplace.
A regular way purchase or sale of financial assets should be recognised using either:
trade date accounting: recognising the asset and liability on the date that the entity
commits to the purchase or sale of the asset; or
settlement date accounting: recognising the asset and liability on the date that the
asset is delivered to or by the entity.
Whichever method (accounting policy) is used, it should be used consistently for all
purchases and sales of financial assets that belong to the same category of financial assets.
5 Measurement of financial instruments
Initial measurement
All financial instruments, except trade receivables that do not have a significant
financing component, are initially measured at fair value. Trade receivables that do not have
a significant financing component will be measured at their transaction price as defined in
IFRS 15.
IFRS 13, Fair Value Measurement sets out the requirements for measuring the fair value of
a financial asset or financial liability.
5.1 Definitions related to measurement
5.1.1 Fair value
Fair value is defined in IFRS 13 as the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid
to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the
measurement date.
The fair value of an instrument would generally be considered to be its quoted price,
but a valuation technique, such as discounted cash flow, may be used to determine fair
value if the market for the instrument is not active.
Fair value is thus measured with reference to:
transaction price (i.e. the fair value of the consideration given or received); or
quoted market price in an active market for an identical asset or liability; or
estimated discounted value of all future cash payments or receipts; or
recent prices of similar instruments where there is no active market.
If there is a common valuation technique used by market participants where there is no

active market and it has provided reliable estimates of market prices, this technique should
be used.
5.1.2 Amortised cost and gross carrying amount (IFRS 9 Appendix A)
The amortised cost of a financial asset or liability is:
the amount at which the financial asset or liability is measured at initial recognition;
minus the principal repayments;
plus or minus the cumulative amortisation using the effective interest method of
any difference between that initial amount and the maturity amount;
minus any loss allowance (applicable to financial assets only).
The gross carrying amount of a financial asset is the amortised cost of a financial
asset before adjusting for any loss allowance (impairment allowance) on the financial asset.
It is important to note from the above definition of amortised cost, that the amortised cost
of a financial asset is a net carrying amount (gross carrying amount (as defined above)
minus the loss allowance).
The calculation of amortised cost is summarised as follows:
Financial asset Financial liability
Amount initially recognised Amount initially recognised
(fair value + transactions costs) (fair value – transactions costs)
– Principal repayments – Principal repayments
+ Cumulative amortisation + Cumulative amortisation
= Gross carrying amount
– Loss allowance
= Amortised cost = Amortised cost
The effective interest method is a method of calculating the amortised cost of a financial
asset or a financial liability, and of allocating the interest income or interest expense (actual
interest, transaction costs, premium or discount spread over the term of the instrument) in
profit or loss over the relevant period.
The effective interest rate is the rate that exactly discounts estimated future cash
payments or receipts through the expected life of the financial asset or financial liability, to
the gross carrying amount of the financial asset (in other words after adding transaction
costs) or to the amortised cost of the financial liability (in other words after deducting
transaction costs).
The calculation of effective interest includes the actual interest paid/received, all the fees
and points paid or received between the parties to the contract that are an integral part of
the effective interest rate, as well as transaction costs and all other premiums or discounts.
An example of points paid could be where an entity takes out a R200 000 loan and the
origination fee is R6 000, the loan in this instance has a three-point origination fee. The
calculation of the effective interest does not include expected credit losses.
The carrying amount calculated for an instrument using the effective interest rate will
thus include transaction costs, premiums and discounts, and the difference between interest
earned/incurred and the interest actually received/paid (coupon interest).
The coupon rate of a financial asset or a financial liability is the interest rate based on
the nominal value of the instrument, and gives the actual cash interest that will be paid on
the instrument. It differs from the effective interest rate because it does not take
transaction costs or premiums and discounts into account.
5.1.3 Transaction costs (IFRS 9 Appendix A)

Transaction costs are the incremental costs directly attributable to the acquisition, issue
or disposal of a financial asset or a financial liability. They constitute the cost that would not
have been incurred if the entity had not acquired, issued or disposed of the financial
instrument. Transaction costs include fees or commissions paid to agents (including
employees acting as agents), advisers, brokers and dealers, as well as duties and transfer
tax and levies by regulatory agencies and security exchanges. Transaction costs do not
include debt premiums or discounts, financing costs or allocations of internal administrative
or holding costs.
The classification of a financial instrument determines if the transaction costs adjust the
fair value of a financial instrument on initial measurement or not.
Transaction costs incurred in relation to all financial assets and financial liabilities
classified as subsequently measured at fair value through profit or loss are accounted
for as an expense.
Transaction costs incurred in relation to financial assets and financial liabilities classified
as subsequently measured at amortised cost and financial assets classified as
subsequently measured at fair value through other comprehensive income are
capitalised against the carrying amount of the asset or liability (i.e. added to the financial
asset’s fair value at initial recognition and deducted from the financial liability’s fair value at
initial recognition).
Example 17.6: Effective interest and amortised cost

(a) On 1 January 20.20, Def Ltd issued a bond with a nominal value of R1 000 000 and a
coupon rate of 10% (interest is payable annually in arrears). The bond was issued at the
fair value of R1 000 000 (=PV). The bond will be redeemed on 31 December 20.22 and
the redemption takes place at the nominal value (=FV). No transaction costs were paid by
Def Ltd.
Calculation of the effective interest rate:
n = 3; PV = 1 000 000 (fair value); FV = –1 000 000; PMT = –1 000 000 nominal value
× 10% coupon rate = –100 000; compute i = 10%
Amortisation table for Def Ltd (issuer)

Date PMT Interest, 10% Capital Balance
(a) (b) (c) (d)
R R R R
1 January 20.20 1 000 000
31 December 20.20 100 000 100 000 - 1 000 000
31 December 20.21 100 000 100 000 - 1 000 000
31 December 20.22 100 000 100 000 - 1 000 000
(a) Annual payment based on the coupon/nominal interest rate of 10%.

(b) 10% (effective interest rate) on the prior balance in (d).
(c) (a) minus (b) = capital amount.
Comments:
¾ In this example, since the present value (R1 000 000) and the future value are the
same, the nominal interest rate and the effective interest rate will also be the same.
Example 17.6: Effective interest and amortised cost (continued)

(b) On 1 January 20.20, Def Ltd issued a bond with a nominal value of R1 000 000 and a
the redemption takes place at a 10% discount on the nominal value (=FV). No transaction
costs were paid by Def Ltd.
n = 3; PV = 1 000 000 (fair value); FV = –1 000 000 × 90% (after 10% discount) =
–900 000; PMT = –1 000 000 nominal value × 10% coupon rate = –100 000;
compute i = 6,886%
Date PMT Interest, Capital Balance
6,886%
(a) (b) (c) (d)
R R R R
1 January 20.20 1 000 000
31 December 20.20 100 000 68 860 31 140 968 860
31 December 20.21 100 000 66 716 33 284 935 576
31 December 20.22 100 000 64 424 35 576 900 000

(b) 6,886% (effective interest rate) on the prior balance in (d).
Taking the information in (b) into account, the amortised cost of the bond at
31 December 20.20, 20.21 and 20.22 will be the following, using journal entries:
Dr Cr
R R
1 January 20.20
Bank (SFP) 1 000 000
Bond liability (SFP) 1 000 000
Initial recognition of bond liability at fair value
31 December 20.20
Finance cost (P/L) (1 000 000 × 6,886%) 68 860
Bond liability (SFP) (balancing) 31 140
Bank (SFP) (1 000 000 × 10%) 100 000
Subsequent measurement at amortised cost
Amortised cost at 31 December 20.20
1 000 000 – 31 140 = 968 860
31 December 20.21
Finance cost (P/L) (968 860 × 6,886%) 66 716
Bank (SFP) (1 000 000 × 10%) 100 000
968 860 – 33 284 = 935 576
Example 17.6: Effective interest and amortised cost (continued)

31 December 20.22
Dr Cr
R R
Finance cost (P/L) (935 576 × 6,886%) 64 424
Bank (SFP) (1 000 000 × 10%) 100 000
Bond liability (SFP) 900 000
Bank (SFP) 900 000
Pay bond back to holders at redemption day
935 576 – 35 576 – 900 000 = 0
(c) On 1 January 20.20, Def Ltd issued a bond with a nominal value of R1 000 000 and a
the redemption takes place at a 20% premium on the nominal value (=FV). No transaction
costs were paid by Def Ltd.
n = 3; PV = 1 000 000 (fair value); FV = –1 000 000 × 120% (after 20% premium) =
–1 200 000; PMT = –1 000 000 nominal value × 10% coupon rate = –100 000;
compute i = 15,7203%

Date PMT Interest, Capital Balance
15,7203%
(a) (b) (c) (d)
R R R R
1 January 20.20 1 000 000
31 December 20.20 100 000 157 203 57 203 1 057 203
31 December 20.21 100 000 166 195 66 195 1 123 398
31 December 20.22 100 000 176 602 76 602 1 200 000

(b) 15,7203% (effective interest rate) on the prior balance in (d).
(d) The prior balance plus (c).
5.2 Classification of financial assets and financial liabilities

The classification of financial instruments determines how the financial instruments are
accounted for and measured in the financial statements.
The following classification categories can be identified for financial instruments:
Financial assets
At fair value through

At fair value through other
profit or loss At amortised cost (section 5.2.2) comprehensive
(section 5.2.1) income
(section 5.2.3)
Financial liabilities
At amortised cost At fair value through profit or loss

(section 5.2.4) (section 5.2.5)
Since the classification of financial instruments has a direct impact on initial and subsequent
measurement, classification is discussed in detail at this point.
Financial assets
An entity should classify financial assets as subsequently measured at either

amortised cost, fair value through profit or loss or fair value through other comprehensive
income on the basis of both: the entity’s business model for managing the financial asset;
and the contractual cash flow characteristics of the financial asset.
Financial liabilities
An entity should classify its financial liabilities as subsequently measured at amortised
cost using the effective interest method, except for:
financial liabilities at fair value through profit or loss;
financial liabilities that arise when a transfer of a financial asset does not qualify for
derecognition or when the continuing involvement approach applies;
financial guarantee contracts;
commitments to provide a loan at a below-market interest rate; and
contingent consideration recognised by an acquirer in a business combination (IFRS 3,
Business Combinations).
5.2.1 Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss
This category is the default category for purposes of classifying financial assets.
A financial asset will be classified as subsequently measured at fair value through profit or
loss when it does not meet the criteria for classification as measured at amortised cost or at
fair value through other comprehensive income.
A financial asset measured at fair value through profit or loss is a financial asset that falls
within the following sub-categories:
Mandatorily measured at fair value through profit or loss.
Items that meet the definition of held for trading would automatically fall into this sub-
category. A financial asset is classified as held for trading if it:
– is acquired principally for the purpose of selling or repurchasing it in the near future;
– is part of a portfolio of identified financial instruments that are managed together and
for which there is evidence of a recent, actual pattern of short-term profit-taking; or
– is a derivative (except for a derivative that is a designated and effective hedging
instrument) (if the financial asset is part of a hedging relationship, the principles
regarding hedge accounting would have to be applied).
Examples of held for trading financial assets:
– shares held for speculative purposes; and
– rights to the abovementioned shares (if not a hedging instrument).
Designated as measured at fair value through profit or loss. Designating a financial
asset into this category is allowed if it will eliminate or significantly reduce a
measurement or recognition inconsistency (“accounting mismatch”) that would
otherwise arise. Designation must take place at initial recognition and the designation is
irrevocable.
Example 17.7: Fair value through profit or loss classification – mandatory

measurement (held for trading)
The following are examples of instruments classified as held for trading.
Case I – Speculative share investment
Sparky Ltd buys shares of a listed company intending to speculate with these shares. Sparky
Ltd will actively buy and sell these shares to realise short-term profits.
Case II – Portfolio held for speculation
Sparky Ltd owns a speculative share portfolio of five investments in shares consisting of the
following on 31 December 20.28:
Name Number of shares Fair value Last date of selling
held R
Hansa Ltd 10 000 100 000 1 March 20.28
Lion Ltd 20 000 180 000 15 September 20.28
Lager Ltd 25 000 200 000 Never
Skol Ltd 15 000 170 000 10 June 20.28
SBA Ltd 12 000 150 000 7 December 20.28
All the shares, with the exception of the shares in Lager Ltd, were traded during the year.
Despite this fact, the share investment in Lager Ltd can still be classified as subsequently
measured at fair value through profit or loss, as it forms part of a speculative share portfolio.
Case III – Derivative instrument
Sparky Ltd owns several call options. As long as these call options are not designated as
hedging instruments, they will be classified as subsequently measured at fair value through
profit or loss.
5.2.2 Financial assets at amortised cost

For a financial asset to be classified as subsequently measured at amortised cost, both of
the following conditions must be met:
the asset is held within a business model with the objective of collecting the contractual
cash flows; and
the contractual terms of the financial asset give rise on specific dates to cash flows
that are solely payments of principal and interest on the principal amount
outstanding.
Should the above criteria not be met, the financial asset would default back to being
measured at fair value.
Example 17.8: Financial asset at amortised cost

Excel Ltd purchased a bond with a nominal value of R1 000 000 and a coupon rate of 10% on
1 January 20.20, when the market rate for similar bonds also redeemable at a 5% premium on
the nominal value was 11,489%. The bond was purchased at the fair value of R1 000 000.
The bond will be redeemed on 31 December 20.22. Excel Ltd holds the bond to collect the
contractual cash flows of principal and interest.
Excel Ltd’s business model, in terms of which the bond is held, is achieved by collecting
contractual cash flows that are solely payments of principal and interest. The bond is therefore
classified as a financial asset subsequently measured at amortised cost.
An entity should assess whether a financial instrument complies with the abovementioned
conditions based on the business model of the entity as determined by the key
management personnel of the entity as defined in IAS 24. This condition is not for purposes
of classification on an instrument-by-instrument basis and should rather be assessed at a
higher level of aggregation of financial assets. It would therefore be possible for an entity to
have more than one business model.
5.2.3 Financial assets at fair value through other comprehensive income
A financial asset measured at fair value through other comprehensive income is a financial
asset that falls within the following sub-categories:
Mandatorily measured at fair value through other comprehensive income.
Financial assets that meet both of the following requirements should be classified as
subsequently measured at fair value through other comprehensive income:
– the asset is held within a business model with the objective of both collecting the
contractual cash flows and also selling the asset; and
– the contractual terms of the financial asset give rise on specific dates to cash flows
that are solely payments of principal and interest on the principal amount
outstanding.
Designated as measured at fair value through other comprehensive income.
This category is only available for equity instruments that are not held for trading. An
entity may, on initial recognition make an irrevocable election to recognise all fair value
changes due to subsequent measurement on an equity instrument in other
comprehensive income instead of in profit or loss. This classification is available on an
instrument-by-instrument basis.
Example 17.9: Fair value through other comprehensive income – mandatory

measurement
Excel Ltd purchased a bond with a nominal value of R1 000 000 and a coupon rate of 10% on
the nominal value was 11,489%. The bond was purchased at the fair value of R1 000 000.
The bond will be redeemed on 31 December 20.22. Excel Ltd holds the bond to collect the
contractual cash flows and to sell the bond to re-invest in an investment with a higher return.
Therefore both collecting contractual cash flows and selling the bonds are an integral part of
achieving Excel Ltd’s business model. The cash flows are solely payments of principal and
interest. The bond is therefore classified as a financial asset subsequently measured at fair
value through other comprehensive income.
5.2.4 Financial liabilities at amortised cost

This category is the default category for purposes of classifying financial liabilities. There are
a few exceptions and they are the following:
financial liabilities at fair value through profit or loss (held for trading or designated)
(refer to section 5.2.5);
financial guarantee contracts;
commitments to provide a loan at a below-market interest rate;
financial liabilities that arise when a transfer of a financial asset does not qualify for
derecognition or when the continuing involvement approach applies; and
contingent consideration recognised by an acquirer in a business combination (IFRS 3).
5.2.5 Financial liabilities at fair value through profit or loss

A financial liability measured at fair value through profit or loss is a financial liability that
falls within the following sub-categories:
When it meets the definition of held for trading.
Upon initial recognition, the financial liability is designated by the entity as measured at
fair value through profit or loss. Designation must take place at initial recognition and
the designation is irrevocable. Designating a financial liability into this category is
allowed if it will result in more relevant information either by:
– eliminating or significantly reducing a measurement or recognition inconsistency
(“accounting mismatch”) that would otherwise arise; or
– managing a portfolio of financial liabilities and its performance is evaluated on a fair
value basis in terms of the entity’s documented risk management or investment
strategy.
If a financial liability is part of a hedging relationship the principles regarding hedge
accounting would have to be applied. Hedge accounting falls outside the scope of this
chapter.
5.3 Initial measurement of financial assets and financial liabilities
At initial recognition of a financial asset or financial liability, an entity should measure

it at its fair value.
This fair value is generally the consideration paid or received, i.e. the transaction price. If
the fair value is not equal to the transaction price (the consideration paid or received), a
gain or loss arises on initial measurement of the financial instrument. This “day one gain or
loss” is the difference between the fair value and the transaction price. Day one gains or
losses are usually recognised in profit or loss.
Transaction costs directly attributable to the acquisition or issue of the instrument,
should be added to the fair value of the financial asset, or, in the case of a financial liability,
should be deducted from the fair value described above. The journal entry to account for
these transaction costs is:
Financial asset / Financial liability (SFP) XXX
Bank (SFP) XXX
Transaction costs paid
However, in the case of financial assets or financial liabilities classified as measured at fair
value through profit or loss, transaction costs are expensed. The journal entry to account
for these transaction costs is:
Transaction costs (P/L) XXX
Bank (SFP) XXX
Transaction costs paid
In summary, initial measurement is as follows:
Category of financial instrument Initial measurement
Financial assets/liabilities at fair value through At fair value, but excluding transaction costs
profit or loss (transaction costs are recognised in profit or loss)
Financial assets at fair value through other At fair value + transaction costs
comprehensive income (equity instruments)
Financial assets at fair value through other At fair value + transaction costs
comprehensive income (debt instruments)
Financial assets at amortised cost At fair value + transaction costs
Financial liabilities at amortised cost At fair value – transaction costs
5.3.1 Transaction costs and effective interest rate

For financial assets or financial liabilities at amortised cost, the effective interest rate is the
rate that exactly discounts estimated future cash payments or receipts through the
expected life of the financial instrument, to the gross carrying amount of the financial asset
(in other words after adding transaction costs) or to the amortised cost of the financial
liability (in other words after deducting transaction costs). Transaction costs will therefore
influence the calculation of the effective interest rate.
Example 17.10: Effective interest rate and transaction costs

On 1 January 20.20, Def Ltd issued a bond with a nominal value of R1 000 000 and a
coupon rate of 10% (interest is payable annually in arrears) when the market rate was also
10%. The bond will be redeemed at its nominal value on 31 December 20.22. The effective
interest rate of this bond will be calculated as follows:
n = 3; PV = 1 000 000; FV = –1 000 000; PMT = –1 000 000 × 10% = –100 000
Compute i = 10%
If the transaction costs paid by Def Ltd amounted to R15 000, the effective interest rate will
change as follows:
n = 3; PV = (1 000 000 – 15 000) = 985 000; FV = –1 000 000; PMT = –1 000 000 × 10%
= –100 000
Compute i = 10,61%
If the transaction costs remained at R15 000, but the redemption takes place at a 5%
premium above the nominal value, the effective interest rate will change as follows:
n = 3; PV = (1 000 000 – 15 000) = 985 000; FV = –1 000 000 × 105% = –1 050 000;
PMT = –100 000
Compute i = 12,11%
If the transaction costs remained at R15 000, but the redemption takes place at a 5%
discount on the nominal value, the effective interest rate will change as follows:
n = 3; PV = (1 000 000 – 15 000) = 985 000; FV = –1 000 000 × 95% = –950 000; PMT =
–100 000
Compute I = 9,07%
5.4 Subsequent measurement of financial assets

As already indicated, IFRS 9 defines three categories of financial assets, namely:
financial assets at fair value through profit or loss;
financial assets at amortised cost; and
financial assets at fair value through other comprehensive income.
The above classifications are extremely important, as they determine the methods applied
at subsequent measurement of the financial assets as well as the applicable accounting
treatment.
5.4.1 Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss

For financial assets classified as subsequently measured at fair value through profit or loss,
all gains or losses (realised and unrealised) calculated on the subsequent measurement of
these instruments are recorded directly in profit or loss.
Example 17.11: Initial and subsequent measurement of financial assets classified as

subsequently measured at fair value through profit or loss
A financial asset classified as subsequently measured at fair value through profit or loss is
acquired for R1 000 (also the fair value). A purchase commission of R25 is paid in respect
of this transaction. Initially, the financial asset is recorded at R1 000 and the R25
commission is expensed immediately in profit or loss, since this is the prescribed treatment
for this type of financial asset in terms of IFRS 9. At the next reporting date, the quoted
market price of the asset is R1 200. The asset will then be restated to the fair value of
R1 200 which will result in a fair value gain of R200 (R1 200 – R1 000) recognised in profit
or loss. If this asset was then sold at the fair value of R1 200 and a commission of R30 was
paid, the remeasured asset would be sold with no resultant profit or loss on sale and the
R30 would immediately be recognised in profit or loss as an expense.
5.4.2 Financial assets at amortised cost

For those financial assets carried at amortised cost, a gain or loss is recognised in profit or
loss when the financial asset is derecognised or impaired.
Examples of a financial asset at amortised cost include a debt security with a variable
interest rate (payments are determinable).
Most equity securities cannot be financial assets at amortised cost, either because they
have an indefinite life (such as ordinary shares), or because the amounts the holder may
receive can vary in a manner that is not predetermined (such as share options, warrants
and rights) and therefore the cash flows associated with the instrument does not represent
principal and interest repayments.
Example 17.12: Financial assets at amortised cost

On 1 January 20.20, Bright Ltd bought R1 million par value Municipal 8% bonds for
R924 184 (when the market interest rate was 10%). The related transaction costs paid by
Bright Ltd on the same date was R10 000 (assume this is reasonable). The bonds mature at
the nominal value on 31 December 20.24, and interest is paid annually in arrears on
31 December. On 31 December 20.20, the bonds had a fair value of R951 933. The bonds
were classified as financial assets subsequently measured at amortised cost. Assume that
credit losses (impairment losses) were not expected at any stage.
Proof of the fair value at initial recognition on 1 January 20.20:
Financial calculator: FV = 1 000 000; i = 10; n = 5; PMT = 80 000 (8% × 1 000 000)
Fair value = R924 184
(This is the fair value quoted on the bond exchange based on the interest rate differential
between market rate and coupon rate).
Example 17.12: Financial assets at amortised cost (continued)

Effective interest rate calculation:
Financial calculator: PV = – (924 184 + 10 000 trans. costs); FV = 1 000 000; n = 5;
PMT = 80 000
Compute i = 9,724%
Subsequent measurement at amortised cost on 31 December 20.20 (year-end):
Amortised cost = R945 024 (R934 184 cost + R90 840 effective interest – R80 000
coupon interest)
The journal entries to account for the initial recognition and the amortisation for 20.20 are:
Dr Cr
1 January 20.20 R R
Investment in bonds (SFP) (fair value + transaction costs) 934 184
Bank (SFP) (price paid for bonds) 924 184
Bank (SFP) (transaction costs) 10 000
Purchase of bonds and transaction costs paid
31 December 20.20
Bank (SFP) (R1 000 000 × 8%) 80 000
Investment in bonds (SFP) (balancing) 10 840
Finance income (P/L) (R934 184 × 9,724%) 90 840
Modification of cash flows

When the contractual cash flows of a financial asset measured at amortised cost are
renegotiated or modified and it does not result in the derecognition of the asset, an entity
has to recalculate a new gross carrying amount for the financial asset. The new gross
carrying amount is calculated as the present value of the modified contractual cash flows
discounted at the financial asset’s original effective interest rate. The gross carrying amount
of the financial asset before modification is then restated to the new gross carrying amount
and a modification gain or loss is recognised in profit or loss.
5.4.3 Financial assets at fair value through other comprehensive income
A financial asset is considered to be classified as subsequently measured at fair value
through other comprehensive income when:
The financial asset (debt instrument with the necessary cash flow characteristics) is held
within a business model with the objective of both collecting contractual cash flows
and selling the financial asset; or
An entity has made an irrevocable election on initial recognition to classify an investment
in equity instruments into this category.
All financial assets classified as subsequently measured at fair value through other
comprehensive income are carried at fair value subsequent to initial recognition.
5.4.3.1 Fair value adjustments on investments in debt instruments
An investment in debt instruments classified as subsequently measured at fair value through
other comprehensive income, is measured at fair value on the statement of financial
position.
A gain or loss arising from changes in the fair value of the investment in debt
instruments, which is not attributable to interest, impairment gains or losses and foreign
exchange gains and losses, are recognised in other comprehensive income in the statement
A gain or loss arising from changes in the fair value of the investment in debt
instrument, which is attributable to interest, impairment gains or losses and foreign
exchange gains and losses, are recognised in profit or loss. The objective is that these
financial assets will have the same impact on profit or loss as financial assets classified as
subsequently measured at amortised cost.
The cumulative fair value gain or loss previously recognised in equity via other
comprehensive income is reclassified to profit or loss when the financial asset is
derecognised. This reclassification ensures that the amount recognised in profit or loss on
derecognition is the same that would have been recognised if the financial asset was
classified as subsequently measured at amortised cost.
Example 17.13: Financial assets at fair value through other comprehensive income
(debt instruments)
On 1 January 20.20, Bright Ltd bought R1 million nominal value Municipal 8% bonds at the
fair value of R924 184 (when the market interest rate was 10%). The related transaction
costs paid by Bright Ltd on the same date was R10 000 (assume this is reasonable). The
bonds mature at the nominal value on 31 December 20.24, and interest is paid annually in
arrears on 31 December. On 31 December 20.20, the bonds had a fair value of R951 933.
On 1 January 20.21, the bonds were sold at a fair value of R951 933. The bonds were
classified as financial assets subsequently measured at fair value through other
comprehensive income. Assume that credit losses (impairment losses) were not expected at
any stage.
Financial calculator: PV = – (924 184 + 10 000 trans. costs); FV = 1 000 000; n = 5;
PMT = 80 000 (8% × 1 000 000)
Compute i = 9,724%
Carrying amount at 31 December 20.20 before fair value adjustment:
R934 184 cost + R90 840 effective interest (934 184 × 9,724%) – R80 000 coupon
interest = R945 024.
Fair value of bonds at 31 December 20.20: R951 933 (given)
Fair value gain (OCI) not attributable to interest: R951 933 – R945 024 = R6 909
The journal entries to account for the initial recognition, the subsequent measurement and
the disposal of the bonds are as follows:
Dr Cr
1 January 20.20 R R
Investment in bonds (SFP) (fair value + transaction costs) 934 184
Bank (SFP) (price paid for bonds) 924 184
Purchase of bonds and transaction costs paid
31 December 20.20
Bank (SFP) (R1 000 000 × 8%) 80 000
Investment in bonds (SFP) (balancing) 10 840
Investment in bonds (SFP) 6 909
Mark-to-market reserve on debt instruments (OCI) 6 909
Investment in bonds remeasured to fair value
1 January 20.21
Bank (SFP) 951 933
Investment in bonds (SFP) 951 933
Investment sold for cash
Mark-to-market reserve on debt instruments (OCI) 6 909
Gain on investment in bonds (P/L) 6 909
Reclassify other comprehensive income to profit or loss
(debt instruments) (continued)
Comment:
¾ The calculation and recognition of the effective interest income in profit or loss are
identical to those for financial assets classified as subsequently measured at amortised
cost.
¾ The carrying amount of the bonds at year-end are however not measured at amortised
cost but at fair value.
¾ The balance (or appropriate portion) of the mark-to-market reserve on debt instruments
is reclassified to profit or loss upon disposal.
¾ If this bond had been measured at amortised cost, there would have been a profit on
sale that would have been recognised in profit or loss on 1 January 20.21. The profit
would have been calculated as follows: R951 933 (selling price) minus R945 024
(carrying amount at amortised cost) = R6 909 (profit). The impact on profit or loss is
therefore the same.
5.4.3.2 Fair value adjustments on investments in equity instruments

A gain or loss arising subsequent to initial recognition from a change in the fair value of a
financial asset categorised as measured at fair value through other comprehensive income
(equity instruments) will be recognised in other comprehensive income in the statement of
profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
The cumulative fair value gain or loss previously recognised in equity through other
comprehensive income is never subsequently recycled (reclassified) to profit or loss. The
entity may, however, transfer the cumulative fair value gain or loss directly within equity.
This transfer would usually occur upon derecognition of the financial instrument. Dividends
received from this investment must be recognised in profit or loss when the entity’s right to
receive payment of the dividend is established.
(equity instruments)
Construct Ltd acquired 10 000 ordinary shares in a listed company on 1 November 20.20.
The shares are not held for speculative purposes, but were acquired with a long-term view.
The directors of the company irrevocably elected at initial recognition to classify this
investment as measured at fair value through other comprehensive income. The shares
were purchased at the fair value of R3,00 per share. Transaction costs amounted to R1 500
and were paid by the purchaser. The market value of the shares at year-end (31 December
20.20) is R5,50 per share. These shares were sold on 2 January 20.21 at their fair value of
R5,60 per share for cash. It is the accounting policy of the company to transfer the
cumulative balance on the mark-to-market reserve on equity instruments to retained
earnings when the asset or part of the asset is derecognised.
Dr Cr
1 November 20.20 R R
Investment in shares (SFP) [(10 000 × 3,00) + 1 500] 31 500
Bank (SFP) 31 500
Purchase of investment
31 December 20.20
Investment in shares (SFP) [(10 000 × 5,50) – 31 500] 23 500
Mark-to-market reserve on equity instruments (OCI) 23 500
Investment remeasured to fair value and adjustment recognised
in other comprehensive income
(equity instruments) (continued)
Dr Cr
R R
2 January 20.21
Investment in shares (SFP) [56 000 (10 000 × 5,60) – 55 000 1 000
(31 500 + 23 500)]
Mark-to-market reserve on equity instruments (OCI) 1 000
Remeasure investment on date of derecognition to fair value and
recognise adjustment in other comprehensive income
Bank (SFP) 56 000
Investment in shares (SFP) 56 000
Sell share investment at fair value for cash
Mark-to-market reserve on equity instruments (SCE) (23 500 +
1 000) 24 500
Retained earnings (SCE) 24 500
Transfer the accumulated fair value gain in the mark-to-market
reserve directly to retained earnings
Comment:
¾ The balance (or appropriate portion) of the mark-to-market reserve on equity instruments
is transferred to retained earnings upon disposal. This is done directly in equity in the
statement of changes in equity.
¾ The mark-to-market reserve on equity instruments can have a debit balance, if fair
values decreased.
5.4.4 Financial assets that do not have a quoted price in an active market
IFRS 9 does acknowledge that, in limited circumstances, cost may be an appropriate
estimate of fair value for equity instruments that do not have a quoted price in an active
market. Cost may be an appropriate estimate if insufficient more recent information is
available to measure fair value, or if there is a wide range of possible fair value
measurements and cost represents the best estimate of fair value within that range. IFRS 9
also provides indicators of when cost may not be representative of fair value.
5.5 Subsequent measurement of financial liabilities

After initial recognition, an entity should measure all financial liabilities, other than liabilities
measured at fair value through profit or loss and derivatives that are liabilities, at amortised
cost.
5.5.1 Financial liabilities at amortised cost

For those financial liabilities measured at amortised cost, a gain or loss is recognised in
profit or loss when the financial liability is derecognised.
Example 17.15: Amortised cost of a financial liability using the effective interest
method
Def Ltd issued a bond with a nominal value of R1 000 000 and a coupon rate of 10% on
the nominal value was 11,489%. The bond was issued at the fair value of R1 000 000. The
bond will be redeemed on 31 December 20.22 at a premium of 5% on the nominal value. On
1 January 20.20, the transaction costs paid by Def Ltd associated with the bond amounted to
R15 000. The bond will subsequently be measured at amortised cost.
Proof of fair value of the bond:
n = 3; i = 11,489%, FV = –1 000 000 × 105% = –1 050 000; PMT = –1 000 000 × 10% =
–100 000
PV = R1 000 000 (fair value)
Calculation of effective interest rate:
n = 3; PV = (1 000 000 – 15 000) = 985 000; FV = –1 050 000; PMT = –100 000;
compute i = 12,106% (rounded up)
Taking this into account, the amortised cost of the bond at 31 December 20.20, 20.21 and
20.22 will be the following, using journal entries:
Dr Cr
R R
1 January 20.20
Bank (SFP) 1 000 000
Initial recognition of bond at fair value
Bond liability (SFP) 15 000
Bank (SFP) 15 000
Transaction costs associated with bond
31 December 20.20
Finance cost (P/L) (985 000 × 12,106%) 119 244
Bank (SFP) (1 000 000 × 10%) 100 000
Comments:
¾ At this stage, the effective interest rate (12,106%) is applied to the net proceeds of
issuing the liability (R1 000 000 – R15 000) to determine the finance cost.
¾ The difference (R19 244) between the finance cost charged (R119 244) and the coupon
interest paid in cash (R100 000) serves to increase the liability at initial recognition
(R985 000) to R1 004 244 at 31 December 20.20 – this is the a mortised cost of the
liability at the end of 20.20. The eventual goal is to have an amortised cost liability of
R1 050 000 at the date of potential redemption on 31 December 20.22.
¾ The amortised cost of the bond liability at 31 December 20.20 is:
R
Balance at 1 January 20.20 (1 000 000 – 15 000) 985 000
Build-up of liability per above journal for 20.20 19 244
Balance at 31 December 20.20 1 004 244
Dr Cr
R R
31 December 20.21
Finance cost (P/L) (1 004 244 × 12,106%) 121 574
Bank (SFP) (1 000 000 × 10%) 100 000
Example 17.15: Amortised cost of a financial liability using the effective interest
method (continued)
Comment:
R
Dr Cr
R R
31 December 20.22
Finance cost (P/L) (1 025 818 × 12,106%) (rounded down) 124 182
Bank (SFP) (1 000 000 × 10%) 100 000
Comment:
¾ The eventual goal is to change the amortised cost of R985 000 to R1 050 000 over
the term of the contract.
R
Dr Cr
R R
31 December 20.22
Bank (SFP) (1 000 000 × 105%) 1 050 000
Pay bond back to holders
5.5.2 Financial liabilities at fair value through profit or loss

For financial liabilities classified as measured at fair value through profit or loss, all gains or
losses (realised and unrealised) calculated on the subsequent measurement of these
instruments are recorded directly in profit or loss.
For financial liabilities designated into the category as at fair value through profit or
loss, the subsequent changes in fair value must be separated between those fair value
changes that are due to changes in credit risk of the issuer and other changes.
Fair value changes due to credit risk of the issuer must be recognised in other
comprehensive income and accumulated in equity. These amounts may not be reclassified
to profit or loss. They may be transferred to retained earnings directly in equity, probably
on derecognition of the financial liability. All other changes must be recognised in profit or
loss.
Separation is, however, not required if the separation would create or enlarge an
accounting mismatch in profit or loss. Under these circumstances all changes in fair value
must be recognised in profit or loss.
5.6 Impairment of financial assets

IFRS 9 requires that a loss allowance for expected credit losses be recognised for the
following financial assets:
financial assets measured at amortised cost;
investments in debt instruments measured at fair value through other comprehensive
income;
lease receivables (IFRS 16); and
contract assets (IFRS 15).
5.6.1 Credit losses
IFRS 9’s requirements for the recognition of a loss allowance are based on expected
credit losses and not on incurred credit losses. The expected credit loss model is therefore
forward-looking and it is not necessary for a credit event to have occurred before credit
losses are recognised.
A credit loss is the cash shortfalls that arise between the difference in all the contractual
cash flows that are due in terms of the contract and all the cash flows that the entity
expects to receive. This cash shortfall is discounted at the original effective interest rate.
The expected credit losses are the credit loss as described above, but weighted based
on the chance of the risks/default occurring.
Example 17.16: Expected credit losses

On 30 June 20.27, Excel Ltd purchased bonds that mature on 30 June 20.28. In terms of
the contract Excel Ltd will receive the nominal value of R200 000 and the annual coupon
interest of R10 000 on 30 June 20.28. Excel Ltd has a 31 December year-end. On
31 December 20.27, Excel Ltd estimated that there is a 90% chance that the total cash flow
of R210 000 will be received, a 7% chance that only R150 000 will be received and a 3%
chance that only R100 000 will be received. The effective interest rate on the bonds is 5%
per annum.
The expected credit losses on the bonds recognised on 31 December 20.27 is calculated as
follows:
R
Contractual cash flow due on 30 June 20.28 210 000
Expected contractual cash flow on 30 June 20.28
((210 000 × 90%) + (150 000 × 7%) + (100 000 × 3%)) (202 500)
Expected credit loss on 30 June 20.28 7 500
Discount expected credit loss to 31 December 20.27
FV =7 500; n=1; i=5%/2=2,5%; Compute PV = 7 317
The loss allowance for expected credit losses amounts to R7 317 on 31 December 20.27.
5.6.2 Expected credit loss model

The loss allowance for expected credit losses on a financial asset is recognised at reporting
date. The expected credit loss model determines that the loss allowance for expected credit
losses be reviewed and adjusted at each reporting date during the contract term, based on
the credit quality of the financial asset.
If the credit risk of the financial asset increased significantly since the financial asset’s
initial recognition, the loss allowance account for expected credit losses at reporting date is
equal to the lifetime expected credit losses.
If the credit risk of the financial asset did not increase significantly since the financial
asset’s initial recognition, the loss allowance account for expected credit losses at reporting
date is equal to the 12-month expected credit losses.
The lifetime expected credit losses are the expected credit losses that result from all
possible default events over the expected life of a financial instrument.
The 12-month expected credit losses are the portion of lifetime expected credit
losses that represent the expected credit losses that result from default events that are
possible within 12 months after the reporting date. The 12-month expected credit losses are
calculated by multiplying the probability of default occurring on the financial asset within 12
months after reporting date by the lifetime expected credit losses.
5.6.3 Credit risk

Credit risk is the risk that one party to a financial instrument will cause a financial loss for
the other party by failing to discharge an obligation.
IFRS 9 lists events that may indicate that there was a significant increase in the credit
risk of a financial instrument. An example of an indicator that the credit risk of a financial
asset has increased, is the adverse changes in economic conditions that cause a significant
change in a borrower’s ability to repay the debt. The above event may indicate that the
credit risk of the financial asset (debt instrument) has increased significantly. The entity
should use his own assessment method, based on reasonable and supportable
information, to determine if indeed the credit risk increased significantly since initial
recognition.
The entity may assume that the credit risk on a financial asset has not increased
significantly since initial recognition if the financial asset is determined to have low credit
risk at the reporting date.
There is a rebuttable presumption that credit risk has increased significantly when
contractual payments are more than 30 days overdue. An entity can rebut this
presumption if it has information available that supports that the credit risk has not
increased even though the contractual payments are more than 30 days overdue. However,
when an entity determines that there has been a significant increase in credit risk before
contractual payments are more than 30 days past due, the rebuttable presumption does not
apply.
IFRS 9 allows a simplified approach for trade receivables or contract assets (IFRS 15)
without a significant financing component whereby the loss allowance is always equal to the
lifetime expected credit losses.
For trade receivables or contract assets with a significant financing component and lease
receivables (IFRS 16), IFRS 9 allows the entity to choose an accounting policy whereby the
loss allowance is equal to the lifetime expected credit losses.
Example 17.17: Credit risk

On 1 January 20.20, Excel Ltd bought R1 million 8% debentures at the fair value of
R924 184. The related transaction costs paid by Excel Ltd on the same date were R10 000.
The debentures mature at the nominal value on 31 December 20.24, and interest is paid
annually in arrears on 31 December. On 31 December 20.20, Excel Ltd estimated the 12-
month expected credit losses at R5 000 and the lifetime expected credit losses at R12 000.
Excel Ltd assessed the credit risk at 31 December 20.20 and determined that the credit risk
of the debentures did not increase significantly since initial recognition. Excel Ltd classified
the debentures as subsequently measured at amortised cost.
Example 17.17: Credit risk (continued)

Financial calculator: PV = – (924 184 + 10 000); FV = 1 000 000; n = 5;
PMT = 80 000 (8% × 1 000 000)
Compute i = 9,724%
Subsequent measurement at amortised cost on 31 December 20.20 (year-end):
Amortised cost = R945 024 (R934 184 cost + R90 840 effective interest – R80 000
coupon interest)
The 20.20 journal entries to account for the investment in debentures and the expected
credit losses are as follows:
Dr Cr
1 January 20.20 R R
Investment in debentures (SFP) 934 184
Bank (SFP) (price paid) 924 184
Purchase of debentures and transaction costs paid
31 December 20.20
Bank (SFP) 80 000
Investment in debentures (SFP) (balancing) 10 840
Expected credit loss (P/L) 5 000
Loss allowance on debentures (SFP) 5 000
Recognition of 12-month expected credit losses on debentures
Comment:
¾ If Excel Ltd classified the investment in debentures as subsequently measured at fair
value through other comprehensive income, the loss allowance account is recognised
and presented in equity through other comprehensive income and not in the statement
of financial position.
5.6.4 Loss allowance account

An impairment loss or impairment gain is recognised in profit or loss for the amount of the
expected credit loss (a movement) required to adjust the loss allowance on reporting date
to the amount that should be recognised.
The loss allowance account on financial assets classified as subsequently measured at
amortised cost, contract assets and lease receivables is recognised in the statement
of financial position. The carrying amount of these financial assets is presented in the
statement of financial position net of the loss allowance.
If the investment in a debt instrument is classified as subsequently measured at fair
value through other comprehensive income, the loss allowance account is presented
in equity through other comprehensive income as an “expected credit loss reserve”. This
reserve is reclassified to profit or loss on the derecognition of the financial asset. The loss
allowance therefore does not reduce the carrying amount of the financial assets in the
Interest income on the financial instrument at amortised cost or at fair value through
other comprehensive income is calculated by applying the effective interest rate to the gross
carrying amount of the financial asset, when the financial asset is not credit-impaired. If the
financial asset is credit-impaired, the interest income is calculated by applying the effective
interest rate to the financial asset’s amortised cost (gross carrying amount less loss
allowance). A financial asset is credit-impaired when one or more events have occurred that
have a detrimental impact on the estimated future cash flows of the financial asset.
5.7 Summary
The accounting treatment of financial assets and financial liabilities may be
summarised as follows:
Category of financial Initial Subsequent Gains and losses on
instrument measurement measurement remeasurement
Financial assets at fair At fair value, but Fair value Recognise in profit or loss
value through profit or excluding
loss transaction costs
Financial assets at fair At fair value + Fair value Recognise in other
value through other transaction costs comprehensive income
(equity instruments)
Financial assets at fair At fair value + Fair value Recognise in other
value through other transaction costs comprehensive income
(debt instruments)
Financial assets at At fair value + Amortised cost Not applicable
amortised cost transaction costs
Financial liabilities at At fair value – Amortised cost Not applicable
amortised cost transaction costs
Financial liabilities at At fair value, but Fair value Recognise in profit or loss
fair value through excluding When designated into this
profit or loss transaction costs category:
Fair value changes due to
own credit risk recognised in
other comprehensive income
Other changes recognised in
profit or loss
6 Derecognition of financial instruments

6.1 Derecognition of a financial asset
In contrast with recognition, derecognition refers to the removal of an asset from the
Due to the complexity of transactions related to financial assets, it is not always clear
when a financial asset should be derecognised. An entity must derecognise a financial asset
only when:
the contractual rights to the cash flows from the financial asset expire; or
the financial asset is transferred and the transfer qualifies for derecognition.
Transfers of financial instruments fall outside the scope of this chapter.
Contractual rights to cash flows normally expire when an asset such as a share
investment is sold or a financial asset at amortised cost matures (is redeemed). For those
financial assets classified as subsequently measured at amortised cost, a gain or loss is
recognised in profit or loss when the financial asset is derecognised.
Example 17.18: Derecognition of a financial asset

Receivables with a carrying amount of R100 000 (measured at date of sale) are sold for
R90 000 and are derecognised since the right to cash flow has expired. In this case, a loss
of R10 000 will be recognised in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss
When a financial asset that is classified as subsequently measured at fair value through
profit or loss is derecognised, one approach is to first restate the carrying amount to its fair
value on date of derecognition with a resultant fair value adjustment recognised in profit or
loss. As a result there will be no additional profit or loss on derecognition, provided that the
asset was sold at fair value. Any transaction costs relating to the sales transaction will be
recognised as an expense in profit or loss. Another approach that can be followed is to
derecognise the carrying amount of the financial asset at the date of disposal (before
restating the asset to fair value at this date) and to recognise the difference between the
proceeds and this carrying amount as a gain or loss in profit or loss.
When a financial asset that is classified as subsequently measured at fair value through
other comprehensive income is derecognised, the carrying amount will first have to be
restated to its fair value on date of derecognition with a resultant fair value adjustment
recognised in other comprehensive income. As a result there will be no profit or loss on
derecognition recognised in profit or loss, provided that the asset was sold at fair value. Any
transaction costs relating to the sales transaction will be recognised as an expense in profit
or loss.
6.2 Derecognition of a financial liability

A financial liability (or portion thereof) is removed from the statement of financial position if,
and only if, it is extinguished, i.e. when the obligation specified in the contract is settled,
cancelled or expires.
The difference between the carrying amount of a financial liability (or part of a financial
liability) that is extinguished or transferred to another party and the amount paid for the
liability, is included in profit or loss for the year.
The liability is extinguished if:
the entity settles the liability by paying the creditor, generally with cash, other financial
assets, goods or services;
the entity is discharged legally of the primary responsibility for the obligation (or part
thereof) by the creditor or via legal process;
an exchange takes place between an existing lender and the provider of the debt
instruments with substantially different conditions that leads to the extinguishment of
the old debt (derecognition) and the recognition of a new debt instrument; and
a change to the conditions of an existing debt instrument (regardless of whether it can
be attributed to the financial problems of the debtor or not) is effected that would lead
to the extinguishment of the old debt (derecognition).
Example 17.19: Derecognition of a financial liability

Apple Ltd owes Berry Ltd R200 000 (carrying amount according to amortised cost) in terms
of a long-term loan. Berry Ltd would like to obtain an investment that is held by Apple Ltd
(classified as at fair value through profit or loss with a fair value of R185 000) and is
prepared to accept this item, as full settlement for the debt. The journal entry to effect this
in the books of Apple Ltd is as follows:
Dr Cr
R R
Long-term loan (SFP) 200 000
Investment at fair value through profit or loss (SFP) 185 000
Profit on settlement of long-term loan (P/L) 15 000
Settlement of long-term loan by way of an investment taken over
7 Presentation
IAS 32 deals mainly with presentation (how the items should be presented on the face of
the financial statements) of financial instruments. IFRS 7 deals with disclosures in respect of
financial instruments.
IAS 32 includes requirements for the presentation of financial instruments and deals with
the following:
the classification of financial instruments between assets, liabilities and equity;
the classification of related interest, dividends, losses and gains driven by their
statement of financial position classification; and
circumstances in which financial assets and financial liabilities should be offset.
7.1 Liabilities and equity

IAS 32.15 determines that the issuer of a financial instrument should at initial
recognition classify the instrument, or its component parts, as either a financial liability or
as equity in accordance with the substance of the contractual arrangement at initial
recognition, utilising the definitions of a financial liability and an equity instrument.
The critical feature in the case of a financial liability is that the issuer does not have
an unconditional right to avoid delivering cash or another financial asset to settle an
obligation.
The substance, rather than the legal form, thus governs the classification of a financial
instrument. This stipulation has the effect that some items that at face value would appear
to be equity on the face of the statement of financial position, would actually constitute
debt. This influences ratio analysis and especially ratios related to solvency and is therefore
extremely important.
7.1.1 The classification of preference shares

One of the instances where the classification of instruments by the issuer between liabilities
and equity frequently comes to the fore is with preference shares.
The crux of the matter is that two separate cash flow streams are evident when dealing
with preference shares, namely:
the preference dividends; and
the capital amount of preference shares.
These cash flow streams should be considered separately when determining whether
preference share capital should be classified as a liability or equity. It is even possible that
preference share capital can be viewed as a compound instrument (i.e. an instrument with
both an equity and a liability component).
The following table, compiled from the perspective of the issuer, summarises the matter
broadly:
Preference dividend
Capital amount of Classification as liability
payments by the
preference shares or equity
issuer
Non-redeemable Discretionary Equity instrument
Non-redeemable Compulsory Financial liability (perpetual
debt instrument)*
Compulsory redemption Discretionary Compound instrument
Compulsory redemption Compulsory Financial liability
Convertible at the option of holder Discretionary Compound instrument
Convertible at the option of holder Compulsory Compound instrument
Convertible at the option of issuer Discretionary Equity instrument
Convertible at the option of issuer Compulsory Compound instrument
*A perpetual debt instrument gives the holder of the instrument a contractual right to payments on
fixed dates for an indefinite period, with no right to receive repayment of the capital amount.
Example 17.20: Preference shares

Moon Ltd issued 1 000 compulsory redeemable preference shares at a nominal value of R1
per preference share on 1 January 20.21. The fixed preference dividend amounts to R0,08
per share per annum. The preference dividend is compulsory and is payable annually on
31 December. The redemption of the preference shares will take place on
31 December 20.23 at R1,20 per share.
The two cash flow streams related to preference shares (i.e. the payment of preference
dividends and the payment of the redemption amount) are considered separately for
classification purposes.
In terms of the redemption amount, Moon Ltd has a contractual obligation to deliver cash of
R1 200 (1 000 × R1,20) to the holder of the preference shares on 31 December 20.23
because the preference shares have a compulsory redemption feature. The redemption
amount is therefore a financial liability as defined in IAS 32.
In terms of the preference dividend, Moon Ltd has a contractual obligation to deliver cash of
R80 (1 000 × R0,08) in the form of preference dividends to the holder of the preference
shares annually on 31 December. The preference dividends are therefore a financial liability
as defined in IAS 32.
Based on the separate classification of the two cash flow streams of the preference shares,
the preference shares as a whole are classified as a financial liability.
7.2 Interest, dividends, losses and gains, and transaction costs

7.2.1 Interest, dividends, losses and gains
Note that the statement of financial position classification of the financial instrument would
determine whether interest, dividends, losses and gains that are related to the financial
instrument would be included in profit or loss as income or expenses or credited or charged
directly to equity.
These items should be accounted for in profit or loss as expenses or income if they relate
to a financial liability. Distributions to holders of a financial instrument classified as an
equity instrument should be debited directly to equity by the issuer.
Preference dividends relating to preference shares classified as liabilities in terms of
IAS 32 would thus be classified as expenses in the same way as interest payments on a
loan. A further implication of this classification is that such dividends would need to be
accrued over time by using the effective interest method, in the same manner as interest.
Gains and losses on derecognition of instruments classified as liabilities are accounted for
in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
Example 17.21: Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income

classification follows statement of financial position classification
Messy Ltd issued 2 000 000 mandatorily redeemable preference shares at R2 000 000
bearing a compulsory dividend of R0,08 per share per annum. This would give rise to
preference dividends of R160 000 per annum from a purely legal perspective.
Applying substance over form to these preference shares in terms of IAS 32 would result in
the preference shares being classified as a financial liability of R2 000 000. Consequently,
the annual dividend of R160 000 would be shown as finance cost in profit or loss.
Since this preference dividend represents interest from an accounting perspective, it would
now accrue on a daily basis, like any other interest expense.
7.2.2 Transaction costs on equity instruments

The transaction costs that relate to an equity transaction shall be accounted for as a
deduction from equity, to the extent that they are incremental costs directly attributable to
the equity transaction that would otherwise have been avoided. These costs may include
registration and other regulatory fees, amounts paid to legal, accounting and other
professional advisers, printing costs and stamp duties.
The amount incurred in respect of transaction costs related to equity transactions (net of
any associated taxation) is presented separately in terms of IAS 1 as a deduction in the
statement of changes in equity.
7.3 Offsetting of a financial asset against a financial liability

IAS 32.42 states that a financial asset and a financial liability should only be offset and the
net amount presented in the statement of financial position when an entity:
currently has a legally enforceable right to set off the recognised amounts; and
intends to settle on a net basis, or to realise the asset and settle the liability
simultaneously.
If the conditions mentioned above are met, the value of the liability would be deducted
from the value of the asset, and only the net asset/liability would be presented in the
statement of financial position. This is appropriate, as only a single financial asset or
financial liability exists in substance. Such presentation would more appropriately reflect the
amounts and timing of the expected future cash flows, as well as the risks to which those
cash flows are exposed.
A legal opinion represents evidence of a legally enforceable right of set off. Generally, it
would be necessary to obtain a legal opinion only in the first reporting period in which the
net settlement is used. Such a legal opinion would address whether the right of set off
would be upheld in the event of bankruptcy.
8 Further examples
8.1 Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss
Shares held for speculative purposes (held for trading) fall into the category at fair value
through profit or loss and must therefore be carried at fair value at year-end (subsequent
measurement).
Any fair value adjustment, increase or decrease, is recognised in the profit or loss section
of the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
Example 17.22: At fair value through profit or loss (held for trading)
On 30 June 20.20, Invest Ltd acquired a non-controlling interest of 10 000 ordinary shares
in Spec Ltd at the fair value of R2,50 per share. Invest Ltd incurred transaction costs of
R300 with the purchase of the shares on 30 June 20.20. Invest Ltd acquired the shares in
Spec Ltd with the main purpose of making profits from short-term fluctuations in prices.
Both Invest Ltd and Spec Ltd are listed on the JSE Ltd and both have a financial period
ending on 31 December.
The following were the closing prices of one ordinary share in Spec Ltd:
on 31 December 20.20, R2,58 per share; and
on 31 December 20.21, R2,62 per share.
On 31 December 20.20, Spec Ltd declared and paid a dividend of R0,05 per share to
shareholders.
On 31 March 20.21, Invest Ltd sold its shares in Spec Ltd at R2,65 per share (which is also
the fair value).
Notes:
N1 The investment in the shares of Spec Ltd is held for trading and should be classified as
subsequently measured at fair value through profit or loss. Initial recognition of a financial
asset measured at fair value through profit or loss is at fair value, and transaction costs are
expensed.
N2 Subsequent measurement (at each year-end) is at fair value. Any fair value adjustments
are recognised in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other
N3 On derecognition of a financial asset, the difference between the carrying amount
(measured at the date of derecognition) and the consideration received shall be recognised
in profit or loss. The implication of using the carrying amount measured at the date of
derecognition is that the carrying amount must first be restated to fair value before
derecognising the asset. Should the asset then not be sold at fair value, it will result in a
profit or loss on sale. In this example the shares were sold at fair value, with no resultant
profit or loss on sale.
N4 Dividends received on the investment in Spec Ltd’s shares are recognised in profit or loss..
General journal entries of Invest Ltd
Dr Cr
R R
30 June 20.20
Investment in Spec Ltd (SFP) (N1) 25 000
Bank (SFP) 25 000
Purchase 10 000 shares at R2,50 each
Transaction costs (P/L) (N1) 300
Bank (SFP) 300
Expense transaction costs incurred
31 December 20.20
Investment in Spec Ltd (SFP) (N2) 800
Fair value gain on equity investment (P/L) 800
Subsequent measurement at R2,58 per share
[(10 000 × 2,58) – 25 000]
Example 17.22: At fair value through profit or loss (held for trading) (continued)
Dr Cr
R R
Bank (SFP) 500
Dividend income (P/L) (N4) 500
Dividend received on investment in shares (10 000 × 0,05)
31 March 20.21
Investment in Spec Ltd (SFP) (N3) 700
Fair value gain on equity investment (P/L) 700
Subsequent measurement at fair value on date of derecognition
[(10 000 × 2,65) – 25 800]
Bank (SFP) (10 000 × 2,65) 26 500
Investment in Spec Ltd (SFP) 26 500
Derecognise investment on sale
Invest Ltd
Note 20.21 20.20
R R
Assets
Current assets
Financial assets – 25 800
Financial assets at fair value
through profit or loss 3 – 25 800
Invest Ltd
3. Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss
20.21 20.20
R R
Current financial assets
Listed
10 000 ordinary shares in Spec Ltd at fair value
(mandatorily as at fair value through profit or
loss) – 25 800
Invest Ltd acquired these equity instruments in Spec Ltd for speculative purposes. Since
these investments are actively managed on a fair value basis in profit or loss, the
classification of the investment as measured at fair value through profit or loss is
appropriate. On 31 March 20.21, Invest Ltd disposed of the investment in listed shares in
Spec Ltd at a total fair value of R26 500.
Profit before tax is after the following has been taken into account:
20.2 20.2
1 0
R R
Income
Listed – Dividend income
On investment mandatorily as at fair value
through profit or loss – 500
Fair value adjustments on investment
mandatorily as at fair value through profit or
loss 700 800
8.2 Financial assets and financial liabilities at amortised cost

Debentures will be used as an example of this category. In the case of debentures, this
category of financial asset and financial liability are two sides of the same coin. On the one
side, we have the issuer of the debenture (liability), and on the other, the investor in the
debenture (asset). A debenture is also a method the entity can use to obtain financing.
Before we look at a detailed example of this category, it is first necessary to discuss
debentures. A debenture has a nominal value, an issue price and a redemption or
settlement price. Debentures have a coupon/nominal interest rate, which represents the
annual interest rate and therefore the interest that is paid in cash from the issuer of the
debenture to the investor in the debenture. The interest can be payable monthly, quarterly,
annually or on any other basis. The debenture has a maturity date and on that date the
investor will receive the redemption/settlement amount.
Example 17.23: Debenture

An entity acquired one 10% R1 000 debenture. The nominal value is R1 000. The
coupon/nominal rate is 10%. The interest that will actually be paid annually by the issuer
(coupon interest) is R100 “nominal rate × nominal value” (10% × R1 000). This interest can
be paid annually or on any other basis.
The issue price is the amount that the issuer receives at the issue of the debenture and thus
the amount the investor pays for the debenture. The redemption/settlement price is the
amount that the issuer will pay and the amount the investor will receive on settlement date.
The issue and settlement amounts can be
equal to the nominal value (thus at par);
greater than the nominal value (thus at a premium); or
less than the nominal value (thus at a discount).
The reason for this is that there is a fixed interest rate linked to the debenture. Investors
compare this rate to the rates of returns on other investment opportunities in the open
market. The issue and settlement prices have to be of such a nature that potential investors
are convinced to take up the debenture, instead of investing in another investment.
These premiums and discounts therefore arise because of a difference in interest rates
and are thus seen as an integral part of the interest income/expense. The accounting for
these premiums and discounts over the term of the investment (in contrast to once-off on
maturity date) results in measurement being done at amortised cost. Amortised cost is
when the fair value (present value (PV)) of the debenture is adjusted higher or lower over
the term to reach the settlement amount (future value (FV)). The adjustment to the
debenture account (asset in the records of the investor, liability in the records of the issuer)
is calculated as the difference between the interest recognised in the profit or loss section of
the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income and the actual cash flow of
interest. The interest recognised in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income is at the effective interest rate (based on a market-
related rate for a similar item) whilst the cash flow takes place at the nominal rate.
The amortised cost is calculated using the effective interest method. This method uses
the effective interest rate to discount future cash flows expected from the debenture to
their present value. This present value represents the fair value on initial recognition. If this
fair value is not equal to the issue price, a day one fair value adjustment arises, that will
usually be recognised in the profit or loss section of the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income. Transaction costs are also taken into account on initial recognition.
Entry for transaction costs:

Dr Financial asset at amortised cost (SFP)/Financial liability at amortised cost (SFP)
(depending on who pays these costs)
Cr Bank (SFP)
Since the transaction costs are taken into account on initial recognition, the present value
(PV) of the item changes and a new effective interest rate must be calculated, because the
effective interest rate is the rate that discounts the future cash flows (which have not
changed due to the transaction costs) to the present value (which has changed).
The debenture can be repaid once-off at the end of the debenture term, or through
instalments over the term of the debenture.
Example 17.24: Financial asset and financial liability at amortised cost

On 1 January 20.20, Invest Ltd purchased two 12% R5 000 debentures from SB Ltd, a
company listed on the JSE Ltd, at their fair value (N4). The debentures mature at 108% of
the nominal value in two equal annual instalments payable on 31 December 20.21 and
31 December 20.22. Interest is payable annually on 31 December. The market-related
interest rate on similar debentures with the same terms as these debentures is 15% per
annum. Invest Ltd has a 31 December year-end. Assume that transaction costs of R100 in
total were paid by Invest Ltd in respect of the purchase of the debentures on
1 January 20.20. The objective of Invest Ltd’s business model is to hold the debentures in
order to collect contractual cash flows. The contractual terms of the debentures give rise on
specified dates to cash flows that are solely payments of principal and interest on the
principal amount outstanding. SB Ltd did not designate, for classification purposes, the
debentures as measured at fair value through profit or loss. Assume that credit losses
(impairment losses) on the debentures were not expected at any stage.
Notes:
N1 The debentures can be issued (and therefore purchased by the investor) at the nominal
value of R10 000 (R5 000 × 2) in total or at a premium (more than the R10 000) or at a
discount (less than the R10 000). In this case they are issued at R9 979 (refer to step 2
below) which represents a discount.
N2 The debentures can mature at the nominal value of R10 000 in total or at a premium
(more than the R10 000) or at a discount (less than the R10 000). In this case they mature
at 108%, which means they mature at a premium and the value amounts to R10 800
(R5 000 × 2 × 108%).
N3 Debentures can mature once-off or in instalments. If the debenture matures in
instalments, it is proposed that the CF (“cash flow”) function on the calculator is used. The
interest payable will differ over the term of the debenture.
N4 If the purchase price (fair value) is not given, the fair value has to be calculated. Initial
recognition is at fair value and transaction costs are capitalised.
N5 The interest cash flows (coupon interest) amounts to R1 200 per annum (nominal value
(R5 000 × 2) × nominal rate (12%)).
Invest Ltd
Step 1: Determine the future cash flows.
Cash flow
Date of cash flow R
01.01.20.20 (Fair value (see step 2)) + 100 transaction costs (?)
31.12.20.20 (R10 000 × 12%) 1 200
31.12.20.21 (R10 000 × 12%) 1 200
(R10 000/2) × 108% (N2) 5 400
31.12.20.22 (R10 000/2 × 12%) (interest on remaining nominal value) 600
(R10 000/2) × 108% (N2) 5 400
Example 17.24: Financial asset and financial liability at amortised cost (continued)
Step 2: Use a market-related interest rate to discount the future cash flows back to a
present value (“PV”) – this represents fair value at initial recognition.
CFj 0
CFj 1 200
CFj 1 200 + 5 400 = 6 600
CFj 600 + 5 400 = 6 000
I/YR 15%
NPV = ? = 9 979 (N N1)
Step 3: Initial recognition of the debenture (J1).
Dr Cr
R R
1 January 20.20
(J1) Investment in debentures (SFP) 9 979
Bank (SFP) 9 979
Debentures recognised at fair value on initial recognition
(J2) Investment in debentures (SFP) 100
Bank (SFP) 100
Transaction costs paid and capitalised
Step 4: Capitalise transaction costs (J2). Calculate a new discount rate, since the current
value (“PV”) has changed (it now includes transaction costs).
CFj 9 979 + 100 = –10 079
CFj 1 200
CFj 6 600
CFj 6 000
IRR = ? = 14,50% per annum (rounded)
Step 5: Account for each interest payment and each settlement payment. The interest
comprehensive income is the balance on the debenture account × market-related rate
(taking transaction costs into account).
Dr Cr
R R
31 December 20.20
Bank (SFP) (R5 000 × 2 × 12%) 1 200
Investment in debentures (SFP) (balancing) 261
Interest income (P/L) [(9 979 + 100) balance × 14,50%] 1 461
Recognise interest and amortisation adjustment
Gross carrying amount 31.12.20.20
9 979 + 100 + 261 = 10 340
31 December 20.21
Bank (SFP) (R5 000 × 2 × 12%) 1 200
Interest income (P/L) (10 340 × 14,50%) (rounded up) 1 500
Bank (SFP) (2 × R5 000/2 instalments × 108%) 5 400
Portion of investment matures
Dr Cr
R R
10 340 + 300 – 5 400 = 5 240
Movement in 20.21 = 10 340 – 5 240 = 5 100
31 December 20.22
Bank (SFP) (remaining nominal value × nominal rate)
[(2 × R5 000/2 instalments) × 12%] 600
Investment in debentures (SFP) 160
Interest income (P/L) (5 240 × 14,50%) 760
Remaining investment matures
5 240 + 160 – 5 400 = 0
Step 6: Presentation and disclosure
Invest Ltd
Note 20.22 20.21 20.20
R R R
Assets
Non-current assets
Financial assets – – 5 240
Financial asset measured at amortised cost 3 – – 5 240
Current assets
Short-term portion of financial asset measured
at amortised cost 3 – 5 240 5 100
Invest Ltd
Note 20.22 20.21 20.20
R R R
Finance income* 4 760 1 500 1 461
Profit before tax XX XX XX
* In most instances, finance income will be presented as part of the line item “Other
income” and will not be presented separately on the face of the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income.
Invest Ltd
3. Financial asset measured at amortised cost
20.22 20.21 20.20
R R R
Listed
2 12% R5 000 debentures in SB Ltd – at – 5 240 10 340
amortised cost
Portion that matures within the next 12 months
transferred to current financial assets – (5 240) (5 100)
(balancing)– financial asset measured at
amortised cost
Non-current financial asset at amortised cost – – 5 240
The debentures mature in two equal annual instalments of R5 400 each at a premium of 8%
on 31 December 20.21 and 31 December 20.22. The debentures are classified as financial
assets subsequently measured at amortised cost.
4. Net finance cost
20.22 20.21 20.20
R R R
Finance cost (XX) (XX) (XX)
Finance income
– financial asset measured at amortised cost 760 1 500 1 461
Net finance cost (XX) (XX) (XX)
SB Ltd
Assume all the same information, except that the R100 transaction costs were paid by
SB Ltd.
Step 1: Determine the future cash flows.
Cash flow
Date of cash flow R
01.01.20.20 (Fair value (see step 2)) – 100 transaction costs (9 879)
31.12.20.20 (R10 000 × 12%) 1 200
31.12.20.21 (R10 000 × 12%) 1 200
(R10 000/2) × 108% 5 400
31.12.20.22 (R10 000/2 × 12%) (interest on remaining nominal value) 600
(R10 000/2) × 108% 5 400
Step 2: Use a market-related interest rate and discount the future cash flows back to a
present value (“PV”) – this represents the fair value at initial recognition.
CFj 0
CFj 1 200
CFj 1 200 + 5 400 = 6 600
CFj 600 + 5 400 = 6 600
I/YR 15%
NPV = ? = 9 979
Dr Cr
R R
1 January 20.20
(J1) Bank (SFP) 9 979
Debenture liability (SFP) 9 979
Initial recognition of debentures issued at fair value
(J2) Debenture liability (SFP) 100
Bank (SFP) 100
Transaction costs of R100 paid with the issue of the
debentures
Step 4: Capitalise transaction costs (J2). Calculate a new discount rate, since the current
value (“PV”) has changed (due to the transaction costs).
CFj 9 979 – 100 = 9 879
CFj – 1 200
CFj – 6 600
CFj – 6 000
IRR = ? = 15,5076% per annum
Step 5: Account for each interest payment and each settlement payment. The interest
comprehensive income is the balance on the debenture account × market-related rate
(taking transaction costs into account).
Dr Cr
R R
31 December 20.20
Finance cost (P/L) [(9 979 – 100) × 15,5076%] 1 532
Debenture liability (SFP) (balancing) 332
Bank (SFP) 1 200
Amortised cost 31.12.20.20
9 979 – 100 + 332 = 10 211
31 December 20.21
Finance cost (P/L) (10 211 × 15,5076%) 1 583
Debenture liability (SFP) 383
Bank (SFP) 1 200
Bank (SFP) 5 400
Portion of financial liability settled
Dr Cr
R R
10 211 + 383 – 5 400 = 5 194
Movement in 20.21 = 10 211 – 5 194 = 5 017
31 December 20.22
Finance cost (P/L) (5 194 × 15,5076%) (rounded up) 806
Debenture liability (SFP) 206
Bank (SFP) 600
Bank (SFP) 5 400
Remaining financial liability settled
5 194 + 206 – 5 400 = 0
SB Ltd
Note 20.22 20.21 20.20
R R R
Non-current liabilities – – 5 194
Financial liability measured at amortised cost 3 – – 5 194
Current liabilities
Short-term portion of financial liability
measured at amortised cost 3 – 5 194 5 017
SB Ltd
Note 20.22 20.21 20.20
R R R
Finance costs 4 (806) (1 583) (1 532)
Profit before tax XX XX XX
SB Ltd
3. Financial liabilities measured at amortised cost
20.22 20.21 20.20
R R R
Insured/uninsured
2 12% R5 000 debentures measured at amortised cost – 5 194 10 211
Amount payable within the next 12 months transferred to
current financial liabilities (balancing) – (5 194) (5 017)
Non-current financial liabilities at amortised cost – – 5 194
4. Net finance cost
20.22 20.21 20.20
R R R
Finance cost
– Financial liability measured at amortised cost (806) (1 583) (1 532)
Finance income XX XX XX
8.3 Financial assets at fair value through other comprehensive income

8.3.1 Investment in debt instruments
Investments in debt instruments (with the necessary cash flow characteristics) that are held
within a business model to collect contractual cash flows and to sell the investments are
classified as a financial asset subsequently measured at fair value through other
comprehensive income. The initial measurement of the investment is at fair value.
Transaction costs are capitalised to the investment. Subsequent measurement is at fair value
and any change in the fair value is recognised in the mark-to-market reserve on debt
instruments in equity via other comprehensive income in the statement of profit or loss and
other comprehensive income. This reserve will have a separate column in the statement of
changes in equity and may have a debit balance (increases and decreases are recognised in
the reserve).
Any balance in the mark-to-market reserve on the debt instrument is reclassified
(realised) from other comprehensive income to profit or loss on derecognition (sale or
disposal).
Example 17.25: Financial asset at fair value through other comprehensive income
(debt instrument)
On 1 January 20.20, Invest Ltd purchased two 12% R5 000 debentures from SB Ltd, a
company listed on the JSE Ltd, at their fair value of R9 979 [N1]. The debentures mature at
108% of the nominal value in two equal annual instalments payable on 31 December 20.21
and 31 December 20.22. Interest is payable annually on 31 December. Invest Ltd has a
31 December year-end. Assume that transaction costs of R100 in total were paid by Invest
Ltd in respect of the purchase of the debentures on 1 January 20.20. The objective of Invest
Ltd’s business model is to hold the debentures in order to collect contractual cash flows
(principal amount and interest on the outstanding principal) and to sell the debentures. The
fair value of the debentures was as follows:
31 December 20.20: R5 200 per debenture; and
31 December 20.21: R5 500 per debenture.
On 1 January 20.22, Invest Ltd disposed of the investment in debenture at its fair value of
R5 500.
Invest Ltd’s profit for the year, after any adjustments relating to the investment in
debentures, was as follows:
for the year ended 31 December 20.20, R30 000;
for the year ended 31 December 20.21, R40 000; and
for the year ended 31 December 20.22, R35 000.
(debt instrument) (continued)
Notes:
N1 Initial recognition is at fair value and transaction costs are capitalised. The fair value
was given and therefore a fair value calculation is not required.
N2 The debentures are classified as subsequently measured at fair value through other
comprehensive income. The debentures are measured at fair value at year-end. Any fair
value adjustment is recognised in equity via other comprehensive income in the statement
of profit or loss and other comprehensive income. A separate column has to be presented in
the statement of changes in equity for the mark-to-market reserve on debt instruments.
N3 The interest recognised in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive
income is the same amount that would have been recognised if the debentures were
measured at amortised cost (gross carrying amount of debentures × effective interest rate).
N4 The interest that represents cash flows (coupon interest) is calculated by multiplying the
nominal value with the nominal rate.
N5 At derecognition of the financial asset, its carrying amount is firstly restated to the fair
value on the date of sale (1 January 20.22). In this example the debentures are sold at the fair
value determined on 31 December 20.21. Therefore there will be no fair value gain in 20.22.
The cumulative fair value adjustments previously recognised in the mark-to-market reserve are
reclassified to profit or loss on derecognition.
Invest Ltd
Dr Cr
R R
1 January 20.20
(J1) Investment in debentures (SFP) (N1) 9 979
Bank (SFP) 9 979
Debentures recognised at fair value on initial recognition
(J2) Investment in debentures (SFP) 100
Bank (SFP) 100
Transaction costs paid and capitalised
Step 2: Capitalise transaction costs (J2). Calculate a new discount rate, since the current value
(“PV”) has changed (it now includes transaction costs).
CFj 9 979 + 100 = – 10 079
CFj 1 200 (5 000 × 2 × 12%)
CFj 6 600 [(5 000 × 2 × 12%) + ([5 000 × 2]/2 × 108%)]
CFj 6 000 [(5 000 × 12%) + (5 000 × 108%)]
IRR = ? = 14,50% per annum (rounded)
Step 3: Account for each interest payment (as if the debentures were measured at
amortised cost), fair value adjustment at year-end and the settlement payment.
Dr Cr
R R
31 December 20.20
Bank (SFP) (R5 000 × 2 × 12%) (N4) 1 200
Interest income (P/L) [(9 979 + 100) balance × 14,50%] (N3) 1 461
Investment in debentures (SFP) ((5 200 × 2) – (10 079 + 261)) 60
Mark-to-market reserve on debt instruments (OCI) (N2) 60
Remeasure debentures to fair value at year-end
31 December 20.21
Bank (SFP) (R5 000 × 2 × 12%) (N4) 1 200
Interest income (P/L) ((9 979 + 100 + 261) × 14,50%) ( N3) 1 500
(rounded up)
Portion of investment matures
Investment in debentures (SFP) [(5 500 fair value at the end of 20.21 200
– (10 400 fair value at beginning of 20.21 + 300 difference in interest
20.21 – 5 400 redemption)]
Mark-to-market reserve on debt instruments (OCI) (N2) 200
Remeasure debentures to fair value at year-end
Step 4: Account for derecognition of investment in debenture and reclassification of mark-to-
market reserve to profit or loss
1 January 20.22
Bank (SFP) 5 500
Disposal of debentures at fair value
Mark-to-market reserve on debt instruments (OCI) (60 + 200) 260
Gain on disposal of investment in debentures (P/L) (N5) 260
Reclassification of other comprehensive income to profit or loss
Invest Ltd
Extract of the statement of financial position as at 31 December 20.22
Note 20.22 20.21 20.20
R R R
Assets
Financial assets# -- 5 500 10 400
Financial assets at fair value through other
comprehensive income 3 -- 5 500 10 400
Equity
Retained earnings 105 000 70 000 30 000
Mark-to-market reserve on debt instruments -- 260 60
# The classification of this financial asset between current and non-current will depend on
whether the entity expects to realise the asset within twelve months after the reporting
period – sufficient information was not provided to determine management’s intention in
each year.
Invest Ltd
Extract of the statement of changes in equity for the year ended 31 December 20.22
Mark-to- Retained
market earnings
reserve on
debt R
instruments
R
Balance at 31 December 20.19 (assume to be zero) – –
Total comprehensive income for the year
– Profit for the year – 30 000
– Other comprehensive income for the year 60 –
– Other comprehensive income for the year (260) –
Balance at 31 December 20.22 – 105 000
Invest Ltd
Notes 20.22 20.21 20.20
R R R
Other income 260 – –
Finance income* 4 – 1 500 1 461
Profit for the year 35 000 40 000 30 000
Items that will be reclassified to profit or loss:
Mark-to-market reserve on debt instruments (260) 200 60
Total comprehensive income for the year 34 740 40 200 30 060
* In most instances, finance income will be presented as part of the line item “Other
income” and will not be presented separately on the face of the statement of profit or loss
Invest Ltd
3. Financial assets at fair value through other comprehensive income
20.22 20.21 20.20
R R R
Listed
2 12% R5 000 debentures measured at fair value
through other comprehensive income (mandatory) – 5 500 10 400
– 5 500 10 400
The debentures mature in two equal annual instalments of R5 400 each at a premium of 8%
on 31 December 20.21 and 31 December 20.22. The debentures are classified as financial
assets subsequently measured at fair value through other comprehensive income.
4. Net finance cost
20.22 20.21 20.20
R R R
Finance cost (XX) (XX) (XX)
Finance income
– Financial assets measured at fair value through other
comprehensive income – 1 500 1 461
8.3.2 Investment in equity instrument

Investments in equity instruments that are not held for trading may be designated as
subsequently measured at fair value through other comprehensive income. Fair value
adjustments are recognised in other comprehensive income in the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income and accumulate in the mark-to-market reserve in
equity.
Any balance in the mark-to-market reserve will never be reclassified (realised) to profit or
loss. On sale or disposal of the financial asset classified as subsequently measured at fair
value through other comprehensive income any balance in the mark-to-market reserve may
be transferred to retained earnings. This is an accounting policy choice. This transfer will
take place directly in the statement of changes in equity.
(equity instrument)
On 30 June 20.20, Invest Ltd acquired a non-controlling interest of 10 000 ordinary shares
in BVV Ltd at the fair value of R2,50 per share. Invest Ltd incurred transaction costs of R500
with the purchase of the shares on 30 June 20.20. These shares are not held for
speculative purposes or designated at initial recognition as measured at fair value through
profit or loss. At initial recognition senior management of Invest Ltd elected irrevocably that
this investment should be classified as subsequently measured at fair value through other
comprehensive income. Both Invest Ltd and BVV Ltd are listed on the JSE Ltd and both have
a financial period ending on 31 December. Invest Ltd was incorporated on 1 January 20.20.
The following were the closing prices of one ordinary share in BVV Ltd:
on 31 December 20.20, R2,58 per share;
on 31 December 20.21, R2,62 per share, and
on 31 December 20.22, R2,60 per share.
Any decrease is not deemed to be a permanent impairment.
On 31 December 20.22, BVV Ltd declared and paid a dividend of R0,50 per share to
shareholders.
On 31 March 20.23, Invest Ltd sold its shares in BVV Ltd at R2,65 per share (which is also
the fair value).
Invest Ltd’s profit for the year, before any adjustments relating to the investment in BVV Ltd,
was as follows:
for the year ended 31 December 20.22, R35 000; and
for the year ended 31 December 20.23, R45 000.
Notes:
N1 The investment in the shares of BVV Ltd is not held for trading, is not designated as
measured at fair value through profit or loss and management specifically elected for it to
be classified as subsequently measured at fair value through other comprehensive income.
Initial recognition of a financial asset at fair value through other comprehensive income is at
fair value, and transaction costs are capitalised.
N2 Subsequent measurement (at each year-end) is at fair value. Any fair value adjustments
are recognised in equity via other comprehensive income in the statement of profit or loss
and other comprehensive income. A separate column has to be presented in the statement
of changes in equity for the mark-to-market reserve on equity instruments.
N3 At derecognition of the financial asset its carrying amount is firstly restated to the fair
value on date of sale via other comprehensive income in the mark-to-market reserve on equity
instruments. In this example the shares are sold at fair value, therefore there will be no
resultant profit or loss on sale. Then the cumulative fair value adjustments previously
recognised in the mark-to-market reserve on equity instruments are transferred to retained
earnings directly in equity.
N4 Dividends received on the investment in BVV Ltd’s shares are recognised in profit or loss..
(equity instrument) (continued)
General journal entries of Invest Ltd
Dr Cr
R R
30 June 20.20
Investment in BVV Ltd (SFP) (N1) 25 000
Bank (SFP) 25 000
Purchase 10 000 shares at R2,50 each
Investment in BVV Ltd (SFP) (N1) 500
Bank (SFP) 500
Transaction costs capitalised to the investment
31 December 20.20
Mark-to-market reserve on equity instruments (OCI) 300
[(10 000 × 2,58) – (25 000 + 500)]
Balance is the fair value on 31.12.20.20 of 10 000 × 2,58 =
R25 800
31 December 20.21
Investment in BVV Ltd (SFP) 400
[(10 000 × 2,62) – 25 800]
Balance is the fair value on 31.12.20.21 of 10 000 × 2,62 =
R26 200
31 December 20.22
Investment in BVV Ltd (SFP) 200
[(10 000 × 2,60) – 26 200]
Bank (SFP) 5 000
Dividend income (P/L) 5 000
Dividend received on investment in shares (10 000 × 0,50)
Balance is the fair value on 31.12.20.22 of 10 000 × 2,60
= R26 000
31 March 20.23
Subsequent measurement at fair value on date of derecognition
[(10 000 × 2,65) – 26 000]
Bank (SFP) (10 000 × 2,65) 26 500
Investment in BVV Ltd (SFP) 26 500
Derecognise investment on sale
Mark-to-market reserve on equity instruments (SCE) (N3) 1 000
Retained earnings (SCE) (300 + 400 – 200 + 500) 1 000
Cumulative fair value adjustments on equity instruments
transferred to retained earnings
Invest Ltd
Note 20.23 20.22 20.21 20.20
R R R R
Assets
Non-current assets
Financial assets – 26 000 26 200 25 800
Financial assets at fair value
through other comprehensive
income 3 – 26 000 26 200 25 800
Equity
Retained earnings 151 000 105 000 70 000 30 000
Mark-to-market reserve on
equity instruments – 500 700 300
Invest Ltd
Mark-to- Retained
market earnings
reserve
R R
Balance at 31 December 20.19 – –
– Other comprehensive income for the year (200) –
Transfer of the mark-to-market reserve (N3) (1 000) 1 000
Balance at 31 December 20.23 – 151 000
Invest Ltd
Extract from the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the year
ended 31 December 20.23
Note 20.23 20.22 20.21 20.20
R R R R
Profit for the year 4 45 000 35 000 40 000 30 000

Items that will not be reclassified to profit
or loss:
Investment in equity instruments 500 (200) 400 300
Total comprehensive income for the year 45 500 34 800 40 400 30 300
Invest Ltd
3. Financial assets at fair value through other comprehensive income
20.23 20.22 20.21 20.20
R R R R
Listed
10 000 ordinary shares in BVV Ltd at fair value
(designated as at fair value through other
comprehensive income) – 26 000 26 200 25 800
Invest Ltd acquired these equity instruments in BVV Ltd for purpose of long-term capital
growth. As these investments are not actively managed on a fair value basis in profit or loss,
the classification of the investment as measured at fair value through other comprehensive
income is appropriate. On 31 March 20.23, Invest Ltd disposed of the investment in listed
shares in BVV Ltd at a total fair value of R26 500. The cumulative fair value gain on this
investment amounted to R1 000.
Profit before tax is after the following has been taken into account:
20.23 20.22 20.21 20.20
R R R R
Income
Dividend income
On investment designated as at fair value
through other comprehensive income – 5 000 – –
9 Disclosure
IFRS 7 requires disclosure regarding the following two main categories:
information to evaluate the significance of financial instruments for the financial position
and performance of the entity; and
information about the nature and extent of risks arising from financial instruments and
how these risks are managed.
9.1 Statement of financial position

9.1.1 Disclosures in respect of categories of financial assets and financial liabilities
The carrying amounts of each of the categories of financial assets (or liabilities) as identified
in IFRS 9 shall either be presented on the face of the statement of financial position
or disclosed in the notes. The categories are:
financial assets measured at fair value through profit or loss, showing separately:
– those mandatorily measured at fair value through profit or loss in terms of IFRS 9;
and
– those designated to this category at initial recognition;
financial assets measured at fair value through other comprehensive income, showing
separately:
– those mandatorily measured at fair value through other comprehensive income in
terms of IFRS 9; and
– those designated to this category at initial recognition;
financial assets measured at amortised cost;
financial liabilities measured at amortised cost; and
financial liabilities measured at fair value through profit or loss, showing separately:
– those that meet the definition of held for trading in terms of IFRS 9; and
– those designated to this category at initial recognition.
9.2 Disclosures in respect of income, expenses, gains or losses
An entity shall present the following items of income, expenses, gains or losses in the
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income, or disclose it in the notes:
Net gains or net losses on:
– financial assets and financial liabilities designated as measured at fair value through
profit or loss;
– financial assets and financial liabilities that are mandatorily classified as measured at
fair value through profit or loss;
– financial assets designated as at fair value through other comprehensive income;
– financial assets mandatorily classified as measured at fair value through other
comprehensive income;
– financial assets measured at amortised cost; and
– financial liabilities measured at amortised cost.
Total interest income and total interest expense on:
– financial assets or financial liabilities measured at amortised cost; and
– financial assets mandatorily classified as measured at fair value through other
9.3 Accounting policies
The following shall be disclosed:
a summary of significant accounting policies for all financial instruments.
9.4 Impairment and credit risk
IFRS 7 requires the following disclosure:
Information about the credit risk of financial instruments;
A reconciliation of the loss allowance account; and
A reconciliation of the opening to closing balance of the related carrying amounts of
financial instruments subject to impairment.
IAS 1 requires impairment losses on financial assets to be disclosed in a separate line item
in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
10 Short and sweet
The purpose of IAS 32, IFRS 7 and IFRS 9 is to prescribe the recognition,
measurement, presentation and disclosure criteria of financial instruments.
There are three categories of financial assets, namely:
– at fair value through profit or loss
• designated
• mandatorily classified as at fair value
– at fair value through other comprehensive income
• designated
• mandatorily classified as at fair value
– at amortised cost.
There are two categories of financial liabilities, namely:
– at fair value through profit or loss
• designated
• that meet the definition of held for trading
– at amortised cost.
Initial measurement is always at fair value, and transaction costs are taken into account,
except with the category “at fair value through profit or loss”.
Subsequent measurement depends on the category of the financial instrument and is either
at fair value or at amortised cost.
Derecognition refers to removing the financial instrument from the statement of financial
position.
18
Companies Act
Companies Act 2008 (Act 71 of 2008) as amended by the
Companies Amendment Act 2011 (Act 3 of 2011)
Contents
2 Overview ...................................................................................................... 495
3 Categories of companies ................................................................................ 496
3.1 Non-profit company ............................................................................. 496
3.2 Profit company .................................................................................... 497
4 Financial reporting of companies and other general information ........................ 497
5 Disclosure of remuneration ............................................................................ 499
5.1 Definitions........................................................................................... 499
5.2 Disclosure requirements ....................................................................... 500
Define and identify the different categories of companies in terms of the Companies Act,
No. 71 of 2008.
Understand the broad requirements for financial reporting and financial statements; and
understand the broad requirements for other general information (including financial or
non-financial information) to be presented in the annual report / integrated report.
Understand the terminology and rationale behind the remuneration of directors and
prescribed officers.
Disclose the remuneration of directors and prescribed officers in the notes to the
financial statements of a company.
2 Overview
The Companies Act, No. 71 of 2008 (hereafter referred to as the Companies Act), together
with the Regulations of 2011, replaced the Companies Act, No. 61 of 1973 in its entirety on
1 May 2011.
This chapter deals broadly with the following three concepts in the Companies Act:
categories of companies;
financial reporting of companies and the presentation of other general information linked
to the financial reporting of companies; and
remuneration of directors and prescribed officers.
The rest of the content of the Companies Act does not fall within the scope of this chapter.
495
3 Categories of companies
Section 8 of the Companies Act states that two types of companies may be formed and
incorporated under the Act, namely profit companies and non-profit companies, as
illustrated below:
Categories of companies
Profit companies Non-profit companies
State-owned company To be reflected as NPC
To be reflected as SOC Ltd
Public company
To be reflected as Limited or Ltd
Private company
To be reflected as Proprietary
Limited or (Pty) Ltd
Personal liability company
To be reflected as Incorporated or Inc
The types of companies as reflected in the diagram above are defined in section 1 of the
Companies Act, and these definitions are summarised below.
3.1 Non-profit company

Generally non-profit companies have a purpose relating to a public benefit or a purpose
relating to cultural or social activities or interests of groups. Section 1 of the Companies Act
defines a non-profit company as a company:
that is incorporated for a public benefit or other object as required by item 1(1) of
Schedule 1; and
whose income and property are not distributable to its incorporators, members,
directors, officers or persons related to any of them (except to the extent permitted by
item 1(3) of Schedule 1).
Companies Act 497
3.2 Profit company

A profit company is incorporated in order to provide financial gain for its shareholders.
There are four types of profit companies:
State-owned companies;
Private companies;
Personal liability companies; and
Public companies.
3.2.1 State-owned company

State-owned companies are either:
listed as a public entity in Schedule 2 or 3 of the Public Finance Management Act, 1999;
or
owned by a municipality.
3.2.2 Private company

A private company is a profit company that is:
not a public, personal liability or state-owned company; and
its Memorandum of Incorporation:
– prohibits it from offering any of its securities to the public; and
– restricts the transferability of its securities.
The Companies Act does not place a limitation on the number of shareholders of a private
company.
3.2.3 Personal liability company

A personal liability company is a subcategory of private companies and is mainly used by
professionals such as lawyers, doctors, engineers, and accountants.
A personal liability company is a company that:
meets the criteria for a private company; and
its Memorandum of Incorporation specifically states that it is a personal liability
company.
The directors and past directors of a personal liability company are jointly and severally,
liable, together with the company, for the company’s debts and liabilities as are or were
contracted during their respective periods of office (section 19(3)).
3.2.4 Public company

A public company is a profit company that is not a state-owned company, a private
company or a personal liability company. A common example of a public company is any
JSE-listed company, in which the general public can buy shares. However, not all public
companies will be listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE).
4 Financial reporting of companies and other general information

The Companies Act requires companies to keep accurate and complete accounting records
(refer to section 28 for more detail). Furthermore, if a company presents financial
statements (refer to section 29 and 30 for more detail), it must:
satisfy the financial reporting standards with regards to form and content, if any such
standards are prescribed (see the table below);
fairly present the state of affairs and business of the company, and explain the
transactions and financial position of the business of the company;
show the company’s assets, liabilities and equity, as well as its income and expenses,
and any other prescribed information (refer, for example, to section 5 for the disclosure
of directors’ remuneration);
set out the date on which the statements were produced, and the accounting period to
which the statements apply;
provide specific information relating to the audit or independent review (if any) of the
financial statements;
indicate the name, and professional designation, if any, of the individual who prepared,
or supervised the preparation of, the statements; and
in the case of annual financial statements, be prepared within six months after the year-
end.
The Companies Act basically allows companies to adopt either the full International
Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs) or the IFRS for Small and Medium-sized entities (IFRS
for SMEs) as its formally coded financial reporting framework, depending on whether they
meet the scope requirements of the respective frameworks.
The IFRS for SMEs is intended for use by small and medium-sized entities (as defined
in the IFRS for SMEs) that do not have public accountability, but have to publish general
purpose financial statements for external users. The IFRS for SMEs can be described as a
scaled-down version of the complete IFRSs.
The respective financial reporting frameworks applicable to the different categories of
companies are as follows:
Category of company Financial reporting framework

State-owned companies (SOCs) and non- IFRS (but should there be any conflict
profit companies that require an audit. with the Public Finance Management Act
No. 1 of 1999, the latter prevails).
Listed public companies. IFRS.
(Listed companies also have to adhere
to the JSE Listing Requirements, which
requires IFRSs for all listed companies.)
Public companies not listed. IFRS or IFRS for SMEs.
Profit companies, other than SOCs or IFRS or IFRS for SMEs.
public companies, whose public interest
score (refer to Regulation 26 of the
Companies Act for the calculation thereof)
is more than 100.
Profit companies, other than SOCs or The financial reporting standards as
public companies, whose public interest determined by the company for as long
score (refer to Regulation 26 of the as no financial reporting standards are
Companies Act for the calculation thereof) prescribed.
is less than 100, and whose financial
statements are internally compiled (It is
internally compiled if not independently
compiled. Refer to Regulation 26 of the
Companies Act for the requirements of
independently and internally compiled).
Companies Act 499
In all cases, a company can choose to comply with a “higher” level of financial reporting
framework (i.e. applying IFRS even if IFRS for SMEs was allowed). Companies that apply
IFRS for SMEs may only do so if the company meets the scoping requirements of the IFRS
for SMEs.
In the context of providing other general disclosures related to the financial reporting of a
company, one should bear the pervasive purpose of the Companies Act in mind. Section 7
states that the purpose of the Companies Act is “encouraging transparency and high
standards of corporate governance”. Although the Companies Act does not necessarily
require companies to apply the principles set out in the King IV Report on Corporate
Governance, it is good practice for all entities to seriously consider the application of the
principles and recommended practices set out in this report.
The report suggests that entities should explain how the principles and recommended
practices were applied to achieve good governance. To assist entities in this endeavour, the
King IV Report includes specific disclosure recommendations under each principle of the
King IV Code. These recommendations are intended as guidance and a starting point for
disclosure on the particular principle. These disclosure recommendations include, amongst
others, the composition, skills and knowledge of the members of the governing body and
different committees; strategic objectives of the company; risk management; remuneration
reports; and information on its sustainability. The disclosures in respect of the King IV
Report are typically included in the company’s Integrated Report and not in the annual
5 Disclosure of remuneration
Information that needs to be disclosed in the annual financial statements regarding
remuneration of directors and prescribed officers are detailed in section 30(4) of the
Companies Act. According to section 30(5) this disclosure needs to show the amount of any
remuneration or benefits paid to (or receivable by) persons in respect of:
services rendered as directors or prescribed officers of the company; or
services rendered while being directors or prescribed officers of the company:
– as directors or prescribed officers of any other company within the same group of
companies; or
– otherwise in connection with the carrying on of the affairs of the company or any
other company within the same group of companies.
The Companies Act does not differentiate between remuneration for executive and non-
executive directors. Generally non-executive directors receive directors’ fees for their
attendance of board meetings and also for the provision of services as directors.
5.1 Definitions
In order to fully understand the disclosure of remuneration of directors and prescribed
officers, knowledge of the definitions below is required.
5.1.1 Director
Any member of the board of directors or alternate director or other person occupying such
position, by whatever name designated.
5.1.2 Prescribed officer

According to Regulation 38 of the Companies Act, a prescribed officer is any person who,
despite not being a director, exercises general executive control over, and management of,
the whole, or a significant portion of the business and activities of the company, or regularly
participates to a material degree therein.
Examples of prescribed officers may include the following:

chief executive officer;
chief financial officer;
regional manager; and
general secretary.
5.1.3 Related person

In terms of the Companies Act:
an individual is related to another individual if they are:
– married, or live together in a relationship similar to marriage; or
– separated by no more than two degrees of natural or adopted consanguinity or
affinity;
an individual is related to a juristic person if the individual directly or indirectly controls
the juristic person; and
a juristic person is related to another juristic person if:
– either of them directly or indirectly controls the other, or the business of the other;
– either is a subsidiary of the other; or
– a person directly or indirectly controls each of them, or the business of each of them.
5.1.4 Remuneration
Remuneration includes the following as per section 30(6) of the Companies Act:
fees paid to directors for services rendered by them to, or on behalf of, the company,
including any amount paid to a person in respect of the person’s acceptance of the office
of director;
salary, bonuses and performance-related payments;
expense allowances, to the extent that the directors are not required to account for such
allowance;
contributions paid under any pension fund;
the value of any option or right given directly or indirectly to a past, current or future
director or any person related to any of them;
financial assistance to a past, current or future director or any person related to any of
them, for the subscription of shares in the company or inter-related companies; and
in respect of loans or other financial assistance by the company (or any loan made by a
third party where the company is a guarantor of that loan) to a past, current or future
director or any person related to any of them:
– any interest deferred, waived or forgiven; or
– the difference in value between the interest that would reasonably be charged in
comparable circumstances at fair market rates in an arm’s length transaction, and the
interest actually charged to the borrower (if less).
5.2 Disclosure requirements

Section 30(4) contains the disclosure requirements in respect of remuneration. Any
company that, in terms of the stipulations of the Companies Act, is required to have its
annual financial statements audited, must disclose the remuneration of directors and
prescribed officers.
The disclosure of remuneration will include the following:
the remuneration and benefits received by each director or prescribed officer;
the amount of any pensions paid by the company to, or receivable by, current and past
directors or prescribed officers;
Companies Act 501
the amount paid or payable by the company to a pension scheme in respect of current
and past directors and prescribed officers;
the amount of any compensation paid for the loss of office to current and past directors
and prescribed officers;
the number and class of any securities issued to a director and prescribed officer, or any
person related to them, as well as the consideration received by the company for these
securities; and
details of service contracts of current directors and prescribed officers.
Example 18.1: Disclosure of remuneration

Alpha Ltd holds 80% of the issued ordinary shares of Ruben Ltd. The directors and senior
personnel of Alpha Ltd are as follows:
Chairman (non-executive) Mr MJ Naidoo
Director (non-executive) Mrs H Rabada
Regional manager Mr JN van Schalkwyk
Managing director (executive) Mr Z Beseti
General secretary Mrs L Lombard
Alpha Ltd identified all their prescribed officers and ensured that they meet the statutory
requirements for appointment. The prescribed officers were informed that their
remuneration will be disclosed in terms of the requirements of the Companies Act.
The following information is applicable to the remuneration of directors and prescribed
officers for the financial year ended 31 December 20.25:
Each director receives a fee of R10 000 per quarter. The chairman receives an additional
fee of R4 000 per quarter. The managing director receives a salary of R240 000 per year,
the general secretary receives a salary of R200 000 per year and the regional manager
receives a salary of R160 000 per year.
Both the chairman and managing director have the use of company cars which may also be
used for private purposes. The total benefits for the use of such a car are estimated at
R60 000 per year, of which 40% is for private use and 60% for business purposes.
Entertainment allowances are as follows:
R
– Chairman 20 000 per year
– Managing director 16 000 per year
– General secretary 10 000 per year
– Regional manager 6 000 per year
The widow of a past managing director (Mr AL Khoza) (executive director) received a pension
payment of R40 000 per year solely by reason of her deceased husband’s managing
directorship.
The annual pension contributions (total personal and company contributions) amount to
R40 000 per year per director and R20 000 per prescribed officer. The various companies
pay 60% of these contributions on behalf of their directors and prescribed officers. The
payment of pensions arises from the managing duties of the affected persons.
On the last day of the financial year, Mr MJ Naidoo was relieved of his duties as chairman of
Alpha Ltd and general secretary of Ruben Ltd. As a result, Mr Naidoo received the following
remuneration:
R
– From Alpha Ltd for his position as chairman of Alpha Ltd 20 000
– From Ruben Ltd for his position as general secretary of Ruben Ltd 40 000
Example 18.1: Disclosure of remuneration (continued)

Alpha Ltd
20. Remuneration of directors and prescribed officers
Name Directors’ Salary Other Pensions Loss of Less: Total
fees benefits office Paid by
(*) subsidiaries
and others
R R R R R R
Executive
directors
Z Beseti 40 000 240 000 64 000 344 000
Non-
executive
directors
MJ Naidoo 56 000 68 000 60 000 (40 000) 144 000
H Rabada 40 000 24 000 64 000
Prescribed
officers
JN van 160 000 18 000 178 000
Schalkwyk
L Lombard 200 000 22 000 222 000
Past director
(executive)
AL Khoza 40 000 40 000
Total 136 000 600 000 196 000 40 000 60 000 (40 000) 992 000
*Other benefits
Name Travel Pension fund Entertainment Total

contributions allowance
R R R R
Z Beseti 24 000 24 000 16 000 64 000
MJ Naidoo 24 000 24 000 20 000 68 000
H Rabada 24 000 24 000
JN van Schalkwyk 12 000 6 000 18 000
L Lombard 12 000 10 000 22 000
Comment:
¾ Comparative amounts for 20.24 would also be required.

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Introduction to IFRS

First Edition 2008 Sixth edition 2015

ISBN 978 1 776 17468 3 (softback)

Editors: Diana Singh and Shebash Pillay

Printed by CTP Printers Cape Town

EQUITY AND LIABILITIES

2 Schematic representation of the Conceptual Framework

The objective of general

Financial statements are a Reporting entity is

The elements of financial

3.2 Brief history

The revised Conceptual Framework (2018), entitled “Conceptual Framework for

4 The objective of general purpose financial reporting

According to the Conceptual Framework, the objective of general purpose financial

Stewardship is the act of supervising or taking care of something such as an

Example 1.1: Accrual accounting

5 Qualitative characteristics of useful financial information

The qualitative characteristics in the Framework (1989) were relevance, reliability,

To achieve the above-mentioned objectives of financial reporting, the information contained

For information to be useful, it needs to be both relevant and faithfully represented.

5.1 Fundamental qualitative characteristics

Materiality is an entity-specific aspect of relevance based on the nature or magnitude

Example 1.2: Materiality

5.1.2 Faithful representation

A faithful representation provides information about the substance of an economic

To be a faithful representation, a depiction would have three characteristics:

Example 1.3: Effect of not providing complete information

Prudence is the exercise of caution when making judgements under conditions of

Free from error

5.1.3 Applying the fundamental qualitative characteristics

When monetary amounts in financial reports cannot be observed directly and

5.2 Enhancing qualitative characteristics

Comparability in the accounting treatment should be consistent for:

analysed in order to evaluate a particular entity’s performance relative to the performance

5.2.1 Applying the enhancing qualitative characteristics

5.2.2 The cost constraint on useful financial reporting

6 Financial statements and the reporting entity

6.1 Objective and scope of financial statements

7 The elements of financial statements

The elements of financial statements in the Conceptual Framework are:

7.1.2 Potential to produce economic benefits

7.2.2 Transfer of an economic resource

7.2.3 Present obligation as a result of past events

7.3 Unit of account

8 Recognition and derecognition

Recognition is the process of capturing for inclusion in the statement of financial

The previous recognition criteria required that an entity should recognise an

8.3 Faithful representation

8.4 Other factors

Derecognition is the removal of all or part of a recognised asset or liability from

Derecognition aims to faithfully represent both:

Measurement is quantifying, in monetary terms, elements that are recognised in

9.1 Measurement bases

Measurement bases can be categorised as:

9.1.1 Historical cost

9.1.2 Current value

Cash-flow-based measurement techniques:

9.2 Factors to consider when selecting a measurement basis

10 Presentation and disclosure

Assets and liabilities should be presented as either current or non-

All income and expense items recognised in a period are presented as

Reconciliation of equity at the beginning of the reporting period with

Basis of preparation of the financial statements.

Fair presentation and compliance with IFRSs.

definitions of elements (assets, liabilities, equity, income and expenses) of financial

the Standard or Interpretation from which the entity has departed;

the effect of retrospective application or restatement as a result of changes in