Chapter 2

Network Models

2.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Network Models
◼ Network Architecture:
◼ A) Hardware: at the core of any network; e.g.) Tx/Rx
devices, modems, codecs, physical links, switches
◼ B) Software: to derive the core H/W to communicate
end users. The S/W is so complex as its task. Hence it
is divided into
◼ subtasks each of which is confined to a set of related
processes to perform a specific function.
◼ Each subtask is called a “Layer”
◼ Layers are stacked over each other forming
the net model stack, e.g., OSI, TCP/IP
 2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As

an example, let us consider two friends who
communicate through postal mail.

2.3
 Figure 2.1 A three Layer Protocol

2.4
 Advantages of Protocol Layering
◼ Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task
into several smaller and simpler tasks
◼ Protocol layering is allows us to separate the services
from the implementation.
◼ A layer needs to be able to receive a set of services from
the lower layer and to give the services to the upper layer;
we don’t care about how the layer is implemented.
◼ In Internet, there are intermediate systems that need
only some layers, but not all layers.
◼ If we did not use protocol layering, we would have to make
each intermediate system as complex as the end systems,
which makes the whole system more expensive.

2.5
 Principles of Protocol Layering
◼ The first principle dictates that if we want
bidirectional communication, we need to make
each layer so that it is able to perform two
opposite tasks, one in each direction
◼ The second layer needs to be able to encrypt and
decrypt
◼ The second principle is that the two objects
under each layer at both sites should be
identical.
◼ For example, the object under layer 3 at both sites
should be a plaintext letter.
2.6
 Logical Connection
◼ Logical (imaginary) connection between each layer as
shown in Figure
◼ Layer-to-layer communication.

2.7
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards

Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation

2.8
 Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

2.9
 Layered Architecture

◼ OSI model is composed of seven ordered

layers.
◼ Figure 2.3 shows the layers involved when
message is sent from device A to device B
◼ Each layer defines a family of function
distinct from those of the other layers.
◼ The OSI model allows complete
interoperability.

2.10
 Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

2.11
 Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

2.12
 Network Models (cont..)

◼ Each Layer has a “Peer-to-Peer” protocol that

seems to represent (and carry out) the rest of
the network task, yet it does only a specific part
and delegate the rest to the layer beneath it (via
its interface).
◼ It also has an “ interface” that defines the
services that is provided to the layer above it.

2.13
 Encapsulation
◼ “Encapsulation”: Each layer has its own PDU
that’s passes (as a parameter) to the layer
beneath, which in turn adds a “ header ” (at
layer 2 also adds trailer”) before assign to the
next layer (except the physical layer).
◼ Why “header” and “trailer”?
◼ Physical movement of information PDU is
“vertical” yet the user thinks (At each peer–to-
peer) layer that info moves” horizontal” (pipe)

2.14
 Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

2.15
 2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

2.16
 Figure 2.5 Physical layer

2.17
 Physical Layer
◼ Physical Layer: PDU, bit stream.
◼ Moves bit sequence over a physical link.
◼ Defines the followings:
◼ Physical characteristics of EIA interfaces and medium.
◼ Bit representation: encoding/decoding, electrical/optical.
◼ Data rate: (b/s or bps) and (Tx bit duration)
◼ Bits synch: sender and receiver clock synch and same
data rate.
◼ Line configuration: Point-to-point, Multipoint
◼ Physical Topology: Mesh, star, ring, bus, and hybrid.
◼ Transfer mode: Simplex, F/d, and H/d

2.18
 Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

2.19
 Figure 2.6 Data link layer

2.20
 Data Link Layer
◼ PDU: frame with header/trailer

◼ Functions:
◼ Framing
◼ Physical Addressing: Sender/receiver addresses
in the frame header.
◼ Flow Control: To prevent fast sender from
flooding a slower receiver with frames.
◼ Error Control: To increase physical layer reliability
by adding mechanism to detect and ReTx damages
and lost frames. (Trailer)
◼ Access Control: Control the access to the physical
medium among all connected devices.

2.21
 Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

2.22
 Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

2.23
 Figure 2.8 Network layer

2.24
 Network Layer
◼ PDU packets (headers only)
◼ Responsible for the source to destination delivery
of packet, possibly across multiple networks.

◼ Address logical IP address

◼ a. Source host system to destination host system
delivery, utilizing the data link layer for peer-to-peer
delivery.
◼ b. Physical addresses at the D.L are not enough; we
need to add logical addressing in the packet header,
of the sender and receiver.

2.25
 Network Layer (cont..)

◼ c. Routing: To route packets over the

subnet cloud of routers and switches,
make the optimal routing decisions
(src- destination)
◼ d. Internetworking: resolve any Net

protocols conflicts while moving in the

subnet.

2.26
 Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

2.27
 Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

2.28
 Figure 2.10 Transport layer

2.29
 Transport Layer

◼ The most important layer since it abstracts

the complete details of the subnet to the
user.
◼ It communicates a meaningful data unit
called message (group of related packets)
between users over the subnet trying for
the most optimal utilization of the subnet.

2.30
 Transport Layer: (cont..)

◼ Responsibilities:
◼ a) Service Access Point Addressing: (SAP)

The network logical address is for src_sys

to destination not src_user_process to
destination_user_process, hence we need
another address mechanism => SAP
addresses within the same system for user
message delivery.

2.31
 Transport Layer: (cont..)
◼ b) Segmentation and reassembly: of segments => packets

A Process (user) message is divided into segments (if

needed) each with segment sequence number to aid in
assembly (incorrect order) related segments into the
original message at the destination/transportation layer.

◼ c) Connection control:
◼ 1) Connectionless unreliable service (-no ACK, -no
guarantee)
◼ 2) In connection oriented TCP, guarantees delivery in
order with ACK of segments (reliable service).

2.32
 Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

2.33
 Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

2.34
Figure 2.12 Session layer

2.35
 Session Layer
◼ Session Layer: (Network dialog controller)
◼ It establishes, maintains and synchronizes
the interaction among communicating
system.
◼ a. Dialog Controls H/Duplex or F/Duplex
◼ b. Synchronization: Checkpoints are added to
data streams for dividing into units of
independent ACK. Communication robustness
in case of crashes.

2.36
 Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

2.37
 Figure 2.13 Presentation layer

2.38
 Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

2.39
 Presentation Layer
◼ Presentation Layer:
◼ a. Translation: ASCII, EBCDIC. Abstract
syntax notation (ASN).

◼ b. Encryption: To secure information Tx for

privacy

◼ c. Compression: For efficient utilization of

bandwidth.

2.40
 Figure 2.14 Application layer

2.41
 Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

2.42
 Application Layer

◼ 1) Virtual terminal ”putty” to allow remote

logins (emulations)
◼ 2) File transfer, access, and management
◼ 3) Mail Service,
◼ 4) Directory service.
◼ SMTP, FTP, HTTP, DNS, SNMP, TELNET.

2.43
 Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

2.44
 OSI

2.45
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application. However,
when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
2.46
 Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

2.47
 ◼ 1) Physical Layer: Very Vague, it can be
LAN, MAN, WAN.
◼ 2) Network Layer:

◼ Internet Protocol (IP) is used best-effort-

delivery unreliable connectionless datagram
protocol (no end control flow).
◼ At the network layer there are other protocol
to help the poor IP:
◼ a) Address Resolution Protocol:

physical (MAC) logical (IP)

2.48
 ◼ Address translation.
◼ b) Internet Control Msg Protocol (ICMP):
Help in reporting any failure/congestion of
a subnet part(s), aiding in the subnet
robustness.
◼ c) Internet Group Msg Protocol (IGMP)
Single source broadcasts to multi group
destinations.

2.49
 ◼ 3) Transport Layer: Proc-to-Proc
client/server.
A) User Datagram Protocol: UDP
--- Connectionless unreliable Transport
Protocol, with very limited error checking
(checksum)
--- No error/ flow control

2.50
 ◼ B) Transmission Control Protocol: TCP
◼ Reliable connection oriented (stream) transport protocol.
◼ Establishes connection src_dest, before data Tx.
◼ Ordered/ ACK segment Tx with segment numbers.

◼ C) Stream Control Tx Protocol:

SCTP Connection oriented reliable transport protocol to

supports voice IP (Internet telephony) combining the
best of UDP and TCP

2.51
 2-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses

2.52
 Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP

2.53
 Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

2.54
 Physical Address
◼ Physical address (Link address) is the address of
a node as defined by its LAN or WAN.
◼ Lowest level address
◼ Have authority over the LAN or WAN nwks.
◼ The size and format of these addresses vary
depending on the nwk.
◼ Eg : Ethernet uses 6-byte physical address.

2.55
 Example 2.1

In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a

frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the
figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is
the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is
the receiver.

Figure 2.19 Physical addresses

2.56
 Figure 2.19 Physical addresses

2.57
 Example 2.2

As we will see in Chapter 13, most local-area networks

use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12
hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is
separated by a colon, as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

2.58
 Logical Address
◼ Necessary for universal communications
that are independent of underlying physical
networks.
◼ Different networks can have different
address format.
◼ An address defined in network layer.
◼ Logical address in the internet is 32-bit
address

2.59
 Example 2.3

Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers

connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or
router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for
each connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has only one
pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to
three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So
each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.

2.60
 Figure 2.20 IP addresses

2.61
 Port addresses

◼ A method is needed to label the different

processes. ( addresses are needed)
◼ Process communicating with another
process
e.g. Comp. A can communicate with
comp. C by using TELNET. At the same
time comp. A communicate with comp. B
by using FTP

2.62
 Example 2.4

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The
receiving computer is running two processes at this time
with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending
computer needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port
addresses remain the same from the source to
destination.

2.63
 Figure 2.21 Port addresses

2.64
 Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

2.65
 Example 2.5

As we will see in Chapter 23, a port address is a 16-bit

address represented by one decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.

2.66
 Note

The physical addresses change from hop to hop,

but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.

2.67
 Exercise 1
◼ Figure 1, shows an internet path between two hosts
involves a hop across network A, a packet-switching
network, to a router and then another hop across
packet-switching network B. Suppose that packet
switching network A carries the packet between the
first host and the router over a two-hop path involving
one intermediate packet switch. Suppose also that
the second network is an Ethernet LAN.
◼ Sketch the sequence of IP and non-IP packets and
frames that are generated as an IP packet goes from
host 1 to host 2.

2.68
 Figure 1

2.69