HUMAN TISSUE

The term tissue is used to describe a group of cells that are similar in structure and perform a
specific function. Histology is the field of study that involves the microscopic examination of tissue
appearance, organization, and function.

Tissues are organized into four broad categories based on structural and functional similarities.
These categories are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. The primary tissue types work
together to contribute to the overall health and maintenance of the human body. Thus, any
disruption in the structure of a tissue can lead to injury or disease.

The Four Primary Tissue Types

Epithelial tissue refers to groups of cells that cover the exterior surfaces of the body, line internal
cavities and passageways, and form certain glands. Connective tissue, as its name implies,
binds the cells and organs of the body together. Muscle tissue contracts forcefully when excited,
providing movement. Nervous tissue is also excitable, allowing for the generation and
propagation of electrochemical signals in the form of nerve impulses that communicate between
different regions of the body (Figure 1).

An understanding of the various primary tissue types present in the human body is essential for
understanding the structure and function of organs which are composed of two or more primary
tissue types. This chapter will focus on examining epithelial and connective tissues.

Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissues are widespread throughout the body. They form the covering of all body
surfaces, line body cavities and hollow organs, and are the major tissue in glands. They perform a
variety of functions that include protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration, diffusion, and
sensory reception.

The cells in epithelial tissue are tightly packed together with very little intercellular matrix. Because
the tissues form coverings and linings, the cells have one free surface that is not in contact with
other cells. Opposite the free surface, the cells are attached to underlying connective tissue by a
non-cellular basement membrane. This membrane is a mixture of carbohydrates and proteins
secreted by the epithelial and connective tissue cells.

Epithelial cells may be squamous, cuboidal, or columnar in shape and may be arranged in single
or multiple layers.
Simple cuboidal epithelium is found in glandular tissue and in the kidney tubules. Simple columnar
epithelium lines the stomach and intestines. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium lines portions of
the respiratory tract and some of the tubes of the male reproductive tract. Transitional
epithelium can be distended or stretched. Glandular epithelium is specialized to produce and
secrete substances.

Connective Tissue
Connective tissues bind structures together, form a framework and support for organs and the
body as a whole, store fat, transport substances, protect against disease, and help
repair tissue damage. They occur throughout the body. Connective tissues are characterized by
an abundance of intercellular matrix with relatively few cells. Connective tissue cells are able to
reproduce but not as rapidly as epithelial cells. Most connective tissues have a good blood supply
but some do not.

Numerous cell types are found in connective tissue. Three of the most common are the fibroblast,
macrophage, and mast cell. The types of connective tissue include loose connective tissue,
adipose tissue, dense fibrous connective tissue, elastic connective tissue, cartilage, osseous

tissue (bone), and blood.

Muscle tissue is composed of cells that have the special ability to shorten or contract in order to
produce movement of the body parts. The tissue is highly cellular and is well supplied
with blood vessels. The cells are long and slender so they are sometimes called muscle fibers,
and these are usually arranged in bundles or layers that are surrounded by connective
tissue. Actin and myosin are contractile proteins in muscle tissue.

Muscle tissue can be categorized into skeletal muscle tissue, smooth muscle tissue, and cardiac
muscle tissue.
Skeletal muscle fibers are cylindrical, multinucleated, striated, and under voluntary control.
Smooth muscle cells are spindle shaped, have a single, centrally located nucleus, and lack
striations. They are called involuntary muscles. Cardiac muscle has branching fibers, one nucleus
per cell, striations, and intercalated disks. Its contraction is not under voluntary control.

Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It is responsible for coordinating and
controlling many body activities. It stimulates muscle contraction, creates an awareness of the
environment, and plays a major role in emotions, memory, and reasoning. To do all these things,
cells in nervous tissue need to be able to communicate with each other by way of
electrical nerve impulses. The cells in nervous tissue that generate and conduct impulses are
called neurons or nerve cells. These cells have three principal parts: the dendrites, the cell body,
and one axon. The main part of the cell, the part that carries on the general functions, is the cell
body. Dendrites are extensions, or processes, of the cytoplasm that carry impulses to the cell
body. An extension or process called an axon carries impulses away from the cell body.

Nervous tissue also includes cells that do not transmit impulses, but instead support the activities
of the neurons. These are the glial cells (neuroglial cells), together termed the neuroglia.
Supporting, or glia, cells bind neurons together and insulate the neurons. Some
are phagocytic and protect against bacterial invasion, while others provide nutrients by
binding blood vessels to the neurons.
 Figure 1 – The Four Primary Tissue Types: Examples of nervous tissue, epithelial tissue,
muscle tissue, and connective tissue found throughout the human body. Clockwise from nervous
tissue, LM × 872, LM × 282, LM × 460, LM × 800. (Micrographs provided by the Regents of
University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)

Embryonic Origin of Tissues

The cells composing a tissue share a common embryonic origin. The zygote, or fertilized egg, is a
single cell formed by the fusion of an egg and sperm cell. After fertilization, the zygote gives rise
many cells to form the embryo. The first embryonic cells generated have the ability to differentiate
into any type of cell in the body and, as such, are called omnipotent, meaning each has the
capacity to divide, differentiate, and develop into a new organism. As cell proliferation progresses,
three major cell lines are established within the embryo. Each of these lines of embryonic cells
forms the distinct germ layers from which all the tissues and organs of the human body eventually
form. Each germ layer is identified by its relative position: ectoderm (ecto- =
“outer”), mesoderm (meso- = “middle”), and endoderm (endo- = “inner”). Figure 2 shows the
types of tissues and organs associated with each of the three germ layers. Note that epithelial
tissue originates in all three layers, whereas nervous tissue derives primarily from the ectoderm
and muscle tissue derives from the mesoderm.

Figure 2 – Embryonic Origin of Tissues and Major Organs: Embryonic germ layers and the
resulting primary tissue types formed by each.
Tissue Membranes

A tissue membrane is a thin layer or sheet of cells that either covers the outside of the body (e.g.,
skin), lines an internal body cavity (e.g., peritoneal cavity), lines a vessel (e.g., blood vessel), or
lines a movable joint cavity (e.g., synovial joint). Two basic types of tissue membranes are
recognized based on the primary tissue type composing each: connective tissue membranes and
epithelial membranes (Figure 3).

Figure 3 – Tissue Membranes: The two broad categories of tissue membranes in the body are
(1) connective tissue membranes, which include synovial membranes, and (2) epithelial
membranes, which include mucous membranes, serous membranes, and the cutaneous
membrane, in other words, the skin.

Connective Tissue Membranes

A connective tissue membrane is built entirely of connective tissue. This type of membrane may
be found encapsulating an organ, such as the kidney, or lining the cavity of a freely movable joint
(e.g., shoulder). When lining a joint, this membrane is referred to as a synovial membrane.
Cells in the inner layer of the synovial membrane release synovial fluid, a natural lubricant that
enables the bones of a joint to move freely against one another with reduced friction.
Epithelial Membranes

An epithelial membrane is composed of an epithelial layer attached to a layer of connective

tissue. A mucous membrane, sometimes called a mucosa, lines a body cavity or hollow
passageway that is open to the external environment. This type of membrane can be found lining
portions of the digestive, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts. Mucus, produced
by uniglandular cells and glandular tissue, coats the epithelial layer. The underlying connective
tissue, called the lamina propria (literally “own layer”), helps support the epithelial layer.

A serous membrane lines the cavities of the body that do not open to the external environment.
Serous fluid secreted by the cells of the epithelium lubricates the membrane and reduces abrasion
and friction between organs. Serous membranes are identified according to location. Three
serous membranes are found lining the thoracic cavity; two membranes that cover the lungs
(pleura) and one membrane that covers the heart (pericardium). A fourth serous membrane, the
peritoneum, lines the peritoneal cavity, covering the abdominal organs and forming double sheets
of mesenteries that suspend many of the digestive organs.

A cutaneous membrane is a multi-layered membrane composed of epithelial and connective

tissues. The apical surface of this membrane exposed to the external environment and is covered
with dead, keratinized cells that help protect the body from desiccation and pathogens. The skin is
an example of a cutaneous membrane.