CHP-100

Introduction to Chemistry
Laboratory Manual

Hudson County Community College

Compiled and edited by

Dr. Fatma Tat

Fall 2021
 Table of Contents
Chemistry Laboratory Safety Rules iii
Writing a Laboratory Report v
Chemical Aparatus vi
Experiment

1. Measurements in the Laboratory 1

2. Density 7

3. Flame Tests and Atomic Spectra 9

4. Lewis Structures and Molecular Shapes 14

5. Electrical Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions 19

6. Single Replacement Reactions and Batteries 23

(Section A: Single Replacement Reactions)

7. Single Replacement Reactions and Batteries (Section B: Batteries) 26

8. Double Replacement Reactions 30

9. Acid, Bases, and pH 34

10. Making Soap – Saponification 39

Reference 44

ii
 Chemistry Laboratory Safety Rules
Working in a science laboratory is an excellent opportunity to observe the practical application of
the theories you will learn in lecture. Safety is our main concern in the chemistry laboratory. We
will be working with toxic chemicals, glassware, fire, and other hazards. It is your responsibility
to work in a way that keeps you and your classmates safe. Be aware of laboratory dangers and
work safely by following these guidelines:

1. Always wear safety goggles. Contact lens must be avoided.

2. Wear lab coat or apron. Clothing with loose sleeves is not permitted.

3. Wear shoes always. High-heeled shoes, open-toed shoes, or sandals are forbidden.

4. Confine long hair.

5. Never bring foods or drinks to the lab. Smoking is strictly prohibited.

6. Never taste a chemical or directly smell any vapor or gas unless properly instructed.

7. Obtain only the amount of reagent needed. Never return excess in the reagent bottle.

8. After use, cap the reagent bottles tight and put all chemicals back to the front bench.

9. Keep balance clean all the times. Never leave the balance window, if any, open after use.

10. Keep things neat and working area clear during doing experiment.

11. Never leave an experiment unattended.

12. Notify your instructor immediately in case of fire, accident, or any minor injury.

13. Small fire can be put off by smothering with sand or wet towel.

14. Do not use flammable organic reagents anywhere near open flame.

15. Place hot objects on a wire gauze or heat-resistant bench top, not on paper, wood, or anything
easy to burn.

16. Never point a test tube being heated at yourself or your neighbors.

17. Observe all precautions mentioned in each experiment or by instructor.

18. Use fume hood when directed.

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19. Always pour acids into water, not the reverse.

20. If chemicals encounter your skin or eyes, wash immediately with copious amount of water,
and then consult the instructor.

21. Wipe up all spills as soon as they occur. Ask for appropriate procedures.

22. Avoid rubbing your eyes unless your hands are surely clean.

23. Do not force glass tubing into rubber stopper. Ask for proper way of doing it.

24. You must go to infirmary for treatment of cuts, burns, or inhalation of fumes. The instructor
will arrange the transportation.

25. Know the location of safety equipment and learn how to operate them. Such equipment
includes first-aid kit, eye/face-wash fountain, shower, fire blanket, and fire extinguisher.

26. Know exit routes in case of fire or toxic fumes that arise.

27. Never put paper or water-insoluble solids in the sink.

28. Dispose of chemicals in the designated containers or as instructed.

29. Broken glass must be put into the cardboard-box so marked.

30. When the class ends, put back all glassware clean. Clean your area. Be sure to close gas, water,
and electricity.

31. Perform no unauthorized experiments.

32. Never work in the lab alone.

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 Writing a Laboratory Report
The lab report should include the following in sequence, no more than five pages in typing.

1. Experimental number and title.

2. Date of performance.

3. Objective: One phrase or one sentence.

4. Principle: Refer to the lab manual (and/or other literatures); write in your own words in ½ - 1
page. Describe all the concepts involved in principle and procedure.

5. Procedure: Outline, step by step, in half a page.

6. Data and results: Follow the format given for each experiment in the lab manual.

7. Sample calculation: Show the calculation of % recovery or % yield if any. Give one sample for
some repetitive calculations.

8. Observation and discussion: Describe what you see such as color change, gas evolution,
precipitation, dissolution, phase separation, tar formation, heat released or absorbed, or any other
phenomena. For low recovery or yield, figure out possible sources of error and suggestion for
improvement. Interpret principle and concepts demonstrated and success or failure of the
experiment. You may draw a conclusion here.

9. Put the text of all references at the end of the report.

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vi
 1. Measurements in the Laboratory
Objectives
• To use standard laboratory measurement devices to measure length, volume and mass
amounts.
• To use these measurements to determine the areas of shapes and volumes
Background
Chemistry is the study of matter. Our understanding of chemical processes thus depends on our
ability to acquire accurate information about matter. Often, this information is quantitative, in the
form of measurements. In this lab, you will be introduced to some common measuring devices,
and learn how to use them to obtain correct measurements, each with correct precision. A metric
ruler will be used to measure length in centimeters (cm).
All measuring devices are subject to error, making it impossible to obtain exact measurements.
Students will record all the digits of the measurement using the markings that we know exactly
and one further digit that we estimate and call uncertain. The uncertain digit is our best estimate
using the smallest unit of measurement given and estimating between two of these values. These
digits are collectively referred to as significant figures. Note, the electronic balance is designed to
register these values and the student should only record the value displayed.
When making measurements, it is important to be as accurate and precise as possible. Accuracy is
a measure of how close an experimental measurement is to the true, accepted value. Precision
refers to how close repeated measurements (using the same device) are to each other.
Example: Measuring length

Here the “ruler” markings are every 0.1-centimeter. The correct reading is 1.67 cm. The first 2
digits 1.67 are known exactly. The last digit 1.67 is uncertain.
The measuring devices used in this lab may have different scale graduations than the ones shown
Precision is basically how many significant figures you have in your measurement. To find the
precision, you basically take the smallest unit on your measuring device, and add a decimal place
(the uncertain digit).
Note: In general, the more decimal places provided by a device, the more precise the
measurement will be.
Measurements obtained in lab will often be used in subsequent calculations to obtain other
values of interest. Thus, it is important to consider the number of significant figures that should

1
be recorded for such calculated values. If multiplying or dividing measured values, the result
should be reported with the lowest number of significant figures used in the calculation. If
adding or subtracting measured values, the result should be reported with the lowest number
of decimal places used in the calculation.
Example: Significant Figures in Calculated Values
(a) A student runs 18.752 meters in 54.2 seconds. Calculate his velocity (or speed).

(b) The mass of a glass is measured to be 12.456 grams. If 10.33 grams of water are added to this
glass, what is the total combined mass?

In this lab, students will also determine the density of water as well as aluminum. Volume is the
amount of space occupied by matter. An extensive property is one that is dependent on the
amount of matter present. Volume is an extensive property.
The volume of a liquid can be directly measured with specialized glassware, typically in units of
milliliters (mL) or liters (L). In this lab, a beaker, two graduated cylinders and a burette will be
used to measure liquid volumes, and their precision will be compared. Note that when measuring
liquid volumes, it is important to read the graduated scale from the lowest point of the curved
surface of the liquid, known as the liquid meniscus.
Example : Measuring the Volume of a liquid

Here, the graduated cylinder markings are every 1-milliliter. When read from the lowest point of
the meniscus, the correct volume reading is 30.0 mL. The first 2 digits 30.0 are known exactly.
The last digit 30.0 is uncertain. Even though it is a zero, it is significant and must be recorded.

2
The volume of a solid must be measured indirectly based on its shape. For regularly shaped
solids, such as a cube, sphere, cylinder, or cone, the volume can be calculated from its measured
dimensions (length, width, height, diameter) by using an appropriate equation.
Formulas for Calculating Volumes of Regularly Shaped Solids:

For irregularly shaped solids, the volume can be indirectly determined via the volume of water
(or any other liquid) that the solid displaces when it is immersed in the water (Archimedes
Principle). The units for solid volumes are typically cubic centimeters (cm3) or cubic meters
(m3). Note that 1 mL = 1 cm3.
Measuring the Volume of an Irregularly Shaped Solid

The volume water displaced is equal to the difference between the final volume and the initial
volume, or:

where the volume water displaced is equal to the volume of solid. Choice of the glassware
depend on the degree of precision required for a particular determination.
Experimental Procedure
Materials and Equipment
Metric ruler, electronic balance, triple-beam balance, 100-mL beaker, 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask,
sugar, scoopula, burette, 10-mL, 25-mL and 50 mL graduated cylinders, wooden blocks, distilled
water.

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Part A: Measuring the Dimensions of Regular Geometric Shapes
1. Use a ruler and the figure below to measure the dimensions of the two geometric shapes:
length and width of the rectangle, and the diameter of the circle. Record these values on
your lab report.

2. Use your measurements to calculate the area of each shape:

• Area of a rectangle: A=l×w
• Area of a circle: A=πr2 (r = radius = 1⁄2 the diameter)
Part B: Measuring the Mass of Solids
Comparing the Precision of two types of Balances
1. Obtain a 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask from your locker. Use the triple-beam balance to
determine the mass of this flask. Make sure the triple-beam balance is at zero before you
weigh the flask.
2. Use the electronic balance to determine the mass of the same Erlenmeyer flask. Be sure
to record your measured masses on your lab report.
Weighing by Difference
3. Obtain a 100-mL beaker from your lab station or bin. Use the electronic balance to
determine the mass of this beaker.
4. Add two spoonfuls of sugar to this beaker, using your scoopula. Do not do this over the
balance! Determine the new combined mass of both the beaker and the sugar. Be sure to
use the same electronic balance as before. When finished, place the sugar in the bottle for
re-use.
5. Use your two measurements to calculate the mass of sugar (only) by difference.
Part C: Volumes of Liquids and Solids
Volumes of Liquids
1. Use of Graduated Cylinder:

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 Take a test tube, fill it half way with distille water. Mark on the test tube the water level
using wax pencil. Pour the water into the 10-mL graduated cylinder. Remember to read the
volume at the bottom of the minuscus. Repeat the volume measurements by filling the test
tube with water to the mark but, this time, using 25 mL graduated cylinder and 50 mL
graduated cylinder.
2. Use of Buret:
Fill a 50 mL buret with water. Check if the stopcock is leaking. If no leakage occurs, then
ajust the water column at the 0.00 mark. Dispense 20 mL of water from the buret to a dry,
empty 25 mL graduated cylinder. Measure the volume of the water in the cylinder. Is this
volume equal to that measured by use of buret within the allowed precision?
Volume of a Regularly Shaped Solid
1. Use a wooden block or cylinder and ruler.
2. Measure the dimensions of the block. If it is a cube or a rectangular box, measure its
length, width, and height. If it is a cylinder or cone, measure its height and the diameter
of its circular base.

Experimental Data

Part A: Measuring the Dimensions of Regular Geometric Shapes

Shape Dimensions Precision Measurement # Significant Figures
Rectangle Length
Rectangle Width
Circle Diameter

Data Analysis
1. Perform the conversions indicated. Show your work and report your answers in scientific
notation.
• Convert the measured rectangle length to nm.
• Convert the measured circle diameter to nm.
2. Calculate the areas of your rectangle and circle in cm2. Show your work and report your
answers to the correct number of significant figures.
• Area of rectangle
• Area of circle
Part B: Measuring the Mass of Solids
Experimental Data
Table 1: Mass of an Erlenmeyer Flask

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 Measuring Device Mass Measurement # Significant Figures
Triple-Beam Balance
Electronic Balance

Table 2: Weighing by Difference

Mass Measurement # Significant Figures
Mass of Empty Beaker
Mass of Beaker + Sugar
Mass of sugar

Data Analysis
1. Compare your mass values obtained for the Erlenmeyer flask (in Table 1). Which
balance, triple- beam or electronic, provides the more precise measurement? Explain.
2. Consider the data you obtained in Table 2.
• Calculate the mass of sugar weighed out. Show your work.
• Circle one: When performing the above calculation, significant figures / decimal
places are the primary consideration.
Part C: The Volumes of Liquids and Solids
Table 1: Use of Graduated Cylinder
Measuring Device Precision Volume # Significant Figures
10-mL Graduated Cylinder
25-mL Graduated Cylinder
50-mL Graduated Cylinder

Table 2: Use of Buret

Measuring Device Precision Volume # Significant Figures
Buret
25 mL graduated cylinder

Table 3: The Volume of a Regular Solid, shaped as a

Dimensions Measured Volume # Significant Figures

Data Analysis
Use your measured block dimensions (in Table 2) to calculate the block volume, in cm3. Show
your work and report your answer to the correct number of significant figures.

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 2. Density
Objectives
• To determine the density of a regular object
• To determine the density of a metal
• To determine the density of water
Background
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance. Density is a physical property of
matter. Physical properties can be measured without changing the chemical identity of the
substance. Since pure substances have unique density values, measuring the density of a
substance can help identify that substance. Density is also an intensive property. An intensive
property is one that is independent of the amount of matter present. For example, the density of a
gold coin and a gold statue are the same, even though the gold statue consists of the greater
quantity of gold. Density is determined by dividing the mass of a substance by its volume:

Density is commonly expressed in units of g/cm3 for solids, g/mL for liquids, and g/L for gases.
To obtain the density, mass and volume are needed. The volume of liquid can be simply
measured by use of volumetric glassware such as pipet, buret, graduated cylinder, or small
volumetric flask. To be more accurate, picnometer is determined by obtaining the mass of water
full in it and knowing the water density. In this experiment, a stoppered flask is to be used in
substitution.
Experimental Procedure
Materials and Equipment
Metric ruler, 25-mL graduated cylinders, 25 mL glass-stoppered erlenmeyer flask, unkonown
metal pellets, 100-mL beaker, cube, electronic balance, distilled water.
Part A: The Density of a Regular Object
1. Measure the dimension of a cube with a cm-ruler.
2. Weigh the object on an analytical balance.
3. Calculate the volume and the density.
Part B: The Density of a Metal
1. Fill 10 mL distilled water in a clean 25 mL graduated cylinder and record the initial volume
2. Weigh 20 pieces of unknown metal pellets
3. Add unknown metal pellets one by one to the water in the 25 mL graduated cylinder
4. Tap to remove the air trapped between metallic pieces
5. Take the final volume reading. Claculate the volume of the metal and its density

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Part C: Density of Water

1. Weigh the empty 25 mL stoppered flask on an analytical balance with the stopper.
2. Fill the stoppered flask with the water to the ground neck by using disposable pipette
3. Weigh the filled stoppered flask with the stopper on an analytical balance
4. Calculate the mass of water in the flask and calculate the density of water

Experimental Data

Part A: The Density of a Regular Object

Mass of the object
Volume of the object

Calculate the density of the object, in g/cm3. Show your work and report your answer.
Part B: The Density of a Metal
Initial volume of water in cylinder

Mass of pellets
Final volume of water and metal pellets

Volume of metal pellets

Claculate the volume of the metal and its density. Show your work and report your answer.

Part C: Density of Water

Weigh of the empty 25 mL stoppered

flask with the stopper
Weigh of the filled 25 mL stoppered
flask with the stopper
Mass of water

Claculate the mass of water and its density. Show your work and report your answer.
Questions
1) Calculate your percent error for the density of water.

2) An irregular object with a mass of 52 g is placed in a graduated cylinder containing 60 mL of

water. The new volume is 88.0 mL. What is the density of the object

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 3. Flame Tests and Atomic Spectra
Objectives

• To perform flame tests of metal cations in order to observe their characteristic colors,
• To perform calculations to determine the frequency and energy of the emitted photons.
• To relate these results to the types of electronic transitions occurring in these elements.
• To observe and understand line emission spectra of atoms using gas-discharge tubes.
• To practice writing electron configurations for these (and other) elements.

Background

Electromagnetic radiation is energy in the form of waves. Waves are characterized by

their wavelength (λ) and frequency (ν). Wavelength is defined as the distance between successive
crests (or troughs) on a wave and is measured in meters. Frequency is defined as the number of
waves that pass a given point every second and is measured in 1/seconds (1/s or s-1), or Hertz (Hz).

All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light (c), or 3.0×108m/s. The relationship between
the wavelength, frequency and speed of a wave is given by the equation:

c=λ×ν

Electromagnetic radiation also occurs as discreet “packets” called photons. The energy (E) of a
photon (in Joules, J) is given by the equation:

Ephoton=h×ν

Here, h is Planck’s constant, which has a value of 6.63×10−34J⋅s.

Visible light is the most familiar example of electromagnetic radiation. Differences in the
wavelengths of visible light are manifested as different colors, shown in the color spectrum below
(colors can be seen in the PDF document on-line). Other examples of electromagnetic radiation
include X-rays, ultraviolet light, infrared light, microwaves and radio waves.

9
So, how does electromagnetic radiation relate to flame tests? Well, when an atom or ion absorbs
energy, its electrons can make transitions from lower energy levels to higher energy levels. The
energy absorbed could be in the form of heat (as in flame tests), or electrical energy, or
electromagnetic radiation. However, when electrons subsequently return from higher energy levels
to lower energy levels, energy is released predominantly in the form of electromagnetic radiation.

The spacing between energy levels in an atom determines the sizes of the transitions that occur,
and thus the energy and wavelengths of the collection of photons emitted.

If emitted photons are in the visible region of the spectrum, they may be perceived as lines of
different colors (note that photons outside the visible spectrum may also be emitted but cannot be
seen). The result is called a line emission spectrum and can serve as a ‘fingerprint’ of the element
to which the atoms belong. For example, the line spectra shown below for the elements helium
and carbon are clearly quite different (colors can be seen in the PDF document on-line).

Unfortunately, techniques more sophisticated than those used in this lab are required to obtain such
line spectra. To the naked eye, when an element is vaporized in a flame (or an electrical discharge)
the emission spectrum will appear to be just one color. For example, helium gas when excited by
an electrical discharge emits light that appears an orange- peach color. This one-color results from
a combination of all lines of the emission spectrum, in proportion to their intensities. As many
elements will still produce distinctive colors under such conditions, simple flame tests can be used
to identify these elements. In fact, flame tests were used to identify elements long before the
invention of modern techniques, such as emission spectroscopy.

10
Experimental Procedure

Materials and Equipment

Looped platinum or nichrome wires, wash bottle with distilled water, Bunsen burner, and the
following solutions: 1.0M LiCl(aq), 1.0M NaCl(aq), 1.0M KCl(aq), 1.0M CuCl2(aq), 1.0M
BaCl2(aq), 1.0M CaCl2(aq). Gas discharge tubes for hydrogen, and helium, Vernier spectrum tube
Single Power Supply, hand-held spectroscope, wax pencil to label the test tubes.

Safety

Exercise appropriate caution when using the Bunsen burner.

Part A: Flame Tests of Metal Cations

Instruction: You need to add the 2 mL solutions to the test tubes first, and then dipping the loop.
After that hold the loop in the Bunsen burner flame and will record the dominant flame color
observed. Rinse each looped wire with distilled water after each use. Place the rinsed looped wire
into the empty test tube provided. Record dominant colur, the flame intensity and flame duration
for each solution.

Analysis: For each metal cation flame test performed, determine the wavelength corresponding
to the observed flame color from the table below.

*Wavelength values here are given for the mid- range of the color indicated.

Dominant Color Approximate Wavelength (in

nm)*
Red 701
Red-Orange 622
Orange 609
Orange-Yellow 597
Yellow 587
Yellow-Green 577
Green 535
Green-Blue 492

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 Blue 474
Blue-Violet 455
Violet/Purple 423

Part B: Line Emission Spectra

1. Set up gas-discharge tubes for hydrogen and helium and use the hand-held spectroscope
to view the spectral lines.
2. Align the slit on the wider end so that you can see the light through the view window on
the opposite end. It should appear as a clear, vertical line, and result in several colored
lines appearing in the view. You should also be able to see the nm markings (make sure it
is not upside-down) below the colored lines in the view.
3. Record the spectral lines, indicating colors in their specific locations.

Experimental Data

Part A: Flame Tests of Metal Cations Experimental Data and Observations

Solution Dominant Flame Wavelength Flame Intensity Flame

Color (nm) (low, medium, Duration
high) (seconds)
BaCl2
CaCl2
CuCl2
KCl
LiCl
NaCl

Part B: Line Emission Spectra

• Draw the spectral lines for the indicated elements. Indicate names colors below each line
drawn.

Line Emission Spectrum for Helium

• colors:
• nm:

Line Emission Spectrum for Hydrogen

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 • colors:
• nm:

Questions

1) What evidence is there that the colors observed in the flame tests are due to the metals,
and not the nonmetals in the compounds tested?
2) You observed the spectral lines for different elements. What is happening within an atom
that causes it to emit light in specific lines in a spectrum?
3) Why did the different elements have different line emission spectra?

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 4. Lewis Structures and Molecular Shapes
Objectives
• To use model kits to construct these molecules/ions in order to explore their structure and
shapes.
• To practice predicting molecular shapes (using VSEPR theory) and molecular polarit
Background
Non-metal atoms bond covalently, resulting in the formation of either neutral molecules or
polyatomic ions. A covalent bond is formed when non-metal atoms share their valence electrons,
which they do in order to achieve filled valence orbitals like their nearest noble gas neighbor.
This means that most bonded non-metal atoms will acquire a total of eight valence electrons via
the sharing process – often referred to as the octet rule. A notable exception is hydrogen, which
only needs to acquire two electrons to be like its nearest noble gas neighbor, helium.
Lewis Structures
A Lewis Structure is a representation of covalent molecules (or polyatomic ions) where all the
valence electrons are shown distributed about the bonded atoms as either shared electron pairs
(bond pairs) or unshared electron pairs (lone pairs). A shared pair of electrons is represented as a
short line (a single bond). Sometimes atoms can share two pairs of electrons, represented by two
short lines (a double bond). Atoms can even share three pairs of electrons, represented by three
short lines (a triple bond). Pairs of dots are used to represent lone pair electrons.
Examples:

The rules for drawing Lewis structures can be found in the Procedure Section of this experiment.
Molecular Shapes
The shape of a molecule depends on the distribution of atoms in space about the central atom,
and their bond angles. Bond pair electrons and lone pair electrons repel one another, thus they

14
will be arranged around a central atom as far apart as possible in order to minimize repulsions.
This is known as:
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion theory, or VSEPR theory.
The following VSEPR table supplies the names, sketches and descriptions of the most common
types of molecular shapes that you will encounter. Note that several other molecular geometries
do exist, however, they are beyond the scope of this course.

Shape Name Sketch Description

Linear Only two outer atoms surround the central atom.
There are no lone pairs on the central atom. Outer
atoms are arranged opposite to each other. The bond
angles are exactly 180°.
Trigonal Three outer atoms surround the central atom. There
Planar are no lone pairs on the central atom. The central and
outer atoms all lie in the same plane (molecule is
flat). Bond angles are exactly 120°.
Bent Two outer atoms and one lone pair surround the
central atom. Bond angles are slightly less than 120°.

Tetrahedral Four outer atoms surround the central atom. There

are no lone pairs on the central atom. The four outer
atoms are evenly arranged in 3D around the central
atom as if at the corners of a regular tetrahedron. The
bond angles are exactly 109.5°.
Trigonal Three outer atoms and one lone pair surround the
Pyramidal central atom. Here the central atom is located slightly
above the three outer atoms, like a tripod. The bond
angles are slightly less than 109.5°.
Bent Two outer atoms and two lone pairs surround the
central atom. Bond angles are slightly less than
109.5°.

Electronegativity and Bond Polarity

Some atoms in molecules have the ability to pull shared electrons closer to themselves than other
atoms, an ability referred to as electronegativity. Electronegativity increases going across a period
and decreases going down a group.
If two bonded atoms have different electronegativities, then the bond pair electrons will
be unequally shared. The atom with the greater electronegativity will pull the bond electrons closer
towards itself, causing it to obtain a very slight negative charge (δ−). The atom with the lower
electronegativity will have bond electrons pulled further away from it, causing it to obtain a very
slight positive charge (δ+). The result is a polar covalent bond. However, if two bonded atoms

15
have the same electronegativity, then the bond pair electrons will be equally shared. The result is
a non-polar covalent bond.
Example:

The bond electrons are pulled closer to Cl due to its greater electronegativity. Thus, HCl
contains a polar covalent bond.
Molecular Polarity
Molecular polarity results when the entire molecule (not just a bond in the molecule) ends up with
an unequal distribution of electrons. In general, a molecule will be polar if it contains polar bonds
that are distributed in a non-symmetrical arrangement around the central atom. A polar molecule
is said to have a net dipole moment. A non-symmetrical arrangement typically results when there
are lone pairs on the central atom, or, when different outer atoms surround the central atom.
Not surprisingly, a molecule will be non-polar if it contains all non-polar bonds. It will also be
non- polar if it contains polar bonds distributed in a symmetrical arrangement around the central
atom. The symmetry causes the individual bond polarities to cancel out, resulting in a net non-
polar molecule. A symmetrical arrangement typically results when there are no lone pairs on the
central atom, and if all the outer atoms are identical.
Examples:

Experimental Procedure
Drawing Lewis Structures
Draw Lewis structures for each of the molecules and polyatomic ions given on your Lab Report.
Clearly show all bond pair electrons as lines and lone pair electrons as pairs of dots.
Rules for Drawing Lewis Structures

16
 1. Total the number of valence electrons that each atom contributes to the
molecule/polyatomic ion.
• For polyatomic anions, you must add electrons (equal to the negative charge) to the total
number of valence electrons. For polyatomic cations, you must subtract electrons (equal
to the positive charge) from the total number of valence electrons.
2. Draw a stick structure for the molecule.
• The least electronegative atom is the central atom. Hydrogen is the only exception to this,
as it forms only 1 bond. The central atom will usually need to form multiple bonds.
• The other atoms are arranged around the central atom and are attached to it via single
bonds.
3. The octet rule must be obeyed for all elements except hydrogen (follows a “duet” rule).
• Starting with the outside atoms, place the remaining electrons around each atom until it
has a total of 8 electrons (except hydrogen – it only requires 2 electrons).
• If there are not enough electrons available to obey the octet rule using single bonds, this
indicates that double or triple bonds between two atoms are required in your structure. If
short by two electrons, try a double bond, and if short by four electrons, try a triple bond
or two double bonds.
Constructing Models, Determining Molecular Shapes and Molecular Polarity
1. Use your molecular model kit to construct a three-dimensional model of each of these
molecules and polyatomic ions. Sketch a reasonably detailed picture of this model on
your Lab Report.
Rules for Constructing Molecules with the Model Kit
• Use the short sticks for single bonds.
• Use two long flexible sticks for a double bond and three long flexible sticks for a triple
bond.
2. Evaluate the polarity of the bonds in each molecule as well as its overall symmetry in
order to determine whether it is polar or non-polar.
Experimental Data
Molecular Name of Molecular Lewis Electron- Total Nonbonding Molecular
Formula Shape and Bond Angle Dot Formula Valence Electrons Polarity:
from Model Polar/Non-polar
H2

O2

N2

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H2O

NH3

CO

CO2

CH4

C2H4

CH2O

18
 5. Electrical Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions
Objectives
• To observe electrical conductivity of substances in various aqueous solutions
• To determine of the solution is a strong or weak electrolyte
• To interpret a chemical reaction by observing aqueous solution conductivity.
Background
Electrical conductivity is based on the flow of electrons. Metals are good conductors of electricity
because they allow electrons to flow through the entire piece of material. Thus, electrons flow like
a “sea of electrons” through metals. In comparison, distilled water is a very poor conductor of
electricity since very little electricity flows through water. Highly ionized substances are strong
electrolytes. Strong acids and salts are strong electrolytes because they completely ionize
(dissociate or separate) in solution. The ions carry the electric charge through the solution thus
creating an electric current. The current, if sufficient enough, will light one or both LEDs on
a conductivity meter.
Slightly ionized substances are weak electrolytes. Weak acids and bases would be categorized as
weak electrolytes because they do not completely dissociate in solution.
Substances that do not conduct an electric current are called non-electrolytes. Non-electrolytes do
not ionize; they do not contain moveable ions. The LEDs of a conductivity meter will not light
because there are no ions to carry the electric current. The table below lists examples of strong,
weak and non-electrolytes.

19
Experimental Procedure
Materials and Equipment
Conductivity meter, wash bottle with distilled water, large beaker for rinsing/waste, 100 mL
beakers (3), 0.2g sodium chloride, 0.2g calcium carbonate
Solutions: 0.1 M Acetic acid (5 mL), 0.1 M ammonium hydroxide (5 mL), saturated calcium
hydroxide (5 mL), ethanol (5 mL), 0.1 M hydrochloric acid (5 mL), 0.1 M magnesium hydroxide
(5 mL), 0.1 M magnesium sulfate (5 mL), 0.1 M sodium hydroxide (5 mL), 0.1 M sucrose (5 mL)
Safety
Be cautious with hydrochloric acid, and acetic acid. Although low in concentration, some
individuals may have extreme skin sensitivities. If you experience any tingling sensations or skin
discolorations, rinse immediately with large amounts of water for 15 minutes. Inform your
instructor ASAP.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) required: lab coat, safety goggles, closed-toe shoes.
Conductivity Testing – Evidence for Ions in Aqueous Solution
1. The meter has a 9V battery, and two parallel copper electrodes. Use a wash bottle with
distilled water and a large beaker labeled “waste” to rinse the copper electrodes. Dry using
a Kimwipe tissue. When switched on, the lights should not be lit any color. If they are,
repeat the rinsing and drying.

20
Note: DO NOT EXPOSE THE CIRCUIT BOARD TO WATER. Only the copper electrodes
should be rinsed with water.
2. Place the meter so that the circuit board is facing up (the battery will be below). Always
place the meter in this way so that the circuit board will not get wet. On this side, there is
a guide to the possible conductivity measurements:
Scale Red LED Green LED Conductivity
0 off off low or none
1 dim off low
2 medium off medium
3 bright dim high
4 very bright medium very high

Note: Switch the meter on and dip the copper electrodes to test conductivity. Thoroughly rinse
with distilled water after each test, and dry with Kimwipes. Switch the meter off between uses.
3. Place 15-20 mL of distilled water into a small, 100 mL beaker. Test and record your results.
4. Place 15-20 mL of tap water into a small, clean beaker. Test and record your results.
5. Place about 0.2 g of solid sodium chloride (NaCl) into a 100 mL, clean beaker and test the
conductivity. Add 5 mL distilled water to the sodium chloride; test the conductivity of the
solution. Dispose of this solution in the sink and rinse the beaker. Make sure to rinse out
the electrode with DI water, before proceeding to the next step. Keep rinsing the electrodes
with DI water until the LEDs are off.
6. Place about 0.2 g of solid calcium carbonate (CaCO3 into a 100mL, clean beaker and test
the conductivity. Add 5 mL distilled water to the calcium carbonate; test the conductivity
of the solution. Dispose this solution in the sink and rinse the beaker.
7. Use 5 mL of each of the following in 100-mL beaker to test the conductivities. Be sure to
rinse and dry the electrodes between tests, using your wash bottle with waste beaker,
and Kimwipes. Dispose the solution and rinse the beaker in the sink between tests.
Dispose the waste beaker solution in non-hazardous waste in the hood.
• acetic acid, 0.1 M CH3COOH
• ammonium hydroxide, 0.1 M NH4OH(aq)
• calcium hydroxide, saturated Ca(OH)2
• ethanol, CH3CH2OH
• hydrochloric acid, 0.1 M HCl
• magnesium sulfate, 0.1 M MgSO4
• sodium hydroxide, 0.1 M NaOH
• sucrose, 0.1 M C12H22O11

21
Experimental Data
Solution Observations: Conducti Strong, Weak, or Ionized,
red LED | green vity Non-electrolyte partially
LED ionized, or
Non-ionized
examples: LiOH (aq) red bright, green high/low/ strong ionized/partially
dim red dim, none electrolyte/weak ionized/non-
green off red off, electrolyte/non- ionized
green off electrolyte
distilled water
tap water
solid sodium
chloride, NaCl(s)
sodium chloride
solution, NaCl(aq)
solid calcium
carbonate, CaCO3(s)
calcium carbonate
solution, CaCO3(aq)
acetic acid, 0.1
M CH3COOH
ammonium
hydroxide, 0.1
M NH4OH(aq)
calcium hydroxide,
saturated Ca(OH)2
ethanol, CH3CH2OH
hydrochloric acid, 0.1
M HCl
magnesium sulfate,
0.1 M MgSO4
sodium hydroxide,
0.1 M NaOH
sucrose, 0.1
M C12H22O11

Questions
1. Why must the electrodes on the conductivity apparatus, as well as all the beakers, be
rinsed with distilled water after each conductivity test?
2. Why is distilled water a weaker conductor than tap water?
3. Why does solid sodium chloride act as a non-electrolyte while an aqueous while an
aqueous NaCl solution acts as a strong electrolyte?
4. Classify each of the following as non-ionized, partially-ionized, or ionized.

22
 6. Single Replacement Reactions and Batteries (Section A:
Single Replacement Reactions)
Objectives
• Perform and observe the results of a variety of single and double replacement reactions.
• Become familiar with some of the observable signs of these reactions
• Identify the products formed in each of these reactions.
• Write balanced chemical equations for each of the double replacement reactions studied.
Background
During a chemical reaction both the form and composition of matter are changed. Old substances
are converted to new substances, which have unique physical and chemical properties of their own.
Some of the observable signs that a chemical reaction has occurred include:
• Metallic deposit
• Appearance of bubbles
• Temperature change occurs
• Color change occurs
• Precipitate (cloudy, tiny particles) appears
Note that there are other observable signs for chemical reactions, but these are most likely to be
seen in this lab.
Single Replacement Reactions
In Section A of this lab we will examine single replacement reactions. This is one type of
oxidation-reduction reaction, or redox reaction, because it occurs via a transfer of electrons.

Single replacement reactions have the general form: A + BC(aq) ⎯→ AC(aq) + B

Here, A is an element and BC is usually an aqueous ionic compound or an acid (consisting of B+
and C- aqueous ions). Element A replaces element B in the compound BC; this results in the
formation of a new element B and a new ionic compound or acid, AC. If the new element B is a
metal, it will appear as a metallic deposit. If it is a gas, it will appear as bubbles.

Single displacement reactions involve changes in the oxidation number and are therefore classified
as oxidation-reduction reactions. When an atom loses electrons, it is being oxidized (or has
undergone oxidation). Oxidation is a loss of electrons. Conversely, when an atom gains electrons,
it is being reduced (or has undergone reduction). Reduction is a gain of electrons.

Example 1:

3 Mg + 2 AlCl3 → 2 Al + 3 MgCl2

Since Mg is more active than Al, a single replacement reaction will occur. The predicted

23
products are aluminum metal and aqueous magnesium chloride.

Example 2:

Al + MgCl2→ NO REACTION
Since Al is not more active than Mg, a replacement will NOT occur.

Experimental Procedure

Safety
Exercise caution when using the 3 M H2SO4, as they can burn your skin. Silver nitrate (AgNO3)
can stain your skin. If they come in contact with your skin, immediately rinse with water.

Materials and Equipment

Materials and Equipment Materials: 1 x 2 cm strips of sheet copper, magnesium and zinc;
Aqueous solutions: 0.1 M lead(II) nitrate (Pb(NO3)2), 0.1 M silver nitrate (AgNO3) , 0.1 M zinc
nitrate, 0.05 M sulfuric acid (H2SO4), 2 M HCl

Equipment: 9 small test tubes, test tube rack, large beaker, 100 mL beakers (2), wax pencils.

Section A: Single Replacement Reactions

1. Place six clean test tubes in a rack and number them 1 -5. To each, add about 2 mL of the
aqueous solutions listed below. Use a 10 mL graduated cylinder to measure out around 2 mL,
make sure to rinse after each use.
2. Obtain three pieces of zinc, two of copper, and one of magnesium 1 cm x 1 cm strips that are
small enough to fit in the test tubes. If the strips are not shiny or are showing signs of oxide
deposits, clean the metal strips with the sandpaper. Add the metal pieces to the test tubes with the
solutions as listed.

• Test tube 1: Zinc metal + hydrochloric acid

• Test tube 2: Copper metal + aqueous silver nitrate
• Test tube 3: Copper metal + aqueous zinc nitrate
• Test tube 4: Zinc metal + aqueous lead (II) nitrate
• Test tube 5: Magnesium metal + sulfuric acid

3. Observe each tube carefully and record any evidence of a chemical reaction. Evidence will
either be bubbling or appearance of a metal deposit (often black or gray) on the surface of the
metal strip. Some reactions maybe slow or difficult to detect, so allow it to stand for about 10
minutes and reexamine.

Experimental Data
For each of the reactions performed:

24
• record your observations
• predict the names and states of the products formed
• write the balanced equation, including all physical states

Zinc metal + hydrochloric acid

Observation
Product name
Balanced equation

Copper metal + aqueous silver nitrate

Observation
Product name
Balanced equation

Copper metal + aqueous zinc nitrate

Observation
Product name
Balanced equation

Zinc metal + aqueous lead (II) nitrate

Observation
Product name
Balanced equation

Magnesium metal + sulfuric acid

Observation
Product name
Balanced equation

25
 7. Single Replacement Reactions and Batteries
(Section B: Batteries)
Objectives
• Identify oxidizing and reducing agent
• Make salt bridge battery and coin battery
• Understand the function of a salt bridge.

Background

Single Replacement Reactions In Part A of this lab we examined single replacement reactions.
This is one type of oxidation-reduction reaction, or redox reaction, because it occurs via a transfer
of electrons.
Single replacement reactions have the general form:
A + BC →→ B + AC
Here, A is an element and BC is usually an aqueous ionic compound or an acid (consisting of B+
and C- aqueous ions). Element A replaces element B in the compound BC; this results in the
formation of a new element B and a new ionic compound or acid, AC. If the new element B is a
metal, it will appear as a metallic deposit. If it is a gas, it will appear as bubbles.
An activity series of elements is often used to determine if A will displace B in a single replacement
reaction. As a rule, if A has a higher activity that B, a single replacement reaction will occur.
However, if A has lower activity than B, a single replacement reaction will not occur.

The activity series for metals (and HYDROGEN)

Li highest activity
K
Ca
Na
Mg
Al
Zn→ Zn+2
Cr →Cr+3
Fe →Fe+2
Cd →Cd+2
Ni →Ni+2
Sn →Sn+2
Pb →Pb+2
H2
Cu →Cu+2
Ag →Ag+1
Hg →Hg+2
Au →Au+3 lowest activity

26
Oxidation numbers indicate how many electrons each atom in a compound possesses relative to
the free atom. It serves as a “book-keeping” system so that the flow of electrons can be observed.
If the oxidation number of any atom changes during a chemical reaction, a transfer of electrons
has occurred.
When an atom loses electrons, it is being oxidized (or has undergone oxidation). Oxidation is a
loss of electrons. Conversely, when an atom gains electrons, it is been reduced (or has undergone
reduction). Reduction is a gain of electrons.

When describing redox reactions relative to the entire molecule, we use the terms oxidizing agent
and reducing agent. A reducing agent is a substance that is being oxidized and thus causes another
substance to be reduced. An oxidizing agent is a substance that is being reduced and thus causes
another substance to be oxidized. We can remember these concepts with the helpful mnemonic
“OIL RIG”:

xidation
O s The REDUCING AGENT
I oss of Electrons
L

eduction
R s The OXIDIZING AGENT
I ain of Electrons
G

Example 1: magnesium metal + aqueous aluminum chloride

Oxidation Number: 0, +3, -1, 0, +2, and -1
Reaction Equation: 3 Mg (s) + 2 AlCl3 (aq) →→ 2 Al (s) + 3 MgCl2 (aq)
A + BC →B + AC

In the above example, magnesium is oxidized (the reducing agent) because it has lost electrons. In
addition, the aluminum atom in aluminum chloride is reduced because it has gained an electron.
Thus, aluminum chloride is the oxidizing agent.
Electricity can be described as a flow of electrons through a wire. This form of energy is caused
by the motion of electrons. A device that creates electrical current from redox reactions is called
an electrochemical cell, voltaic cell, galvanic cell or battery.

Batteries serve as a source of energy for flashlights, radios, as well as car motors. In Part B we will
build an electrochemical cell. It will consist of two metals (called electrodes) connected by a salt
bridge between individual half-cells. A salt bridge, which contains a strong electrolyte, will join
the two reactions and complete the circuit. It allows for the mixing of the two solutions.
The metal strip where oxidation occurs is the anode and is labeled with a negative (−) sign. The
metal strip where reduction occurs is called the cathode and is labeled with a (+) sign. These
symbols can be observed on everyday batteries. Electrons flow from anode to the cathode:

27
A (anode) = O (oxidation)
| electron flow
C (cathode) = R (reduction)

Experimental Procedure
Materials and Equipment
1 M Copper(II) sulfate, 1M zinc sulfate, 10 inch piece of cotton twine, concentrated potassium
sulfate, copper metal plate/electrode, zinc metal plate/electrode, voltmeter set to 2V, coins (1
penny, 2 nickels and 1 dime), paper towels, 1M sodium chloride, banana clips, scissors.
Pre Lab: Instructor should soak the twine.
Salt Bridge Battery
1. Into a 100-mL beaker add approximately 25 mL of 0.250 M copper (II) sulfate. (This is the
cathode.) Label as Beaker #1.
2. Into another 250-mL beaker, add approximately 25 mL of 0.250 M zinc sulfate. (This is
the anode.) Label as Beaker #2.
3. Obtain twine which has been soaked in a concentrated potassium sulfate solution from your
instructor. (The twine is the salt bridge). Connect the solutions in the beakers by placing
one end of a 10- inch piece of cotton twine into Beaker #1 and the other end into the Beaker
#2.
4. Place a polished piece of copper metal plate into Beaker #1. Connect to voltmeter using
wire clips (Red one for Beaker 1).
5. Place a polished piece of zinc metal plate into Beaker #2. Connect to voltmeter using wire
clips (Black one for Beaker 2).
6. Turn voltmeter to 2V and record the voltage.
7. The reaction will take about a minute to stabilize. Make sure you measure the reading
within 30 minutes of adding the salt bridge.

Measured voltage = _____________ V

(If no reading is measered, try one of the following troubleshot procedures: a) Swirl the
solutions, wait a few seconds and measure again. b) Turn of the voltmeter, check the red
and black wire connections. Make sure they are properly attached to voltmeter, and then
measure again. c) Obtain another salt bridge from the instructor.)

Coin Battery
1. Obtain four coins from the front bench: penny, 2 nickels, and dime. Cut 3 circles of paper
towel about the same diameter or slightly larger than the coins.
2. Soak the paper towel pieces in a beaker containing 20 mL of a 1M sodium chloride
solution.
3. Make a stack alternating coins and NaCl-soaked paper towel pieces: penny, paper, dime,
paper, nickel, paper, nickel. Make sure that the penny is on one end, and the nickel on the
other end. Do not allow the coins or the edges of the paper towels to touch.
4. Touch red probe to penny and the black probe to the nickel.

28
 5. Turn voltmeter to 2V and record the voltage.
measured voltage = _____________ V

Questions
1. Which type of battery produced the greatest voltage? Why?
2. What happened when the salt bridge was removed from the salt bridge battery? Explain.

29
 8. Double Replacement Reactions
Objectives
• Perform and observe the results of a variety of double replacement reactions.
• Become familiar with some of the observable signs of these reactions
• Identify the products formed in each of these reactions.
• Write balanced chemical equations for each of the double replacement reactions studied.

Background
During a chemical reaction both the form and composition of matter are changed. Old substances
are converted to new substances, which have unique physical and chemical properties of their own.

Some of the observable signs that a chemical reaction has occurred include:
• Metallic deposit
• Appearance of bubbles
• Temperature change occurs
• Color change occurs
• Precipitate (cloudy, tiny particles) appears

All double replacement reactions have the general form:

AB+CD→AD+CB

Reactions that can be classified as double replacements include precipitation reactions,

neutralization reactions and gas forming reactions.

Precipitation Reactions

Here AB and CD are usually aqueous ionic compounds (or acids) consisting of aqueous ions (A+
and B-, C+ and D-). When a double replacement reaction occurs, the cations and anions switch
partners, resulting in the formation of two new ionic compounds AD and CB, one of which is in
the solid state. This solid product is an insoluble ionic compound called a precipitate. To determine
whether a product ionic compound will be soluble or insoluble, consult the Solubility Rules
provided at the end of the Background section. Note that if both of the predicted products are
soluble, a precipitation reaction will not occur.

Example 1: aqueous lead (II) nitrate + aqueous sodium chloride

The predicted products are lead (II) chloride (insoluble) and sodium nitrate (soluble). Since one of
the predicted products is insoluble, a precipitation reaction is will occur.

Reaction Equation:

Pb(NO3)2(aq)+2NaCl(aq)→2NaNO3(aq)+PbCl2(s)

30
Neutralization Reactions

Here AB is an acid (consisting of H+ and X- aqueous ions) and BC is a base (consisting of M+

and OH- ions). When a double replacement reaction occurs, the cations and anions switch partners,
resulting in the formation of water and a new ionic compound (or salt), which is usually soluble.
Neutralization reactions are exothermic and are generally accompanied by a noticeable release of
heat.

Example 4: sulfuric acid + aqueous lithium hydroxide

The predicted products are water and lithium sulfate.

Reaction Equation: H2SO4 (aq) + 2 LiOH (aq) • Li2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

Gas Forming Reactions

In these reactions one of the products (AD or CB) after the double replacement is in the gaseous
state, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) or ammonia (NH3). One of the products could also be
carbonic acid (H2CO3) or sulfurous acid (H2SO3). Both carbonic acid and sulfurous acid are
unstable and will decompose to form carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide gases, respectively:

Carbonic acid H2CO3(aq)⟶H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Sulfurous Acid H2SO3(aq)⟶H2O(l) + SO2(g)

Example 5: nitric acid + aqueous sodium bicarbonate

The predicted products are carbonic acid and sodium nitrate. However carbonic acid
decomposed to carbon dioxide and water.

Reaction Equation: HNO3 (aq) + NaHCO3 (aq) → NaNO3(aq) + H2CO3(aq)

Writing Equations for Reactions

Write chemical formulas for each reactant and place a yield arrow (→) after the last reactant.
Identify the reaction type – precipitation, neutralization or gas forming.
If you determine that a reaction will occur, write the correct formula(s) of the products after the
arrow. If you determine that a reaction will not occur, write “no reaction” after the arrow. Balance
the equation (to ensure mass conservation). Be sure to include the physical states of all reactants
and products in your final equation.

Experimental procedure

Safety
Be especially cautious when using the 6M HCl, 3M H2SO4 and 6M NaOH as they can burn your
skin. Also be aware that skin discoloration will result from contact with AgNO3. If you feel any

31
tingling sensations or see any color changes on your skin, flush with water immediately for a
minimum of 15 minutes. Inform your instructor of any chemical contact as soon as possible.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) required: safety goggles, lab coat, closed-toe shoes.

Materials and Equipment

Solids: sodium bicarbonate
Solutions: 1 M sodium hydroxide, 0.1 M sulfuric acid, 1 M hydrochloric acid; all other solutions
are 0.1 M and include silver nitrate, sodium chloride, HCl, NaOH, sodium phosphate, copper (II)
sulfate, nickel (II) nitrate, and barium chloride
Equipment: 9 small test tubes, test tube rack, 10 disposable pipette, wax pencil
Instructions for Performing Reactions
Use approximately 1-mL quantities of all solutions. Use a 1 mL disposable pipette to mesure out
each chemical. Use one pitte per chemical.
Perform the following reactions, and record your observations for each on the data sheet. If results
are not obtained immediately, give the reaction some time. Some reactions take longer than others.
All waste is to be disposed of in the container in the hood!

1. 1 mL aqueous sodium chloride + 1 mL aqueous silver nitrate

2. 1 mL aqueous sodium phosphate + 1 mL aqueous copper (II) sulfate
3. 1 mL hydrochloric acid + solid sodium bicarbonate (just a small scoop)
4. 1 mL aqueous nickel (II) nitrate + 1 mL aqueous sodium hydroxide
5. 1 mL aqueous barium chloride + 1 mL sulfuric acid
6. 1 mL hydrochloric acid + 1 mL aqueous sodium hydroxide

When finished, complete the data sheet by writing the balanced equation for each reaction.

Questions

1. Name two observable signs that a chemical reaction has occurred.

2. Name two chemicals used in this experiment that must be handled with caution.

Experimental Data
• Predict the reaction type (precipitation, neutralization or gaseous) -- record your
observations
• predict the names and states of the products formed
• write the balanced equation, including all physical states.

1 mL of 0.1 M Aqueous sodium chloride + 1 mL of 0.1 M aqueous silver nitrate

Observations
Product Names
Reaction Type
Balanced Equation

32
1 mL of 0.1 M Aqueous sodium phosphate + 1 mL of 0.1 M aqueous copper (II) sulfate
Observations
Product Names
Reaction Type
Balanced Equation

1 mL of 0.1 M Hydrochloric acid + solid sodium bicarbonate (just a small scoop

Observations
Product Names
Reaction Type
Balanced Equation

1 mL of 0.1 M Aqueous nickel (II) nitrate +1 mL of 0.1 M aqueous sodium hydroxide

Observations
Product Names
Reaction Type
Balanced Equation

1 mL of 0.1 M Aqueous barium chloride + 1 mL of 0.1 M sulfuric acid

Observations
Product Names
Reaction Type
Balanced Equation

1 mL of 1 M Hydrochloric acid + 1 mL of 1 M aqueous sodium hydroxide

Observations
Product Names
Reaction Type
Balanced Equation

33
 9. Acid, Bases, and pH
Objectives
• To set up and show how to use a pH indicator
• To determine the pH of common solutions
• To understand pH differences of acids and bases
• To learn to use a laboratory pH meter
• To understand relationship between pH and H+ ion concentration

Background
An acid gives up proton to water which thus forms hydronium ion, H3O+ (or simply H+) while a
base takes up proton from water which thus leaves hydroxide ion OH-. This process usually is
described as ionization. Strong acid and bases completely ionized whereas weak acids or bases
partially ionize.
HA(aq) + H2O(l) → A-(aq) + H+(aq) (acid)
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) → NH4 + (aq) + OH− (aq) (base)

A pH value is a number, usually between 0 and 14, that represents the acidity or basicity of a
solution. The “pH” is always written with a lowercase “p” and an uppercase “H”, which stands for
“power of hydrogen.” pH values are related to hydrogen ion (H+) concentrations.

The mathematical relationship between pH and H+ is described by the equation

pH = -log [H+]

There is an inverse relationship between pH and H+ ion concentration (in brackets, expressed in
units of molarity, M). As the H+ concentration decreases, the pH value increases, and vice versa.
When the pH value is a whole number (e.g. pH 7), the number is equal to the negative exponent
of the H+ ion concentration.

pH value = X and [H + ] = 10-xM

So, for pH 7, the H+ ion concentration is 10-7 M.

The pH values of everyday chemicals typically range from pH 0 to pH 14. Values between 0 and
7 indicate an acidic solution. Values between 7 and 14 indicate a basic solution. A pH of exactly
7 indicates that a solution is neutral, neither acidic or basic. Pure water is usually pH 7.

The pH scale is shown below.

34
The lower the pH value, the more acidic the solution; the higher the pH value, the more basic the
solution. Basic solutions are also called alkaline solutions. It should be noted that the pH scale
does extend beyond 0 and 14. Strong laboratory acids typically have pH values less than 0
(negative pH values) and strong laboratory bases typically have pH values greater than 14. Thus,
they are considerably more dangerous.

The concept of pH is widely used in all areas of science including agriculture, biology, engineering
and medicine. Many commercial products use pH as an advertisement tool, such as shampoo and
water; more recently, food and drink of certain pH has been touted as more healthful.

A pH indicator is a substance that, when a small amount of it is added to a solution of unknown

pH, will change its color. This is a way to determine pH of a solution visually. The indicator used
in this lab will be obtained from a natural source, red cabbage. Cabbage indicator yields a particular
color depending on the pH of the solution. pH indicators are a good way to easily and quickly
show the approximate pH by color when compared to a standard. An everyday example where a
pH indicator is used is for testing a water sample from a swimming pool.

While pH indicators are useful for qualitative purposes, when an exact quantitative value is needed,
a pH meter is used. A laboratory pH meter typically has a special probe capped with a membrane
that is sensitive to H+ ion concentrations. The meter reading shows an exact pH value of the
solution probed.

pH meters are used to measure pH values of water samples, such as determining acidity of
rainwater samples. Rainwater contains dissolved carbon dioxide that produces a weakly acidic
solution. Rain naturally has a pH between 5 and 6. The pH of rain in parts of the U.S. is less than
pH 5, which is harmful to aquatic life and human health. This is acid rain.

Living organisms are very sensitive to the effects of acids and bases in their environment. An
excess of H+ or OH− can interfere with the functioning of biological molecules, especially
proteins. Thus, in order to maintain homeostasis and survive, organisms must maintain a stable
internal pH.

A buffer is a solution whose pH resists change on addition of small amounts of either an acid or a
base. To be a good buffer, a solution should have a component that acts as a base (takes H+ out of
solution) and a component that acts as an acid (puts more H+ into solution when there is an excess
of OH−).

35
Experimental Procedure
Safety
Exercise appropriate caution when using the Bunsen burner. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
required: safety goggles, closed-toe shoes, gloves.
Materials and Equipment
400-mL beaker, ring stand, wire gauze, hot plate, large test tubes, dropper pipet, stirring rod, wash
bottle with distilled water, 0.1 M hydrochloric acid, 0.1 M sodium hydroxide, cabbage solution,
buffer solution (pH from 1- 13), mouth wash, laundry detergent, lemon juice, vinegar
Part A: Preparing pH indicator and pH standards
1. Tear a few leaves of red cabbage into small pieces and place the leaves into a 500-mL
beaker. Add about 500-mL of distilled water to this beaker. Make sure that all of the
leaf pieces are completely submerged.
2. Gently boil the mixture on heating plate until it appears dark purple in color (5-10 min).
Turn off the heat and allow to cool (5 min). {ALREADY PREPARED- OBTAIN
FROM THE FUMEHOOD.}
3. Work in groups clean 13 test tubes and label 1-13.
4. Add 3 mL of each pH standard solution (pH from 1- 13) in a separate tube to create a set
with pH from 1-13.
5. Add 2 mL cabbage indicator solution to each test tube and mix, record the colors of the
pH standards. SAVE PREPARED STANDARD FOR COMPARISON
Part B: Qualitative Analysis for pH Values of Everyday Chemicals
Materials: cabbage solution, mouth wash, laundry detergent, lemon juice, vinegar, tap water, 0.1
M HCl, 0.1M NaOH
1. Obtain 10 test tubes (clean but may be wet). Label each test tube with the solutions to be
tested.
2. Pour about 3-mL of each solution into the appropriately labeled test tube.
3. Using a dropper pipet, add an equal volume of cabbage indicator solution. If necessary, stir
to mix with a clean stirring rod (rinse with distilled water between uses).
4. Record the resulting color of the sample after mixed with the cabbage indicator. Compare
this color with pH standards at the front of the laboratory to determine the pH of the sample.
The color may be between the pH standard colors (e.g. green-blue instead of green or blue
alone). For these, record the pH to 0.5 values (e.g. pH = 9.5 instead of 9 or 10).
Pre-Lab Questions
1. What is a pH indicator?

36
2. A solution that has a pH of 10 is considered?
3. A solution with a concentration of 1.2 x 10-5M has a pH of?
Experimental Data
Part A: Color of Red Cabbage Indicator With pH Standards
pH Standard Color with Cabbage Indicator
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

Parts B and C: pH of Everyday Chemicals

Chemical Color with Qualitative Acidic, basic, Quantitative
indicator pH or neutral? pH
Soda
Shampoo
Mouth wash
Bleach
Laundry
detergent
Lemon juice
Vinegar
Tap water

37
 0.1 M HCl
0.1 M NaOH

Post-Lab Questions
1. What is an acidic solution? What is a basic solution?
2. What is an alkaline solution?
3. What is a pH indicator? What are common uses of pH indicators?
4. Write the mathematical equation that relates pH value and H+ ion concentration:

38
 10. Making Soap-Saponification
Objectives
• The objective of this laboratory is to make lye soap via the saponification reaction.

Background
Soap making has remained unchanged over the centuries. The ancient Roman tradition called for
mixing rainwater, potash and animal tallow (rendered form of beef or mutton fat). Making soap
was a long and arduous process. First, the fat had to be rendered (melted and filtered). Then, potash
solution was added. Since water and oil do not mix, this mixture had to be continuously stirred and
heated sufficiently to keep the fat melted. Slowly, a chemical reaction called saponification would
take place between the fat and the hydroxide which resulted in a liquid soap. When the fat and
water no longer separated, the mixture was allowed to cool. At this point salt, such as sodium
chloride, was added to separate the soap from the excess water. The soap came to the top, was
skimmed off, and placed in wooden molds to cure. It was aged many months to allow the reaction
to run to completion. All soap is made from fats and oils, mixed with alkaline (basic) solutions.
There are many kinds of fats and oils, both animal and vegetable. Fats are usually solid at room
temperature, but many oils are liquid at room temperature. Liquid cooking oils originate from corn,
peanuts, olives, soybeans, and many other plants. For making soap, all different types of fats and
oils can be used – anything from lard to exotic tropical plant oils.
Saponification Reactions:

Soap can emulsify fats and oils by forming micelles around oil droplets. The soap molecules
surround an oil droplet so that their nonpolar tails are embedded in the oil and their charged “head”
groups are on the exterior of the droplets, facing the water. If the oil droplets are small enough and
if there are enough soap molecules to surround them, the oil droplets become dispersed in the water
and can then easily be washed away. Therefore, using lots of soap, hot water, and agitation can
help clean greasy dishes. Hot water can melt solid fats, and agitation can help break up the fats
and oils into smaller droplets.
Using lots of soap makes it more likely that there will be enough soap molecules to surround and
emulsify all of the fat droplets. Soaps are less effective in hard water, which is water that contains
a significant concentration of magnesium, calcium and iron ions. These ions form precipitates with
soap molecules, and this precipitate is often seen as a gray line on a bathtub or sink and is often
called “soap scum”. Since soap forms a precipitate with these ions, it means that many of the soap
molecules are no longer present in the solution. Therefore, soap will form fewer suds in hard water.

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“Soft water” is water that contains very few or no ions that precipitate with soap. Soap will
therefore be much more effective in soft water than in hard water.
Detergents are similar to soaps in that they have a charged head group and a long nonpolar tail
group, but they are not prepared from natural fats or oils. Detergents are useful because they do
not form precipitates with magnesium, iron or calcium ions, which means that they work in both
soft and hard water. Shown below is a typical detergent molecule, sodium lauryl sulfate (which
you may recognize from ingredient lists of shampoos or other cleaning products):

Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (a non-biodegradable detergent)

After detergents started being widely used, it was discovered that they were not broken down in
sewage treatment plants. Many streams and lakes became contaminated with detergents and large
amounts of foam appeared in natural waters. Biodegradable detergents were then developed.
Shown below is an example of a biodegradable detergent, sodium laurylbenzenesulfonate.

Sodium Laurylbenzenesulfonate (a biodegradable detergent)

Many commercial detergents also contain phosphate compounds. This can be a problem, because
phosphate is a nutrient for plants. Too much phosphate in a pond, lake, or stream accelerates the
growth of algae, which consumes too much of the dissolved oxygen in the water. This disturbs the
ecosystem in the pond, and some organisms will die. Therefore, you will see some detergents these
days that are labeled “phosphate free”. These are better for the environment than
phosphatecontaining detergents.
In this experiment, you will make soap from a fat or an oil by heating it with sodium hydroxide.
You will precipitate the soap by adding it to a concentrated salt solution, and then you will collect
the solid soap using vacuum filtration. You will then test the soap you made for its pH and foaming
ability. You will test to see how well it emulsifies oil and you will also test its behavior in hard
water. You will carry out the same tests on a commercially prepared soap solution and on a
commercially prepared detergent solution, and you will compare your soap to the commercial soap
and detergent.

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Experimental Procedure
Safety
• Be sure to exercise caution when dispensing the 2.5 M NaOH. If the chemical comes into
contact with your skin, immediately rinse with water for a minimum of fifteen minutes and
notify your instructor.
• Wear safety goggles, closed-toe shoes and gloves
Materials and Equipment
Materials: olive oil, vegetable oil or coconut oil, 2.5 M sodium hydroxide solution, food coloring,
assorted fragrances(optional), stearic acid, 0.5 M calcium chloride solution, 0.5 M Iron (III)
chloride solution, and 0.5 M magnesium chloride solution.
Equipment: tall 150 mL beaker, glass stirring rod, glass pipets and pipet bulbs, pH paper, test
tubes, tube rack, 10 mL graduate cylinder, magnetic stir bar and hot/stir plate, soap mold
Synthesis of Soap
1. Pour 10 mL of vegetable oil into a 150 mL beaker.
2. Prior to beginning the reaction, choose your fragrance (optional). Add 1-2 drops of desired
fragrance, do not use more than one type of fragrance.
3. Add 5 mL of 2.5 M sodium hydroxide solution to the beaker. This is approximately two
full dropper squirts.
4. Use the glass stirring rod or magnetic stirrer to mix. You must heat and stir for 20-45
minutes on a hot plate; you may choose to take turns with your lab partner. The mixture
will slowly become smoother and opaquer; it should thicken to a pudding-like consistency.
Increase temperature slightly until it boils gently. Do not exceed the 150 0C mark on the
hot plate.
5. After approval by your instructor, add 2-3 drops of desired food coloring. Stir.
6. Add a dash (approximately 1/8 teaspoon or the tip of a spatula) of stearic acid. This will
serve as a hardener for the liquid soap. Stir.
7. Pour into chosen mold shape. Label with your names and lab section number.
8. After pouring into the mold (50 mL beaker), the process will continue on its own. The soap
will heat up and liquefy again, then cool off slowly, harden and dry. So, the soap must be
left undisturbed for at least 12 hours. You will pick up your finished soap in lab next week.
Properties of Synthesized Soap
In this portion of the experiment, you will be comparing the properties of the soap you made with
a commercial soap and a detergent. You will start out by making three separate soap solutions, as
follows:

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 1. Add about 40 mL of distilled water to 1 g of the soap you prepared. Heat the beaker on a
hot plate at medium setting and gentle stir until the soap dissolves. Cool to room
temperature. In the data table, describe the appearance of the soap solution.
2. Mix 1g of liquid soap in the lab with 40 mL of warm distilled water. Stir the solution gentle
and record the appearance of the soap solution.
3. Add 1 g of commercial detergent to 40 mL of warm distilled water and stir the solution
gently. Record the appearance in the data table.
4. Remove 5 mL of each solution into three different test tubes and measure the pH (by pH
hydrion paper) of the soap solution along with the pH of distilled water as a reference.
Record the pH of the solutions in your data table. Keep the solution for the next step.
5. To the test tubes used in step 4 add 5 drops of oil. Stopper and shake each of the tubes
continuously for 10 seconds. Allow the test tube to sit for 5 minutes and describe the
observation of this emulsification test in the data table.
6. Place three test tubes in a test tube rack and label them. Pour about 4 mL of the soap
solution from step 1 into each test tube.
7. Add 10 drops of calcium chloride solution to the first tube, 10 drops of iron (III) chloride
to the second tube and 10 drops of magnesium chloride to the third tube. Stopper and shake
each tube to mix the contents. Describe the color and appearance of the mixture in each
test tube.
Pre-laboratory Assignment
1. What are soaps made up of?
2. Identify the primary safety hazard in this experiment?
3. Describe what occurs when soap can emulsify fats and oils.
Experimental Data
Part A: Synthesized Soap
1. Describe the color, texture, and appearance of synthesized soap:
2. Does it smell like any soap that you have used?
Part B: Properties of Soaps and Detergents
Synthesized Soap Commercial Soap Commercial Detergent
pH
Emulsification test
Ca2+
Fe3+
Mg2+

Post-lab Questions

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1. The saponification reaction occurs between an ester and a base, shown in the figure in the
procedure. In the reaction you performed, what is the ester and what is the base?
2. The base used in the saponification reaction must always contain a hydroxide ion. What
bases are most commonly used for this reaction?
3. The products of the reaction are glycerol and a crude soap. The chemical formula of the
soap is CH3(CH2)14COONa+. Draw the line-angle structure. Circle the portion of the
molecule that is water-soluble and box the portion of the molecule that is fat-soluble. Why
is the circle portion water-soluble? Why is the box portion fat- soluble?
4. During lab section, why did the saponification reaction require the long period of stirring?
5. Do you think that the type of fat used will make a difference in the product? Why or why
not?

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 References
Reference Materials used to compile this lab manual were adopted from the following Open
Education Resources
1) Measurements in the Laboratory
" Measurements in the Laboratory (Experiment)" by Santa Monica College, LibreTexts is
licensed under CC BY-NC.
Link: 1: Measurements in the Laboratory (Experiment) - Chemistry LibreTexts

2) Density
" Measurements in the Laboratory (Experiment)" by Santa Monica College, LibreTexts is
licensed under CC BY-NC.
Link: 1: Measurements in the Laboratory (Experiment) - Chemistry LibreTexts

3) Flame Tests and Atomic Spectra

" Flame Tests and Atomic Spectra (Experiment)" by Santa Monica College, LibreTexts is
licensed under CC BY-NC.
Link: 5: Flame Tests and Atomic Spectra (Experiment) - Chemistry LibreTexts

4) Lewis Structures and Molecular Shapes

" Lewis Structures and Molecular Shapes (Experiment)" by Santa Monica College,
LibreTexts is licensed under CC BY-NC.
Link: 6: Lewis Structures and Molecular Shapes (Experiment) - Chemistry
LibreTexts

5) Electrical Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions

" Electrical Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions (Experiment)" by Santa Monica College,
LibreTexts is licensed under CC BY-NC.
Link: 7: Electrical Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions (Experiment) - Chemistry
LibreTexts

6) Single Replacement Reactions and Batteries (Section A: Single Replacement

Reactions)
" Single Replacement Reactions and Batteries (Experiment)" by Santa Monica
College, LibreTexts is licensed under CC BY-NC.
Link: 9: Single Replacement Reactions and Batteries (Experiment) - Chemistry
LibreTexts

7) Single Replacement Reactions and Batteries (Section B: Batteries)

" Single Replacement Reactions and Batteries (Experiment)" by Santa Monica
College, LibreTexts is licensed under CC BY-NC.
Link: 9: Single Replacement Reactions and Batteries (Experiment) - Chemistry
LibreTexts

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8) Double Replacement Reactions
" Double Replacement Reactions (Experiment)" by Santa Monica College,
LibreTexts is licensed under CC BY-NC.
Link: 10: Double Replacement Reactions (Experiment) - Chemistry LibreTexts

9) Acid, Bases, and pH

" Acid, Bases and pH (Experiment)" by Santa Monica College, LibreTexts is licensed
under CC BY-NC.
Link: 8: Acid, Bases and pH (Experiment) - Chemistry LibreTexts

10) Making Soap – Saponification

• “LibreTexts Online Chemistry Lab Manual: Making Soap - Saponification

(Experiment)” by Santa Monica College is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 US
• “The Basics of General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry v. 1.0: 17.2 Fats and Oils
” by David W. Ball, John W. Hill, and Rhonda J. published by Saylor Academy is
licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Link: 12.1: Making Soap Saponification Lab Procedure - Chemistry LibreTexts

I want to thank STEM Laboratory Coordinator Faiza Fayyaz for her contributions.

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