Part 4 Sharing the Organizational Vision

Chapter 8
Leadership
Leadership is a process of
influencing and supporting
others to work enthusiastically
toward achieving objectives. It is
the critical factor that helps an
individual or a group identify its
goals and then motivates and
assists in achieving the stated
goals.
1. What is the difference between a manager and
a leader?
2. Are there specific traits, behaviours, and
situations that affect how one leads?
3. How does a leader lead with vision?
4. Can a person be an informal leader?
5. What is self-leadership?
6. What are some of the contemporary issues in
leadership?
1. What is the difference between a manager and a leader?
Managers and leaders are two very different types of people.
Managers’ goals arise out of Leaders, on the other hand,
necessities rather than desires; adopt personal, active attitudes
they excel at defusing conflicts toward goals. They look for the
between individuals or opportunities and rewards that
departments, placating all lie around the corner, inspiring
sides while ensuring that an subordinates and firing up the
organization’s day-to-day creative process with their own
business gets done. energy. Their relationships with
employees and coworkers are
intense, and their working
environment is often chaotic.
 Trait Theories
2. Are there
specific traits, - which propose leaders have a
behaviours, particular set of traits
and situations Behavioural Theories
that affect how
one leads? - which propose that particular
behaviours make for better
leader
Contingency Theories
- which propose the situation has
an effect on leaders
★ Trait Theory: Are Leaders Different from
Others?

trait theories of leadership

Theories that propose traits
—personality, social, physical, or intellectual
—differentiate leaders from nonleaders.
Comprehensive reviews of the leadership literature, when
organized around the Big Five, have found that extraversion is
the most important trait of effective leaders. But results show
that extraversion is more strongly related to leader emergence
than to leader effectiveness. This is not totally surprising since
sociable and dominant people are more likely to assert
themselves in group situations. Conscientiousness and
openness to experience also showed strong and consistent
relationships to leadership, but not as strong as extraversion.
The traits of agreeableness and emotional stability do not
appear to offer much help in predicting leadership.
Recent studies indicate that emotional intelligence (EI) is an
additional factor to consider in the emergence of a leader.
The work on EI suggests that leaders need more than the
basic traits of intelligence and job-relevant knowledge. It is
the possession of the five components of EI —
self-awareness, self-management, self-motivation, empathy,
and social skills—that allows an individual to become a star
performer. Without EI, a person can have outstanding
training, a highly analytical mind, a long-term vision, and an
endless supply of terrific ideas, but still not make a great
leader.
Based on the latest findings, we offer two
conclusions.
First, traits can predict leadership.
Second, traits do a better job at predicting the
emergence of leaders and the appearance of
leadership than in actually distinguishing between
effective and ineffective leaders.
★ Behavioural Theories: Do Leaders Behave in
Particular Ways?
behavioural theories of leadership - Theories
that propose that specific behaviours
differentiate leaders from nonleaders.
The three most best-known behavioural theories of
leadership are the Ohio State University studies that were
conducted starting in the late 1940s, the University of
Michigan studies conducted at about the same time, and
Blake and Mouton’s Leadership Grid, which reflects the
behavioural definitions of both the Ohio and Michigan
studies.
All three approaches consider two main dimensions by
which managers can be characterized: attention to
production and attention to people.
The Ohio State Studies
Initiating structure refers to the extent to which a
leader is likely to define and structure his or her
role and the roles of employees in order to attain
goals; it includes behaviour that tries to organize
work, work relationships, and goals. For instance,
leaders using this style may develop specific
output goals or deadlines for employees.
Consideration is defined as the extent to which a
leader is likely to have job relationships
characterized by mutual trust, respect for
employees’ ideas, and regard for their feelings. A
leader who is high in consideration shows concern
for followers’ comfort, well-being, status, and
satisfaction. For instance, leaders using this style
may create more flexible hours, or flextime, to
make it easier for employees to manage family
issues during work hours.
The Michigan Studies
Researchers at the University of Michigan, whose work
is referred to as “the Michigan studies,” also developed
two dimensions of leadership behaviour that they
labelled employee-oriented and production-oriented.
Employee-oriented leaders emphasize interpersonal
relations. They take a personal interest in the needs of
their subordinates and accept individual differences
among members.
Production-oriented leaders, in contrast, tend to
emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job. They
are mainly concerned with making sure the group
accomplishes its tasks, and the group members are
simply a means to that end.
The Leadership Grid
Blake and Mouton developed a graphic portrayal of a
two-dimensional view of leadership style. They proposed a
Leadership Grid based on the styles of “concern for
people” and “concern for production,” which essentially
represent the Ohio State dimensions of consideration and
initiating structure, or the Michigan dimensions of
employee orientation and production orientation.
★ Contingency Theories: Does the Situation Matter?
Situational, or contingency, theories of leadership try to
isolate critical situational factors that affect leadership
effectiveness. The theories consider the degree of
structure in the task being performed, the quality of
leader-member relations, the leader’s position power,
group norms, information availability, employee
acceptance of leader’s decisions, employee maturity, and
the clarity of the employee’s role.
Fiedler Contingency Model
The first comprehensive contingency model for
leadership was developed by Fred Fiedler. The Fiedler
contingency model proposes that effective group
performance depends on the proper match between the
leader’s style and the degree to which the situation gives
control to the leader.
Fiedler identified three contingency dimensions that
together define the situation a leader faces:
• Leader-member relations. The degree of confidence,
trust, and respect members have in their leader.
• Task structure. The degree to which the job assignments
are procedurized (that is, structured or unstructured).
• Position power. The degree of influence a leader has
over power variables such as hiring, firing, discipline,
promotions, and salary increases.
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard have developed a
leadership model that has gained a strong following
among management development specialists. This
model—called situational leadership theory (SLT).

situational leadership theory (SLT) - A theory that

proposes that effective leaders adapt their leadership
style according to how willing and able a follower is to
perform tasks.
Path-Goal Theory
A theory that says it’s the leader’s job to assist followers
in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary
direction and/or support to ensure that their individual
goals are compatible with the overall goals.
According to this theory, leaders should follow three guidelines
to be effective:
• Determine the outcomes subordinates want. These might
include good pay, job security, interesting work, and the
autonomy to do one’s job.
• Reward individuals with their desired outcomes when they
perform well.
• Let individuals know what they need to do to receive rewards
(that is, the path to the goal), remove any barriers that would
prevent high performance, and express confidence that
individuals have the ability to perform well.
Path-goal theory identifies four leadership behaviours that might
be used in different situations to motivate individuals:
• The directive leader lets followers know what is expected of
them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific guidance as
to how to accomplish tasks.
This closely parallels the Ohio State dimension of initiating
structure. This behaviour is best used when individuals have
difficulty doing tasks or the tasks are ambiguous. It would not be
very helpful when used with individuals who are already highly
motivated, have the skills and abilities to do the task, and
understand the requirements of the task.
• The supportive leader is friendly and shows concern for
the needs of followers.
This is essentially synonymous with the Ohio State
dimension of consideration. This behaviour is often
recommended when individuals are under stress or
otherwise show that they need to be supported.
• The participative leader consults with followers and
uses their suggestions before making a decision. This
behaviour is most appropriate when individuals need to
buy in to decisions.
• The achievement-oriented leader sets challenging goals
and expects followers to perform at their highest level.
This behaviour works well with individuals who like
challenges and are highly motivated. It would be less
effective with less capable individuals or those who are
highly stressed from overwork.
Substitutes for Leadership
Experience and training, for instance, can replace the need
for a leader’s support or ability to create structure and reduce
task ambiguity.
Jobs that are inherently unambiguous and routine, provide
their own feedback, or are intrinsically satisfying generally
require less hands-on leadership.
Organizational characteristics such as explicit formalized
goals, rigid rules and procedures, and cohesive work groups
can replace formal leadership.
Can you be a better follower?
What qualities do effective followers have? One writer
focuses on four:
• They manage themselves well. They are able to think for
themselves. They can work independently and without close
supervision.
• They are committed to a purpose outside themselves.
Effective followers are committed to something—a cause, a
product, a work team, an organization, an idea—in addition
to the care of their own lives. Most people like working with
colleagues who are emotionally, as well as physically,
committed to their work.
• They build their competence and focus their efforts for
maximum impact. Effective followers master skills that will
be useful to their organizations, and they hold higher
performance standards than their jobs or work groups
require.
• They are courageous, honest, and credible. Effective
followers establish themselves as independent, critical
thinkers whose knowledge and judgment can be trusted.
They hold high ethical standards, give credit where credit is
due, and are not afraid to own up to their mistakes.
3. How does a leader lead with vision?
INSPIRATIONAL LEADERSHIP
• transactional leaders
Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the
direction of established goals by clarifying role and task
requirements.
• transformational leaders
Leaders who inspire followers to go beyond their own
self-interests for the good of the organization and have a
profound and extraordinary effect on their followers.
CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP
Leadership that critically examines the status quo with a
view to developing and articulating future strategic goals
or vision for the organization, and then leading
organizational members to achieve these goals through
empowering strategies.
CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP
Company Performance
Do vision and charismatic leadership really make a
difference? Several studies provide positive evidence that
they do:
• One study contrasted 18 visionary companies with 18
comparable non visionary firms over a 65-year period. The
visionary companies performed 6 times better than the
comparison group, based on standard financial criteria, and
their stocks performed 15 times better than the general
market.
Individual Performance
An increasing body of research shows that people working
for charismatic leaders are motivated to exert extra work
effort and, because they like their leaders, they express
greater satisfaction.
They found that charismatic leadership had a greater impact
on team performance than on individual performance, and
they suggest that the positive findings of previous studies
are the result of charismatic leaders’ providing a better team
environment for everyone, which then resulted in higher
performance.
The Downside of Charismatic Leadership
When organizations are in need of great change, charismatic
leaders are often able to inspire their followers to meet the
challenges of change. Be aware that a charismatic leader may
become a liability to an organization once the crisis is over
and the need for dramatic change subsides. Why? Because
then the charismatic leader’s overwhelming self-confidence
can be a liability. He or she is unable to listen to others,
becomes uncomfortable when challenged by aggressive
employees, and begins to hold an unjustifiable belief in his or
her “rightness” on issues.
These individuals have been called level 5 leaders
because they have four basic leadership
qualities—individual capability, team skills, managerial
competence, and the ability to stimulate others to high
performance—plus a fifth dimension: a paradoxical blend
of personal humility and professional will.
Level 5 leaders channel their ego needs away from
themselves and into the goal of building a great company.
4. Can a person be an informal leader?
MENTORING
Many leaders create mentoring relationships. A mentor is
often a senior employee who sponsors and supports a
less-experienced employee (a protégé). The mentoring role
includes coaching, counselling, and sponsorship.
As a coach, mentors help develop their protégés’ skills. As
counsellors, mentors provide support and help bolster
pro-tégés’ self-confidence. And as sponsors, mentors
actively intervene on behalf of their protégés, lobby to get
their protégés visible assignments, and politic to get their
pro-tégés rewards such as promotions and salary increases.
COACHING
A number of organizations have introduced coaching,
which is different from mentoring. “Mentoring, at its best,
involves a longer term relationship in which there is an
emotional attachment between mentor and protégé.” By
contrast, coaching is often more task oriented and short
term.
Coaching is used by senior and middle managers in
particular, although other managers use coaching as part
of their leadership style.
A good coach:
• Emphasizes self-development and self-discovery of the
person being coached
• Offers the person being coached constructive feedback
on how to improve
• Meets regularly with the person being coached
• Is a good listener
• Challenges the person being coached to perform
• Sets realistic standards for the person being coached to
achieve.
PROVIDING TEAM LEADERSHIP
Increasingly leadership is taking place within a team
context. As teams grow in popularity, the role of the
leader in guiding team members takes on more
importance. Also, because of its more collaborative
nature, the role of team leader differs from the traditional
leadership role performed by frontline supervisors.
Roles of Team Leaders
A recent study of 20 organizations that reorganized
themselves around teams found certain common
responsibilities that all leaders had to assume. These
included coaching, facilitating, handling disciplinary
problems, reviewing team/individual performance, training,
and communicating. Many of these responsibilities apply to
managers in general. A more meaningful way to describe
the team leader’s job is to focus on two priorities: managing
the team’s relations with outsiders and facilitating the team
process.
We have divided these priorities into four specific roles that
team leaders play:
• Liaisons with outsiders. Outsiders include upper
management, other internal teams, customers, and suppliers.
The leader represents the team to other constituencies,
secures needed resources, clarifies others’ expectations of
the team, gathers information from the outside, and shares
this information with team members.
• Troubleshooters. When the team has problems and asks for
assistance, team leaders sit in on meetings and try to help
resolve the problems. This rarely relates to technical or
operational issues because the team members typically know
more about the tasks being done than does the team leader.
The leader contributes by asking penetrating questions, by
helping the team discuss problems, and by getting needed
resources from external constituencies.
For instance, when a team in an aerospace firm found itself
short-handed, its team leader took responsibility for getting
more staff. He presented the team’s case to upper
management and got the approval through the company’s
human resource department.
• Conflict managers. When disagreements surface, team
leaders help process the conflict. What is the source of
the conflict? Who is involved? What are the issues? What
resolution options are available? What are the advantages
and disadvantages of each? By getting team members to
address questions such as these, the leader minimizes the
disruptive aspects of intrateam conflicts.
• Coaches. They clarify expectations and roles, teach,
offer support, cheerlead, and do whatever else is
necessary to help team members improve their work
performance.
5. What is self-leadership?
Self-Leadership (or Self-Management)
A growing trend in organizations is the focus on
self-leadership, or self-management. With self-leadership,
individuals and teams set goals, plan and implement tasks,
evaluate performance, solve their own problems, and motivate
themselves. Several factors call for self-leadership: reduced
levels of supervision, more offices in the home, more
teamwork, and growth in service and professional
employment where individuals are often required to make
decisions on the spot.
How do leaders create self-leaders? The following have been
suggested:
• Model self-leadership. Practise self-observation, setting
challenging personal goals, self-direction, and
self-reinforcement. Then display these behaviours and
encourage others to rehearse and then produce them.
• Encourage employees to create self-set goals. Support
employees in developing quantitative, specific goals; having
such goals is the most important part of self-leadership.
• Encourage the use of self-rewards to strengthen and
increase desirable behaviours. By contrast, limit
self-punishment only to occasions when the employee has
been dishonest or destructive.
• Create positive thought patterns. Encourage employees to
use mental imagery and self-talk to further stimulate
self-motivation.
• Create a climate of self-leadership. Redesign the work to
increase the natural rewards of a job and focus on these
naturally rewarding features of work to increase motivation.
• Encourage self-criticism. Encourage individuals to be
critical of their own performance.
 LEADING WITHOUT AUTHORITY
Leading without authority simply means exhibiting
leadership behaviour even though you do not have a formal
position or title that might encourage others “to obey.” Neither
Martin Luther King Jr. nor Mahatma Gandhi operated from a
position of authority, yet each was able to inspire many to follow
him in the quest for social justice.
The workplace can be an opportunity for leading without
authority as well. As Ronald Heifetz of Harvard’s Kennedy
School of Government notes, “leadership means taking
responsibility for hard problems beyond anyone’s expectations.”
It also means not waiting for the coach’s call.
What are the benefits of leading without authority?
Heifetz has identified three:
• Latitude for creative deviance. Because one does not
have authority and the trappings that go with authority, it
is easier to raise harder questions and look for less
traditional solutions.
• Issue focus. Leading without authority means that one
can focus on a single issue, rather than be concerned with
the great number of issues that those in authority face.
• Front-line information. Leading without authority means
that one is closer to the detailed experiences of some of
the stakeholders, such as co-workers. Thus more
information is available to this kind of leader.
6. What are some of the contemporary issues in leadership?

One of the major issues in leadership today is whether

there is a moral dimension to leadership.
Moral leadership comes from within the individual, and, in
general, means treating people well and with respect.
Professor James Clawson of the Darden Graduate School
of Business, University of Virginia, suggests that there are
four cornerstones to a “moral foundation of leadership”:
• Truth telling. Leaders who tell the truth as they see it
allow for a mutual, fair exchange to occur.
• Promise keeping. Leaders need to be careful about the
commitments they make, and then careful to keep those
commitments.
• Fairness. Leaders who are equitable ensure that
followers get their fair share for their contributions to the
organization.
• Respect for the individual. Leaders who tell the truth,
keep promises, and are fair show respect for followers.
Respect means treating people with dignity.
Moral leadership comes from within the individual, and in
general means treating people well, and with respect.
Another hot issue in leadership is the question of whether
men and women use different leadership styles, and, if
that is the case, whether one style is inherently superior
to the other.
The literature suggests two conclusions. First, the
similarities between men and women tend to outweigh
the differences. Second, what differences there are seem
to relate to women’s falling back on a more democratic
leadership style and men’s feeling more comfortable with
a directive style.
Yet another interesting issue in leadership is providing
leadership online. Leadership demands are different
when one does not have the opportunity for face-to-face
interaction. For an increasing number of leaders, good
interpersonal skills may include the ability to
communicate support and leadership through written
words on a computer screen and to read emotions in
others’ messages.
Organizational Behavior (Human Behavior at Work) Twelfth
Edition John W. Newstrom, Ph.D.
Organizational Behavior Stephen Robbins
https://hbr.org/2004/01/managers-and-leaders-are-they-different