Pharmacognosy Magazine Vol 4, Issue 18, Apr-Jun, 2009 Page 165-176

( An Official Publication of Pharmacognosy Network Worldwide)

Received: 1 December, 2008
Modified: 10 December, 2008
Accepted: 6 February, 2009

PHCOG MAG.: Research Article

Ethnobotanical Survey and Antimicrobial Evaluation of
Medicinal Plants used by the Samburu Community (Kenya) for
treatment of Diarrhorea

E.O. Omwenga1, P.O. Okemo*1, P. K. Mbugua1 and C.K.P Ogol2

1
Department of Plant and Microbial Sciences,
2
Department of Zoological sciences, Kenyatta University, P.O Box 43844, Nairobi 00100, Kenya.
‫ ٭‬Corresponding author : [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The Samburu are a marginalized nomadic people who have no access to conventional medical services. The
Samburu therefore depend on traditional medical practice and medicinal plants for most of their medicare. The
medicinal plants used have not been tested for efficacy especially on diarrhoreal diseases which are endemic in
the community. This study evaluated plants commonly used for the treatment of diarrhoea in-vitro for
antimicrobial activity against standard Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. Results obtained show that the
zones of inhibition for the active plants ranged between 16mm to 36.33mm. The MICs of the most active plants
ranged from 0.9375 mg/50 µl to7.5 mg/50µl. The MBCs ranged between 0.9375 mg/50µl to 7.5 mg/50µl. These
results were significant at p< 0.01. The findings show that most of the medicinal plants used by the Samburu
community have significant activity against E.coli (Acacia nilotica- 21.66 mm) S. typhi (Acacia horrida- 19mm) and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Cordia monoica- 36.33 mm) which are human pathogens especially Escherichia coli and
Salmonella typhi which cause diarrhoea.
Keywords: diarrhoea; medicinal plants; phytochemicals; antidiarrhoeal activity; ethno botany.

INTRODUCTION
The Samburu community is one of those communities including 2.5 million children, who die from diarrhoeal
that are marginalized in Kenya in terms of ‘HEALTH diseases every year particularly in developing countries
CARE FOR ALL’ as a basic human right and prerequisite (2, 3). Diarrhoea is caused by various agents like the
to social-economic development. The frequent use of viruses (rotavirus, adenovirus e.t.c), bacterial (E. coli,
medicinal plants by the Samburu for health care is as a Vibrio cholerae and S. typhi) and parasites
result of the unavailability of health care services from (Cryptosporidium and Giardia) (4).
the government in this remote region of Kenya (1). Nevertheless, acute diarrhoeal diseases among children
It is estimated that about 85% of the Samburu younger than 5 years remain a major cause of
community medicare is from medicinal plants (1). The morbidity and mortality worldwide (5). An Expert
problem is compounded by high poverty rate, poor Committee of the WHO recently estimated that
sanitary conditions and inadequacy of clean water. For diarrhoea causes 18% of the 11 million deaths among
instance, pastoralism is a normal practice of the children younger than the age of 5 yrs in the world,
inhabitants’ that leads to sharing of water with both nearly the same mortality as pneumonia (19%) which is
domestic and wild animals which makes inhabitants the leading cause of infant mortality (6,7). The adults
using water without proper treatment as it is scarce are affected with an estimated incidence of 1.4
most of the year. This has led to an increase in episodes/adult/year (8). The disease requires special
diarrhoreal diseases. attention in treatment and management in adults,
The Samburu people like the rest of the world because of their multiple comorbidities,
contribute to the estimated 4.6 million people, immunosenescence, frailty, and poor nutritional status

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 Ethnobotanical Survey and Antimicrobial Evaluation of Medicinal Plants used by the Samburu Community
(Kenya) for treatment of Diarrhorea

(9). Diarrhoea is identified as a major opportunistic

disease among HIV/AIDS patients (10, 11).
However, there have been numerous reports on the
use of traditional plants for the treatment of
diarrhoeal diseases (4). In recent years, secondary
plant metabolites (phytochemicals), with unknown
pharmacological activities, have been extensively
investigated as a source of medicinal compounds (12).
The results obtained have been phenomenal. For
instance, in one study organic extracts of Punica
granatum, Ozoroa insignis, and Indigofera daleoides
were active against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC
25923, Salmonella typhi ATCC 0232, Vibro cholera, Fig1: Map of Kenya showing the location of Wamba
Escherichia coli ATCC 35218 and Shigella spp. (Shigella Division and its conservancies
dysentery, Shigella flexneri, Shigella sonnei, Shigella Key: Site 1. Namunyak conservancy, Site 2. Ngaroni
boydii). Water extracts of Punica granatum were conservancy, Site 3. West gate conservancy.
equally active as organic extracts against bacteria such Extraction
as Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella sonnei and Shigella Dried, ground plant materials (50g) were soaked in 300
flexneri (13). Therefore, medicinal plants are ml of 80% methanol (MW-32.04) for 12-48h with
increasingly being projected as a suitable alternative intermittent shaking to allow the active
source because of their often multiple targets, minor phytochemicals to dislodge in the solvent. The
side-effects, low potentials to cause resistance and methanol soaked plant extracts were filtered by use of
low costs (14). Whatman No. 1 filter paper and the filtrates
There are high rates of occurrence of stomach ailments evaporated until dry weight of each extract was
among the Samburu. The diseases get magnified given obtained by using the rotary evaporator (VV 2000
the fact that they lack proper medication because of Heidolph, Germany) set at 40-50°C. The extract
high poverty rates hence prefers the use of local moisture was reduced to constant weight by additional
treatment by use of medicinal plants. The community drying over copper sulphate in a desicator under
believes in medicinal plants first before the patient is vacuum.
hospitalized and in most cases hospitalization is as a Antimicrobial screening/ bioassay.
result of intoxication due to overdoses. It becomes a. Test cultures
necessary therefore to carry out a survey of the most Test cultures were obtained from Kenyatta National
common plants the Samburu use for the treatment of Hospital in Nairobi-Kenya, which included
stomach ailments and to validate the efficacy of the Staphylococcus aureus (Gram +ve cocci) - ATCC 20591,
plants. Bacillus subtillis (Gram +ve spore forming rod) - local
MATERIALS AND METHODS isolate, Salmonella typhi (Gram –ve rod) - ATCC 2202,
Ethnobotanical survey Escherichia coli (Gram-ve rod) – STD-25922 and
A survey was carried out in Wamba division, Samburu Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Gram-ve rod) - ATCC 25852.
district, Kenya on the major medicinal plants the All the microorganisms were maintained at 4 ºC on
community uses for the treatment of diarrhoreal nutrient agar slants. Some of the micro organisms were
diseases (fig 1). Questionnaires were used to identify selected on the basis of their natural differences and
the plants used by the herbalists and the community in cell wall properties, but others such as Escherichia coli
the treatment of diarrhoreal diseases. and Salmonella typhi were identified in Samburu as
Collection of plant material actual causes of diarrhoea (unpublished data).
Fresh plants/plant parts used by the community for b. Disc diffusion method.
treatment of diarrhoreal diseases were collected from The antimicrobial bioassay was performed by agar disc
Samburu-Wamba Conservancies as shown in Fig 1. The diffusion method using 18h test cultures for methanol
taxonomic identities of these plants were confirmed by extracts (15, 16). The Mueller Hinton agar (Biotec) was
a taxonomist at the Kenyatta University herbarium prepared following the manufacturers instructions and
where the voucher specimens are deposited. was inoculated with 100 µl of the inoculum that is
equivalent to MacFarland turbidity standard of 0.5 ×106

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 Ethnobotanical Survey and Antimicrobial Evaluation of Medicinal Plants used by the Samburu Community
(Kenya) for treatment of Diarrhorea

CFU/ml which were spread plated. Then a disc (6 mm) Saponins presence was determined by the frothing test
was saturated with 100 µl of the plant extract, allowed method (20) where 0.5 ml of the filtrate was mixed
to dry and was introduced on the upper layer of the with 5 ml distilled water. Frothing persistence
seeded agar plate. The plates were incubated indicated presence of saponins. Cardiac glycosides
overnight at 37 ºC. Microbial growth was determined presence was determined by Keller-Kiliani test (19)
by measuring the diameter from the end of growth to where 2 ml of the filtrate was mixed with 1 ml glacial
the disc at one end to the beginning of growth at the acetic acid, followed by three drops of Iron (III)
other end including the diameter of the disc. For each chloride and concentrated sulphuric acid. Green-blue
bacterial strain, Amoxicillin (250 µg) was used as a colour indicated the presence of cardiac glycosides.
positive control and methanol as the negative control. Terpenoids presence was determined by taking 5mls of
The results were again obtained by measuring the the plant extract that was mixed with 2mls of
zones of inhibition. The experiment was repeated chloroform, and 3mls of concentrated sulphuric acid
three times and the mean values recorded. was then carefully added to form a layer. If a reddish
c. Determination of the Minimum Inhibitory brown coloration of the interface formed, it indicated
Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal the presence of terpenoids. Flavonoids presence was
Concentration (MBC). determined by taking 5 ml of dilute ammonia solution
A micro titre -dilution technique using 96 well micro- that was added to a portion of the aqueous filtrate of
plates, (17) was used to obtain MIC values of the crude each plant extract followed by the addition of
extracts against all the test bacteria. Each plant concentrated sulphuric acid. A yellow coloration
extract was serially diluted to obtain 7.5mg/50µl, observed in each extract indicated the presence of
starting from the first well. Similar serial dilutions flavonoids. The yellow coloration disappeared on
were performed for Cefrodoxima (250mg), as a positive standing.
control. The starting concentration for Cefrodoxima in Statistical analysis
the first well after the dilution was 7.5mg/50µl. An The mean zones of inhibition for each test culture
equal volume of 50µl log-phase bacterial cultures were were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance
added to each of the wells. Micro titre-plates were (ANOVA) to get the differences among group means. A
covered and incubated at 37ºC overnight. The MIC P- value < 0.05 was considered as significant. The
values were determined as the lowest concentrations means were separated by Tukey’s test. The computer
of the extract showing no growth. All the wells where software STATISTICA® was employed for the statistical
no growth (not turbid) was observed were sub analysis.
cultured, and the lowest concentration of the plant RESULTS
extracts that did not yield any colony on the solid Ethnobotanical survey.
nutrient medium after sub-culturing and incubating for After carrying out the survey, 16 medicinal plants were
12-24h was taken as the MBC. All tests were performed found to be used by the community in the treatment of
in triplicate (18). diarrhoreal diseases as presented in Table 1. The
Phytochemical screening family of Mimosaceae had the highest number of the
Qualitative phytochemical analysis of the crude medicinal plants (six), Vetaceae family had two plants
powder of the plants collected was determined by and the rest of the families had one medicinal plant
established methods (19, 20). Tannins presence was each. Various parts were harvested depending on the
determined by use of 200 mg plant material which parts the community preferred to use in the treatment
were dissolved in 10 ml distilled water, and then of the diarrhoreal diseases. The bark, roots and the
filtered. 2 ml of the filtrate was taken and 2 ml iron leaves were the ones that were harvested, but the part
(III) chloride solution added. A blue-black precipitate that is used most was found to be the bark of the
indicated the presence of tannins. For the presence of stem, followed by the roots and then the leaves.
alkaloids 200 mg plant extract was dissolved in 10 ml Disc diffusion assay
methanol, and filtered. 1 ml of the filtrate was mixed The antibacterial activities of 16 plant species were
with 6 drops of Wagner’s reagent (made by mixing assayed in-vitro by agar disc diffusion method against
1.27g iodine and 2g potassium iodide in 100ml of 5 bacterial species (Table 2). Table 2 summarizes the
water). A creamish/brownish-red/orange precipitate average microbial growth inhibition of the methanol
indicated the presence of alkaloids. extracts of the screened plant species against the test
cultures. From the findings it was observed that most

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 Ethnobotanical Survey and Antimicrobial Evaluation of Medicinal Plants used by the Samburu Community (Kenya) for treatment of Diarrhorea

TABLE 1: Medicinal plants collected

Botanical Family Samburu Part Diseases AREA
name name name used treated FOUND
1. Acacia ethaaica Schweinf. Mimosaceae Lchakwai Bark Diarrhoea Namunyak (1)
2. Acacia horrida (L.) Willd. Mimosaceae Lerai Bark Diarrhoea West gate (3)
3. Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. Mimosaceae Lkiloriti Bark/ roots Diarrhoea Namunyak (1)
4. Acacia nubica Benth. Mimosaceae Ldepe Bark Diarrhoea Ngaroni (2)
5. Acacia senegal (L.) Willd.Var. persica Mimosaceae Lderekesi Bark Diarrhoea Ngaroni (2)
6. Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne. Mimosaceae Ndapes Roots Diarrhoea Namunyak (1)
7. Acokanthera friesiorum Markgr. Apocynaceae Nchipilikwa Roots/leaves Diarrhoea Namunyak (1)
8. Albizia anthelmitica Brongn. Leguminosae Lumurtana Roots/bark Deworming Ngaroni (2)
9. Aloe secundiflora Engl. Aloaceae Sukuroi Whole Diarrhoea Namunyak (1)
10. Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. Balanitaceae Sirai Roots Diarrhoea Ngaroni (2)
11. Boscia angustifolia Guill. and Perr. Capparaceae Lororoi Bark Diarrhoea Ngaroni (2)
12. Cissus rotundifolia Forsk. Vahl. Vitaceae Raraiti Root Diarrhoea Ngaroni (2)
13. Cissus quadrangularis L. Vitaceae Sukurtut Stem Diarrhoea Ngaroni (2)
14. Clerodendrum myriacoides (Hochst.)Vatke Verbenaceae Makutukuti Roots Diarrhoea, Malaria, West gate (3)
subsp. napperae Verdc cold, & polio
15. Commiphora africana (A. Rich) Engl. Var. Burseraceae. Lcheni-Ngiro Bark Diarrhoea Ngaroni (2)
persica
16. Cordia monoica Roxb. Boraginaceae Seki Roots Diarrhoea West gate (3)

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 Ethnobotanical Survey and Antimicrobial Evaluation of Medicinal Plants used by the Samburu Community (Kenya) for treatment of Diarrhorea

Table 2: Average zones of inhibition (mm) of the plant extracts against the test cultures.
BOTANICAL NAME S. aureas B. subtilis S. typhi E. coli P. aeruginosa
1) Acacia ethaaica Schweinf. 19.33 19 16.66 17.66 19.33

2) Acacia horrida (L.) Willd. 18 17.66 19 18.66 28.66

3) Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. 20.33 18 21 21.66 27.66

4) Acacia nubica Benth. 17.33 15.66 13.33 13.33 15.33

5) Acacia senegal (L.) Willd.Var. persica 11.33 15 11 12.66 18.33

6) Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne. 15 13 12.33 11.33 21.33

7) Acokanthera friesiorum Markgr. 14 11 11 10.66 19

8) Albizia anthelmitica Brongn. 16 13.33 13.33 10 28.66

9) Aloe secundiflora Engl. 13.66 13.33 12.33 13.66 27

10) Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. 15.66 12.66 16 18 17

11) Boscia angustifolia Guill. and Perr. 7 8 10.33 11.33 20

12) Cissus rotundifolia Forsk. Vahl. 14.33 13.66 9.66 11.33 17.66

13) Cissus quadrangularis L. 10.33 12.66 12.66 13.66 23

14) Clerodendrum myriacoides (Hochst.) Vatke subsp. napperae Verdc 14.33 15 14 16 25.33

15) Commiphora africana (A. Rich) Engl. Var. persica 13 14.33 16 16.33 21.66

16) Cordia monoica Roxb. 14 18 15.66 16.33 36.33

17) Amoxicillin 21.33 17.17 24.17 23.58 17.58

18) -ve control 6 6 6 6 6

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 Ethnobotanical Survey and Antimicrobial Evaluation of Medicinal Plants used by the Samburu Community (Kenya) for treatment of Diarrhorea

Table 3: The MICs (mg/50µl) and MBCs (mg/50µl) produced by the selected Samburu medicinal plants against the test cultures.
S. aureas B. subtilis S. typhi E. coli P. aeruginosa
MIC MBC MIC MBC MIC MBC MIC MBC MIC MBC
(mg/ (mg/ (mg/ (mg/ (mg/ (mg/ (mg/ (mg/ (mg/ (mg/
BOTANICAL PLANT NAME 50µl) 50µl) 50µl) 50µl) 50µl) 50µl) 50µl) 50µl) 50µl) 50µl)
Acacia ethaaica Schweinf. 0.9375 0.9375 0.9375 1.875 1.875 1.875 0.9375 0.9375 0.9375 0.9375

Acacia horrida (L.) Willd. 3.75 3.75 3.75 7.5 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75 1.875 1.875

Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. 1.875 1.875 1.875 3.75 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 0.9375 0.9375

Acacia nubica Benth. 3.75 7.5 3.75 3.75 3.75 7.5 3.75 3.75 1.875 3.75
Acacia senegal (L.) Willd.Var. 3.75 7.5 3.75 7.5 3.75 3.75 1.875 1.875 3.75 3.75
Persica
Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne. 1.875 1.875 1.875 3.75 3.75 7.5 1.875 1.875 1.875 3.75
Acokanthera friesiorum Markgr. 3.75 3.75 3.75 7.5 1.875 3.75 1.875 1.875 1.875 3.75
Albizia anthelmitica Brongn. 1.875 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75 1.875 1.875
Aloe secundiflora 3.75 3.75 3.75 7.5 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75 7.5
Engl.
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.)Del. 1.875 3.75 1.875 3.75 1.875 1.875 3.75 3.75 1.875 3.75
Boscia angustifolia 3.75 3.75 3.75 7.5 3.75 7.5 3.75 3.75 3.75 7.5
Guill. and Perr.
Cissus rotundifolia 1.875 3.75 3.75 7.5 3.75 7.5 3.75 3.75 1.875 3.75
Forsk. Vahl.
Cissus 3.75 7.5 3.75 7.5 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75
quadrangularis L.
Clerodendrum myriacoides (Hochst.) 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875
Vatke subsp. napperae Verdc
Commiphora africana (A. Rich) Engl. 3.75 3.75 1.875 3.75 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875
Var. persica
Cordia monoica Roxb. 3.75 3.75 3.75 7.5 3.75 7.5 3.75 7.5 1.875 3.75
Cefrodoxima +ve 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 0.9375 0.9375
Control

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 Ethnobotanical Survey and Antimicrobial Evaluation of Medicinal Plants used by the Samburu Community (Kenya) for treatment of Diarrhorea

Table 4: Phytochemical screening results.

Botanical plant name Tannins Saponins Flavonoids Terpenoids Cardiac Alkaloids (Wagner’s test)
glycosides

Acacia ethaaica Schweinf. + ++ ++ +++ ++ +

Acacia horrida (L.) Willd. ++ ++ - ++ ++ +++

Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. +++ ++ +++ ++ + ++

Acacia nubica Benth. - - + ++ ++ -

Acacia senegal (L.) + ++ + ++ + -
Willd.Var.persica
Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne. ++ + + + ++ ++

Acokanthera friesiorum Markgr. ++ - ++ - + -

Albizia anthelmitica Brongn. + ++ + - - ++

Aloe secundiflora Engl. + - ++ ++ - -

Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. +++ + ++ + - +

Boscia angustifolia Guill. and Perr. + - - - - +

Cissus rotundifolia Forsk. Vahl. ++ +++ - - - ++

Cissus quadrangularis L. ++ + + +++ + +

Clerodendrum myriacoides +++ + +++ ++ +++ ++
(Hochst.) Vatke subsp. napperae
Verdc
Commiphora africana (A. Rich) ++ + - - +++ +++
Engl. Var. persica
Cordia monoica Roxb. ++ + - + - -

Key: +++ (Most abundant), ++ (Abundant), + (Less abundant) and - (Not present)

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 Ethnobotanical Survey and Antimicrobial Evaluation of Medicinal Plants used by the Samburu Community
(Kenya) for treatment of Diarrhorea

plants had good activity against P. aeruginosa with as summarized in Table 4. The tested phytochemicals
some producing very wide mean zones of inhibition like were tannins, saponins, flavonoids, terpenoids, cardiac
Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. (27.66mm), Clerodendrum glycosides and alkaloids. Tannins were found to be the
myriacoides (Hochst.)Vatke subsp. napperae Verdc. most common phytochemical in the extracts screened
(25.33mm), Acacia horrida (L.) Willd. (28.66mm), and especially in A. nilotica (L.) Del., B. aegyptiaca
Cordia monoica Roxb. (36.33mm). Acacia ethaaica (L.)Del., and C. myriacoides (Hochst.) Vatke subsp.
Schweinf., Acacia nilotica (L.) Del., Acacia horrida (L.) napperae Verdc. Saponins and flavonoids were also
Willd., Clerodendrum myriacoides (Hochst.)Vatke found in a number of the extracts such as A. ethaaica
subsp. napperae Verdc. and Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Schweinf., A. horrida (L.) Willd., and C. rotundifolia
Hayne. extracts showed great activity against the test Forsk. Vahl. compared to cardiac glycosides and
cultures used. For instance Acacia ethaaica Schweinf. terpenoids. A. nilotica (L.) Del., A. ethaaica
produced a zone of inhibition of 19mm against S. Schweinf., C. quadrangularis L., A. tortilis (Forssk.)
aureas, B. subtilis and P. aeruginosa respectively. Hayne.and C. myriacoides (Hochst.) Vatke subsp.
Acacia nilotica (L.) Del., on the other hand produced napperae Verdc. were found to possess at least all the
average zones of inhibitions of 20.33mm, 21mm, screened phytochemicals.
21.66mm and 27.66mm against S. aureas, S. typhi, E. DISCUSSION
coli and P. aeruginosa respectively. Some of these Sixteen plants used for the treatment of diarrhoeal
extracts like Acacia horrida (L.) Willd. (28.66mm), diseases were identified after carrying out the survey.
Cordia monoica Roxb. (36.33mm), Clerodendrum It was clear that the community uses mostly the bark
myriacoides (Hochst.)Vatke subsp. napperae Verdc. of these medicinal plants. Nevertheless roots and
(25.33mm) e.t.c had wider zones of inhibition than the leaves are also used. This explains why most of the
positive control (Amoxicillin) against P. aeruginosa. medicinal plants were becoming scarce due to non-
The means of the zones of inhibition of the test sustainable harvesting of the bark which has been
cultures were significantly different at P≤ 0.01 except reported to accelerate the death of a tree (21). This
in E. coli and B. subtilis that showed no significant means that the community should be encouraged to
difference even at P≤ 0.05. Nevertheless more activity adopt sustainable harvesting methods and traditional
of the extracts was observed in the Gram negatives healers domesticating some of these plants, an idea
than the Gram positives bacteria. that is becoming very popular in other regions of the
The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and world (22).
Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC). Disc diffusion was carried out to ascertain whether the
Most of the extracts produced good MICs and MBCs as plant extracts had activity against the test cultures.
shown in Table 3. Acacia ethaaica Schweinf., Acacia Some extracts like Acacia nilotica, Acacia horrida,
nilotica (L.) Del., Acacia horrida (L.) Willd., and Acacia Acacia ethaaica, Cordia monoica, Acacia nubica e.t.c
tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne. showed great activity showed wide zones of inhibition among the test
producing MICs and MBCs ranging from 0.9375 cultures. But generally, most extracts had substantial
mg/50µl to 1.875 mg/50µl in the test cultures. Some inhibitions against the test cultures, although Boscia
had active concentrations like Acacia ethaaica angustifolia showed low inhibition zones against the
Schweinf. with MICs of 0.9375 mg/50µl against S. Gram positive test cultures- S. aureas (07mm) and B.
aureas, B. subtillis, E.coli and P. aeruginosa which are subtilis (08mm). Our findings of less antibacterial
lower than that of the positive control (Amoxicillin MIC activity by the methanol extract of Boscia angustifolia
1.875 mg/50µl) in the same test cultures except for P. are contradicted by what is reported (38) where the
aeruginosa where amoxicillin produced an MIC of extract produced zones of inhibition of 13mm for S.
0.9375 mg/50µl. Incidentally some of the extracts such aureas, P. aeruginosa (11mm), E.coli (14mm) and S.
as Cissus quadrangularis L., Acacia nubica Benth., typhi (21mm). Some extracts had higher zones of
Acacia senegal (L.) Willd.Var. Persica e.t.c showed inhibition than that of the positive control.
lower MBCs against S. aureas (7.5 mg/50µl) than the For example Cordia monoica had a zone of inhibition of
MBCs produced by the positive control (1.875 mg/50 36mm and Amoxicillin had a zone of inhibition of
µl). 17.58mm against P. aeruginosa which is one of the
Phytochemical screening results most difficult microorganism to be managed by many
Various phytochemicals were found to be present in antibiotics due to the nature of its cell wall (23). It is
the medicinal plants used by the Samburu community possible to theorize that Cordia monoica extracts have

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 Ethnobotanical Survey and Antimicrobial Evaluation of Medicinal Plants used by the Samburu Community
(Kenya) for treatment of Diarrhorea

a higher diffusion rate or the degree of sensitivity of fungi, yeasts, and bacteria. Condensed tannins bind
the tested microorganisms to the extract is higher as cell walls of ruminal bacteria, preventing growth and
compared to that of the positive control. Perhaps protease activity (26). Alkaloids have also been known
Cordia monoica could have compounds that can be to have lead molecules of therapeutic importance.
used to control diseases caused by P. aeruginosa. On They possess heterocyclic indole compounds which
the other hand plant extracts could be host specific in have proved to be having pharmacological properties
their antibacterial activity since zones of inhibition such as hypotensive activity, anticonvulsant activity,
varied for each test culture. The different rates of antiprotozoal, antidiarroheal and antimalarial
inhibition could be due to the molecular size of the activities (29).
phytochemical compounds present in the extracts. For Thus presence of different phytochemicals in different
instance Catechins, the most reduced form of the C3 plants screened can be the reason why the community
unit in flavonoid compounds has been found to inhibit uses more than one plant to make a concoction for the
V. cholerae O1 in vitro (24), Streptococcus mutans, treatment of a given disease. This is because different
Shigella, and other microorganisms (25). phytochemicals from the different plants are combined
MIC and MBC results show that the extracts had and tend to have some additive or synergistic activity
substantial inhibitory concentrations against the test against the pathogens that cause the diseases. It is not
cultures (Table 3). Acacia ethaaica particularly surprising that there are differences in the
produced the lowest inhibitory concentration in all the antimicrobial effects of plant species, due to the
test cultures (0.9375 mg/50µl) a concentration that phytochemical properties and differences among the
was lower than that of the positive control species. It is also possible that the active chemical
(Cefrodoxima). Other extracts like Acacia nilotica, constituents were not soluble in methanol or the
Acacia ethaaica, Acacia tortilis, Clerodendrum drying process could have caused disintegration
myriacoides, and Commiphora africana produced low reactions that lead to production of other non-active
inhibitory concentrations that were between 0.9375 chemicals (20).
mg/50µl and 1.875 mg/50µl against most of the test In general, more activity was observed in the Gram
cultures. The results also appear to confirm the negatives, with the highest activity observed in P.
antibacterial potential of the plants investigated and aeruginosa. This was a good finding as P. aeruginosa is
their usefulness in treatment of diarrhoea. But for an known to be difficult to manage by commonly used
antibiotic to be effective, killing of the infective agent antibiotics because of the cell wall properties (23).
must be achieved at the site of the infection. The Among the Gram positive test cultures higher activity
killing will be influenced by the route of was observed in S. aureas. This may not be significant
administration, the dose, frequency of administration, as S. aureas is affected by most compounds thus
rate of absorption and distribution of the antibiotic. further screening of the extracts should be done on the
The above named plants had a lot of tannins and Methicillin Resistant or Multi-drug Resistant (MDR)
alkaloids which are known to be cytotoxic to bacterial Staphylococcus aureas. However, since food
cells and that could explain the high killing rate intoxication is caused by S. aureas this finding is still
observed (26). valid. Acacia nilotica, Acacia horrida, Acacia ethaaica,
Phytochemical screening revealed that the extracts and Cordia monoica are among the most active
had a good number of the most active phytochemicals extracts that produced significant activity against all
such as tannins, saponins, flavonoids, and terpenoids. the test cultures. The activity of these extracts can be
These can be a good source of bioactive principles with ascribed to the presence of such active phytochemicals
antimicrobial potency. Tannins were the most as tannins, saponins, flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids,
abundant. Previous work (27) shows that A. tortilis and cardiac glycosides that have been known to have
possess saponins, glycosides, tannins, alkaloids and antibacterial properties (28, 30, and 31). The ability of
flavonoids. Further work on A. tortilis revealed that these extracts to be sensitive to both Gram positive
the extract was active against B. subtilis, (NCTC8236) and Gram negative bacteria makes them good
E. coli, (ATCC 9637), S. aureus (ATCC 13709) and P. candidates for the isolation of broad spectrum
aeruginosa (ATCC 27853); findings that are in contrast antimicrobials. The mode of action is not clearly
with this study. The phytochemicals found in A. tortilis understood, and the active principles not isolated.
are known to possess some antimicrobial activities (26, These issues will be reported when determined at a
28). For instance tannins can be toxic to filamentous later date.

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 Ethnobotanical Survey and Antimicrobial Evaluation of Medicinal Plants used by the Samburu Community
(Kenya) for treatment of Diarrhorea

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (Artemia salina) lethality assay. Int J. Appl. Sci. Eng. 2: 125-
The authors are grateful to the Earthwatch Institute 134 (2005).
for sponsoring the project. Most sincere gratitude also 13. S. Voravuthikunchai, A. Lortheeranuwat, W. Jeeju, T. Sririrak,
S. Phongpaichit and T. Supawita. Effective medicinal plants
goes to local informants and healers like Margaret
against Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157: H7.
Nawamarrian, Samuel Legalgoroule, Benjamin Journal of Ethnopharmacology.94:49–54(2004).
Lekarkaraule, and Lekutuka amongst many who shared 14. S.A. Jassim and M.A. Naji. Novel antiviral agents: a medicinal
their knowledge on the use of medicinal plants with plant perspective. J. Appl. Microbiol. 95: 412–427 (2003).
us; as well as Mr. Tom Owuor who assisted in plant 15. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards
collection as an intern student. We are also grateful (NCCLS).Performance standards for antimicrobial
to Philip Letoile a laboratory technologists at Wamba susceptibility testing. Twelfth Informational Supplement
M100–S12 NCCLS. Wayne (2002).
Catholic Hospital for the enormous assistance he gave
16. S. Paulo. Antimicrobial activity of Syzygium cumini
to the project. Special thanks finally go to Wamba
(Myrtaceae) leaves extract. Braz. J. Microbiol. 38: 2 (2007).
Catholic Hospital Samburu for accepting and giving us 17. J.M. Andrews. Determination of minimum inhibitory
bench space for the laboratory work, and to Kenyatta concentrations. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 48: 5–16 (2001).
University where finer details of the work were 18. C. E. Evans, O. Banso and S. Adeyemo. Efficacy of some
concluded. nupe medicinal plants against Salmonella typhi: an in vitro
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