(Geography Model Answer)

UPSC Mains - English Medium

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Indian Geography

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Theme : Lithosphere

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By Sudarshan Gurjar

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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Lithosphere
 Q1. Describe the characteristics and types of primary rocks.
2022
(Answer in 150 words) 10 marks

Primary rocks are the types of rock that form from the solidification of molten

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magma or lava. They are also called Igneous rocks. They are the first to form in

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the geological past of the earth thus the name "primary rocks".
They are crystalline rocks with no organic remains in them.

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Characteristics of Primary Rocks :

● Hard and resistant to erosion.

● Not fossiliferous.

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● The grain texture is either coarse or fine, dependent on the cooling rate of
magma.
● They are rich in ferrous minerals.
● Unstratified rocks.

Primary rocks are of 2 types :

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Basis Intrusive Rocks Extrusive Rocks
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1. Formation Solidification of Magma Solidification of Lava

1. Texture Coarse grain because of slow Fine grain because of
cooling. Have a crystalline sudden cooling. More of a
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texture. glassy texture.

2. Colour Lighter and denser Darker and less dense
3. Types & Hypabyssal {Shallow depth} - Basalt
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Examples Laccolith ,Sills,Dyke

and Plutonic{Deep Depth}-
Granite
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Primary rocks are an important source of information of the geology of an area

as they form the core of the continent. These mineral rich rocks also have high
economic importance as they are a resource for various industries, including
construction and manufacturing.

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Lithosphere
 Q2. Mention the global occurrence of volcanic eruptions in 2021 and
their impact on regional environment. 2021
(Answer in 150 words) 10 marks

A volcanic eruption is an eruption of molten rock, hot rock fragments, and hot

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gases through a volcano, which is a vent in a planet’s crust. Volcanic eruptions

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can cause disastrous loss of life and property. They also play a role in climate
change, with expelled gases such as carbon dioxide contributing to global
warming, while ash, dust and gases such as sulfur dioxide can drive global

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temperature down.

Volcanoes have a significant impact on the regional environment. And this can
be seen through the eruptions that happened in 2021 :

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● Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai - A submarine volcano erupted in December
2021
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Kilauea - A shield volcano is USA
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Kavachi and Great Sitkin - A volcano in Solomon Islands.

Nyiragongo - The explosive eruption of this volcano in Democratic

Republic of Congo causing loss of life and property.
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● Mount Etna - Italy

Impact of volcanic eruptions on environment -

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1. Volcanic ash or dust released into the atmosphere during an eruption

shade sunlight and cause temporary cooling. Ex : Mini ice age brought
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by Mt. Krakatau.

2. Plumes of volcanic ash spread over large areas and cause reduction in
visibility.
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3. Sulfur dioxide emitted during eruptions moves into the stratosphere and
combines with water forming sulphuric acid aerosols. These droplets stay
in for more than three years pouring down in the form of acid rain in
future.
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4. Volcanoes also release large amounts of greenhouse gases such as carbon

dioxide and water vapor

5. Eruptions lead to an increased seismic activity causing earthquakes,

landslides, lahars (mudflow), ash and thunderstorms.
(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography
Theme : Lithosphere
 6. Volcanic ash (tephra) is also known to increase the productivity of the
regional soil.

Most of the active volcanoes occur in the Circum Pacific Belt also referred to as
the “Ring of Fire”. Volcanic eruptions have both short and long term impacts on

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the regional environment as well as the weather and climate on Earth.

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Appropriate steps through mitigation and development of disaster management
plans could reduce their impact.

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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Lithosphere
 Q3. Why is India considered a subcontinent? Elaborate on your
answer. 2021
(Answer in 150 words) 10 marks

A subcontinent is a large, relatively self-contained landmass forming a subdivision

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of a continent. Situated on the Indian plate, the Indian subcontinent is often used

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to refer to the areas that contain India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh because of
their distinct geographical, political and cultural identity.

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The Indian subcontinent which was formerly a part of Gondwana, a
supercontinent, began to break up separating Antarctica and Madagascar. It
subsequently drifted northeastwards and collided with the Eurasian Plate nearly
55 million years ago.

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In terms of physical features, it is a peninsular region in South Asia delineated
from Himalayas in the north, Hindu Kush in the west and Arakanese in the east.
It is characterized by a north-south divide between the Indo-Gangetic Plain in

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the north, which includes the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra river systems, and
the Deccan plateau in the south, whose major river systems include the
Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri rivers.
India, the 7th largest country in the world, projects into and is bounded by the
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Indian ocean - in particular, Arabian Sea on the west, Lakshadweep Sea in the
southwest and the Bay of Bengal in the east.
The northern frontiers where the mighty Himalayas lie, the country borders
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China, Bhutan and Nepal. Its western borders with Pakistan lie in Karakoram
ranges, Punjab Plains, Thar Desert and the salty marshes of Rann of Kutch. In the
east lie Patkai range, Barail range, Mikir hills which are deeply forested
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mountainous regions, separating India from Burma.

One of the oldest civilizations and one of the largest democracies today, there is
perhaps no mainland part of the world better marked off by nature as a region or
a 'realm' by itself. The people of the Indian subcontinent have distinct ethnic,
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linguistic, cultural and historical connections making it an indivisible

geographical entity and a proper subcontinent.
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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Lithosphere
 Q4. Discuss the geophysical characteristics of Circum-Pacific Zone.
2020
(Answer in 150 words) 10 marks

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The Circum-Pacific Ring of Fire is the area where the large Pacific Plate meets
many surrounding tectonic plates and forms the shape of a horseshoe. It is
characterized by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.

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LOCATION -
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The Ring of Fire is stretched to approximately 40,000 kilometers tracing

boundaries between several tectonic plates including the Pacific, Juan de Fuca,
Cocos, Indian-Australian, Nazca, North American, and Philippine Plates.
The belt follows chains of island arcs such as Tonga and New Hebrides, the
Indonesian archipelago, the Philippines, Japan, the Kuril Islands, and the
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Aleutians, as well as other arc-shaped geomorphic features, such as the western

coast of North America and the Andes Mountains.

FORMATION -
The Ring of Fire is the result of plate tectonics (Convergent, Divergent Plate
Boundary, Transform Plate Boundary). Along much of the Ring of Fire, plates
(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography
Theme : Lithosphere
 overlap at convergent boundaries called subduction zones. The plate that is
underneath is pushed down, or subducted, by the plate above. The chain of
volcanoes and the mountain ranges associated with it owe their formation to the
repeated subduction of the oceanic lithosphere beneath the continents and the
islands that surround the Pacific Ocean

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REGION OF HIGH SEISMIC ACTIVITY AND VOLCANISM -

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This is the world’s most seismically and volcanically active zone.
Over 85% of Earth’s earthquakes occur along this path. The belt is along the
boundaries of tectonic plates. This is the belt where plates of typically oceanic

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crust sink or undergo subduction beneath another plate. In these subduction
zones where plates overlap at convergent boundaries, slip and rupture within
plates cause earthquakes. This is the world’s most seismically and volcanically
active zone.

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Ex - Chile earthquake of 1960, the Alaska earthquake of 1964, the Chile
earthquake of 2010, and the Japan earthquake of 2011 as well as the earthquake
that produced the devastating Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004.
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The Ring of Fire is a string of volcanoes. Seventy-five percent of Earth’s
volcanoes are located here. These volcanoes have been formed due to the
process of subduction as Ring of Fire houses most of the planet;s subduction
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zone.
Ex - The Aleutian Islands have 27 of the United States’ 65 historically active
volcanoes. Mount Fuji of Japan, Krakatau Island Volcano in Indonesia, etc
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HOTSPOT FORMATION -
The Circum Pacific Belt is also home to hot spots, areas deep within Earth’s
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mantle from which heat rises. This heat facilitates the melting of rock in the
brittle, upper portion of the mantle. The melted rock, known as magma, often
pushes through cracks in the crust to form volcanoes.
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The Circum Pacific Belt or “The Ring Of Fire” harbors majority of seismic
activities and volcanism, it plays major role in understanding the interiors and
formation of Earth. But a recent study by scientists has revealed that the Pacific
Plate, which drives much of the tectonic activity in the Ring of Fire, is cooling off.
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They have discovered that the youngest parts of the Pacific Plate are cooling off
and contracting at a faster rate than older parts of the plate. This might lead to
development of new hypotheses and other critical understanding of Earth.

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Lithosphere
 Q5. Define mantle plumes and their role in plate tectonics.
2018
(Answer in 150 words) 10 marks

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A mantle plume is a proposed mechanism of convection within the Earth's

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mantle, hypothesized to explain anomalous volcanism. It is an upwelling of
superheated rock from the mantle. These plumes are believed to originate near
the core-mantle boundary, approximately 2,900 kilometers beneath the Earth's
surface. Because the plume head partially melts on reaching shallow depths, a

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plume is often invoked as the cause of volcanic hotspots . This molten material
heats the asthenosphere and lithosphere, triggering volcanic eruptions. Mantle
plumes are a fascinating geological phenomenon thought to be responsible for

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various geological features and processes, including hotspot volcanoes,
mid-ocean ridges, volcanic island chains, and continental rifting.

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Role of mantle plumes in plate tectonics -

1. Plate movement and hotspots - Mantle plumes are believed to be

responsible for the creation of hotspots on the Earth's surface. As the
tectonic plates move over a relatively stationary mantle plume, a chain of
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volcanic islands or seamounts can be formed. The Hawaiian Islands are a
classic example of such a hotspot trail, where the Pacific Plate moves over
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the stationary Hawaiian hotspot, creating a chain of volcanic islands.

2. Plate motion and mid-ocean ridges - Mantle plumes can also influence the
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motion of tectonic plates at mid-ocean ridges. When a mantle plume rises

beneath a mid-ocean ridge, it can provide additional heat and material to
promote seafloor spreading and the creation of new oceanic crust. This
process contributes to the continuous movement of tectonic plates.
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3. Plate boundary interactions - Mantle plumes can affect plate boundaries,

such as subduction zones, where one tectonic plate is forced beneath
another. The presence of a mantle plume can alter the thermal structure
and buoyancy of the subducting slab, influencing the rate and style of
subduction.
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4. Continental rifting - In some cases, mantle plumes may contribute to the

initiation of continental rifting, where a tectonic plate begins to split apart,
eventually leading to the formation of new ocean basins. The upwelling of

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Lithosphere
 hot mantle material can weaken the lithosphere, making it more prone to
stretching and rifting.

5. Volcanic activity - Mantle plumes are the source of some of the world's
largest and most significant volcanic eruptions. As the hot mantle material
reaches the Earth's surface, it can produce massive volcanic eruptions that

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can shape landscapes, alter climates, and influence the evolution of life on

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Earth.

While the concept of mantle plumes is widely accepted, there is ongoing

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research and debate in the scientific community about their exact nature,
behavior, and role in the Earth's dynamic processes. As technology and our
understanding of the Earth's interior continue to advance, we can expect further
insights into these enigmatic features.

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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Lithosphere
 Q6. Explain the formation of thousands of islands in Indonesian and
Philippines archipelagos.
2014 10 marks

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An archipelago, sometimes called an island group, is a chain, cluster or collection

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of islands closely scattered in a body of water. Archipelagos are often volcanic,
forming along island arcs generated by subduction zones or hotspots, but may
also be the result of erosion, deposition, and land elevation. Depending on their

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geological origin, islands forming archipelagos can be referred to as oceanic
islands, continental fragments, or continental islands.
Indonesia and Philippines are the two of the five main archipelagos in the world.

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GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION -
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Indonesia sits between the world's most active seismic region — the notorious
Pacific Ring of Fire — and the world's second most active region — the Alpide
belt.
(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography
Theme : Lithosphere
 Indonesian archipelago was formed due to convergence between Sunda oceanic
plate (part of the Eurasian plate) and Indo-Australian plate whereas Philippine
archipelago was formed due to convergence between Sunda oceanic plate and
Philippine Sea plate. Many of the thousands of islands which make up the

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Philippines are classified as island arcs which were formed as a result of

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subduction after the collision of the three plates (the Eurasian Plate, the
Philippine Sea Plate, and the Indo-Australian Plate).
Formed along the plate margins, both the archipelagos are a combination of

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volcanic activity and tectonic plate movement. It is a result of ocean-ocean
convergence.

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Formation -

● In ocean - ocean convergence, two oceanic plates converge or collide. The

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movement of these plates is made possible by the churning of magma

(molten rock) found beneath the crust.
● The denser plate subducts into the asthenosphere below the convergence
zone and forms a trench at the surface. This region below the convergence
zone is called zone of subduction.
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● In the zone of subduction, due to high temperature and pressure, the

rocks undergo metamorphosis and the sediments in the oceanic plate
melt to form magma.
● The magma being lighter moves upwards due to the buoyant force offered
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by the surrounding denser medium. At the surface magma at high

pressure escapes in the form of volcanic eruptions.
● The magma solidifies creating a volcanic layer. Subsequent volcanism
builds a layer over layer and a volcanic mountain is formed. Such
mountains are formed all along the converging edge above the less dense
plate.
(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography
Theme : Lithosphere
 ● Over time the mountains merge, and the oceanic crust gets transformed
into continental crust.
● This is how Indonesian archipelago and Philippine archipelago were
formed.

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Both countries are an archipelago, and have massive amounts of islands,

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Indonesia has 17,000 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited. The biggest
islands are Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and the Indonesian part of New
Guinea. Philippines however has 7,641 islands. Both are tropical archipelagoes

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prone to natural disasters, such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis
and storms. Thus, it is important to understand their geology to protect them
from destruction.

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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Lithosphere
 Q7. Why are the world's fold mountain systems located along the
margins of continents? Bring out the association between the
global distribution of Fold Mountains and the earthquakes and
volcanoes.
2014 10 marks

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Fold mountains are created where two or more of Earth’s tectonic plates are
pushed together. At these colliding, compressing boundaries, rocks and debris

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are warped and folded into hills, mountains, and entire mountain ranges. Rock
can fold either symmetrically or asymmetrically. The upfolds are anticlines and
the downfolds are synclines. Fold mountains are created through a process

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called orogeny.

Himalayas in Asia, Andes in South America, Alps in Europe, Rockies in North

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America are a few examples of Fold mountains.

Reasons behind location of fold mountains along margins of continent -

● Fold mountains are often associated with continental crust. They are
created at convergent plate boundaries, sometimes called continental
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collision zones or compression zones.
● At a compression zone, tectonic activity forces crustal compression at the
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leading edge of the crust formation. For this reason, most fold mountains
are found on the edge or former edge of continental plate boundaries
● The thickest deposits of sedimentary rock generally accumulate along the
edges of continents. This is another reason for their location.
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● Rocks on the edge of continental crust are often weaker and less stable
than rocks found in the continental interior. This can make them more
susceptible to folding and warping.
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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Lithosphere
 Location of Fold Mountains

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Relationship between Fold Mountains and occurrence of Earthquakes -

In case of Continent - Continent convergence and Continent- Ocean

convergence, formation of fold mountains occur. Because of crustal
instability earthquakes are common.
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● There is a sudden release of energy between the denser plate and
lighter plate creating a fault zone along the margin.
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● This sudden release of energy along the fault zone generates

disastrous earthquakes (shallow-focus earthquakes).
● In continental - oceanic convergence the subducting oceanic plate
grinds against the surrounding denser medium producing mostly
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shallow-focus earthquakes, and deep in the subduction zone

deep-focus earthquakes occur.
● At times, earthquakes also occur when plates grind against each
other.
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Relationship between Fold Mountains and Volcanoes -

● Volcanism usually occurs in Continental -Oceanic convergence.

● This is because of the thick continental crust in C-C convergence
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prevents the outflow of magma. Magma here lies stocked within the
crust.
● In C-O convergence, metamorphosed sediments and melting of the
subducting plate form magma which escapes to the surface
through the less thick continental crust.
(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography
Theme : Lithosphere
 ● Like the dense oceanic crust of the Nazca plate subducted beneath
the less-dense continental crust of the South American plate
forming The Andes. They are mostly being folded and uplifted from
the thicker, less-dense rocks of the South American plate. The
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of the Andes are dotted by
active and dormant volcanoes.

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The interaction between various tectonic plates lead to formation of fold
mountains and their constant movement leads to their continuous growth. Fold
mountains are in a state of constant flux and the crustal instability leads to

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seismic activities like earthquakes and volcanism.
Ex - Earthquakes of Nepal and Uttarakhand and the awakening of Mt.Etna, Sicily
recently.

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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Lithosphere
 Q8. What do you understand by the theory of continental drift?
Discuss the prominent evidences in its support. 2013
(Answer in 100 words) 5 marks

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continental drift is the large-scale horizontal movements of continents relative
to one another and to the ocean basins during one or more episodes of geologic

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time. This concept was an important precursor to the development of the theory
of plate tectonics, which incorporates it.
The theory of continental drift is most associated with the scientist Alfred
Wegener. In the early 20th century, Wegener published a paper explaining his

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theory that the continental landmasses were “drifting” across the Earth,
sometimes plowing through oceans and into each other.

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Evidences supporting Continental Drfit Theory -

1. Jigsaw Fit - The east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa
seem to fit together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle, and Wegener
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discovered their rock layers “fit” just as clearly.
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2. Geological Structure -
● The ancient rocks belts on the coast of Brazil match with those
found in Western Africa.
● The old marine deposits found in the coasts of South America and
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Africa belong to the Jurassic Age. This implies that the ocean never
existed before that time.

3. Similarity in Fossils -
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● The plant fossils from the frigid Arctic archipelago of Svalbard,

Norway were not the hardy specimens adapted to survive in the
Arctic climate. These fossils were of tropical plants, which are
adapted to a much warmer, more humid environment. The presence
of these fossils suggests Svalbard once had a tropical climate.
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● The interpretations that Lemurs occur in India, Africa, and

Madagascar led to the theory of a landmass named “Lemuria”
connecting these 3 landmasses.

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Lithosphere
 4. Tillite -

● It is a sedimentary rock made from glacial deposits.

● The Gondwana system of sediments from India is recognized as

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having its counterparts in 6 different landmasses in the Southern
Hemisphere.

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● Counterparts of this series are found in Madagascar, Africa,
Antarctica, Falkland Island, and Australia not to mention India.

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5. Placer Deposits -

● Presence of gold deposits along the South American coast despite no

known resources in the continent. It suggested that they were deposited

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prior to the breaking of Pangaea from the African continent.
● The widespread distribution of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments in
South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica, and Australia
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was one of the major pieces of evidence for the theory of continental drift.

CRITICISM OF THE THEORY -

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● The theory of continental drift wasn’t accepted by a lot of scientists. One
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of the elements lacking in the theory was the mechanism for how it
works.
● Suggestions by Wegner that the movement responsible for the drifting of
the continents was caused by pole-fleeing force and tidal force wasn't
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considered adequate by scientists.

Continental drift theory was a prominent theory for quite some time, however,
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ocean floor mapping and similar studies post war period changed the view. The
processes of seafloor spreading, rift valley formation, and subduction (where
heavier tectonic plates sink beneath lighter ones) were not well-established until
the 1960s. These processes were the main geologic forces behind what Wegener
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recognized as continental drift and thus people moved towards convectional

theory and plate tectonic theory.

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Lithosphere