Intro ductio n

Several researchers have critically reviewed the

negative portrayal of female characters in Zulu
literary texts. Zuma (2009 (#CIT0027_1593) ),
for instance, in her study, ‘Feminist analysis
of the representation of female and male
characters in selected plays in Ishashalazi’,
investigates the portrayal of female and male
characters in two plays: Kwakuhle kwethu and
Umninimuzi. T he study investigates the role
and images of women and men as presented
in dramatised stories. It is worth noting that
the book Ishashalazi is written by male
authors, Mbhele and Ntuli (1988
(#CIT0016_1593) ). T he beliefs held by
characters in these plays reflect the traditional
lifestyle of the Zulu people (Gumede 2018
(#CIT0010_1593) :18). Zuma (2009
(#CIT0027_1593) ) asserts that:

Many Zulu literary texts

promote supremacy of men
over women without being
objective in questioning the
legitimacy of the status quo in
society. (p. 4)

Zuma’s (2009 (#CIT0027_1593) ) study focuses

on character portrayal, the use of language,
gender roles assigned to characters, the
attitudes that are constructed and the
influence of culture in establishing supremacy
between the genders.

Masuku (2005 (#CIT0015_1593) ), in her PhD

thesis, ‘Perceived oppression of women in
Zulu folklore: A feminist critique’, challenges
the role and presentation of women in Zulu
traditional literature. She investigates whether
the perceived oppression of women is reflected
in such Zulu folklore (Gumede 2018
(#CIT0010_1593) :29).

Zondi (2013 (#CIT0025_1593) ) is one of the

feminist critics who challenges male
domination in Zulu literary works. In her
article, ‘T he position of women in Zulu and
Shona societies: T he case of Uvalo
Lwezinhlonzi and Nervous Conditions ’, Zondi
(2013 (#CIT0025_1593) ) challenges the issues
of gender discrimination and patriarchal
stereotypes in the portrayal of female
characters in these two novels. T he article
explores oppressive practices commonly
found in Zulu and Shona cultures, taking into
account the voice of female and male
authorship (Gumede 2018 (#CIT0010_1593)
:21).

T he language used by the author, N. Zulu, in

the novel Umshado appears to support the
retention of male domination, that women
should always play a subordinate role or
second fiddle to their male counterparts.

Radical feminists believe that this patriarchal

culture forms part of the ‘micro-political
structure’ that helps to maintain the larger
politico-economic structure (T horne & Henley
1976 (#CIT0022_1593) ). ‘T he use of language
shapes our understanding of the social world,
our relationships to one another and our
social identities’ (T horne & Henley 1976
(#CIT0022_1593) :15). Many feminists further
note that sexual identities reflect the material
interests of both, those who have power and
those who do not. Hence, this relationship
between men and women is inextricably linked
to the language that is used to describe
female characters.

Zulu’s novel Umshado is historically

conditioned by a number of factors relating to
public morals in a patriarchal society. It
challenges human sexuality and the new
outlook on women in society. It also explores
some of the modern problems resulting from
the ‘liberated’ approach to sexuality, as
exemplified in Umshado. T he author’s
portrayal of the protagonist, T holakele’s,
behaviour, however, actively casts her in a
negative light for the reader because she is a
woman, whilst Bhekani’s behaviour does not
seem to warrant the same opprobrium or
censure. T his echoes an imbalance in the
treatment of men and women in the Zulu
society. T holakele’s behaviour is negatively
perceived because she is a woman, as she
strives for the role that would allow her to be
free from traditional norms and restrictions.
Whilst women were kept quasi-slaves by
patriarchy, which imposed a strict control over
their sexuality and reproductive faculty, they
now want to break away and enjoy freedom in
their dress code without any restrictions.
What used to be ‘open hunting season’ only
for men has now become possible for women
as well, if they have the independence of
character and the beauty and winning ways to
attract men.

Syno psis o f the no ve l Umshado

T he novel Umshado (2006 (#CIT0026_1593) ) is
concerned with problems experienced by both
men and women. T he story revolves around
the protagonist, the beautiful T holakele.
T holakele has just lost her husband, and her
brother-in-law, Bhatomu, is asked to take over
the responsibilities of his late brother
[ukungena ]. T holakele decides to run away
from her in-laws. She goes to live in a shack in
Nyawushane, where she gets involved in drug
dealing after befriending people who sell and
consume drugs. T holakele’s friend, Pamella, a
lesbian, is the mastermind behind the selling
of and dealing in drugs.

Bhekani’s misfortunes are also worth

highlighting. He has a recurring dream in
which his father insists that he must get
married. Bhekani is confused because his
former lover, Lindiwe, has left him, and he has
not been in contact with her for a long time.
T he pressure from his father in the dream
forces him to find a girlfriend urgently. In the
midst of his predicament, he falls in love with
T holakele, and immediately plans to marry
her. Bhekani’s father does not ‘show’ him in
his dream which girl to marry; therefore, when
Bhekani meets T holakele, he is convinced
that she is the one to marry. Bhekani’s wish to
marry T holakele flies in the face of his
mother’s warning against marrying somebody
who has been married before and who is a
widow.

Bhekani’s mother tells him that his father will

never be happy if he marries such a person.
T owards the end of the story, Bhekani’s
clothes are burnt at his home; he is robbed of
his ilobolo money; and he is disgraced by the
community when his fiancée T holakele is
arrested by the police on drug charges. T his
happens in the church during the wedding
ceremony.

Engage d the o ry
It is important to define literary feminism
briefly as this study is about the analysis of
literary texts from a feminist perspective.
Literary feminism refers to feminist criticism
used in textual analysis to expose sexist
assumptions. In literary feminism, great
emphasis is placed on textual analysis, with
the focus on sexist ideology. Cuddon (1991
(#CIT0003_1593) ) defines feminist criticism in
relation to literary feminism as follows:

Feminist criticism is an attempt

to describe and interpret (and
re-interpret) women’s experience
as depicted in various kinds of
literature – especially the
novels, and to a lesser extent,
poetry and drama. (p. 338)

Literary feminism provides documentation

that the traditional definitions do not cover, for
example, that women suffer injustices
because of their sex. Literary feminism does
not deal with feminists themselves or
provides a strategy for the reform of society; it
silently extricates the feminist views found in
fiction (Brown & Olson 1992 (#CIT0001_1593)
:82).

Pratt in Brown and Olson (1992

(#CIT0001_1593) :280) comments that
feminism in fiction suggests a distinction
between feminist fiction, ‘narrowly defined as
words in which the author’s explicit intention
is to expose some aspects of sexism’, as
stated in the preceding paragraph, and novels,
which are ‘unintentionally’ feminist and of
concern because of their place in the literature
of women. T he latter constitutes a fiction that
includes careful exploration of women’s
existential situation within a carefully
orchestrated treatment of other and broader
human conflicts and relationships.

Ogunyemi (1985 (#CIT0018_1593) :64–65)

contends that, for literature to be identified as
feminist, it must not deal only with women’s
issues, but should also posit some aspects of
feminist ideology in which a reader may
expect to find a combination of literary
themes, such as critical perceptions regarding
the inequalities of sexism, a change leading
to female victory in a feminist world, or a
failure to eliminate sexism and, finally, a style
characterised by acrimony of feminist
discourse.

The critique o f the no ve l Umshado

Gumede and Mathonsi (2019 (#CIT0011_1593)
) have written about the problems associated
with widowhood, highlighting that terms
used, such as ukuzila [to mourn] and
ukungena [forcing a widow to marry her late
husband’s brother], just to name a couple,
imply a total lack of freedom of a widow. T his
article seeks to show that, in this community,
even the colour and the length of the
mourning dress are prescribed for widows.

Dress code prescription and men’s lust

masked by tradition
T he colour of the dress prescribed for widows
is usually black, and the prescribed length is
that it should be below the knees. T holakele’s
dress is black, but it is so short that Bhekani
is able to see her thighs. T he special meaning
of the inzilo [mourning dress] that T holakele
wears on the death of her husband is
questionable, because it is very short for a
widow in mourning.

In the novel Umshado , a man’s lust becomes

evident. Bhekani is obsessed by what he sees
– T holakele’s beautiful legs. His reaction to
what he is seeing shows that women are
described in terms of what is appreciated by
men. In the extract below, the author offers
this description (Zulu 2006 (#CIT0026_1593) ):

Umoya ufune ukuphephula

isiketi kuvele kancane iphezulu
lamathanga. Anikine ikhanda
uBhekani. Umqondo wakhe
uvele usakhe usiqede sonke
esingezansi sale ntokazi. [T he
wind almost blew up
T holakele’s skirt, and he could
partly see the upper part of her
thighs. Bhekani shook his
head. His mind just imagined
the whole lower part of this
woman’s body.] (p. 2)

What Bhekani has just witnessed convinces

him to court T holakele. He eventually
proposes, and she accepts him immediately
without any waste of time. Scholes (1985),
cited by Fuss (1989 (#CIT0008_1593) ), has this
to say:

We are subjects constructed by

our experience and truly carry
traces of that experience in our
minds and on our bodies.
T hose of us who are male
cannot deny this either. With
the best will in the world we
shall never read as women and
 perhaps not even like women.
For me, born when I was born
and living where I have lived,
the very best I can do is to be
conscious of the ground upon
which I stand: to read not as
but like a man. (p. 26)

T he striking theme in the above quotation is

the insistence on the socialisation of an
individual. Society plays an important role in
the socialisation of a person. T his includes
behaviour, the type of friends chosen and the
language used.

Women’s right to choose their dress code

should not be seen as secondary to issues
such as domestic violence and sexual abuse,
as this in some way is connected to forms of
gender oppression. Policing women’s dress
should be seen for what it really is – another
means of controlling women’s bodies. Saying
what is or is not suitable clothing for women
is a gender-based notion, which is not,
however, applied to men.

Sifiso’s comments about the way T holakele is

dressed when Bhekani sees her are very
judgemental. Because of the dress she is
wearing, she is deemed to have loose morals.
Had it been a man dressed in a supposedly
‘improper manner’, he would not have been
labelled negatively, as T holakele is. Bhekani
says (Zulu 2006 (#CIT0026_1593) ):

Angisayiphathi eyethanga layo

mfowethu, ngithe uma ngithi nhla
kwagijima igazi ngokushesha. [I
don’t even want to talk about
her thigh, my brother, when I
took a glance at it, I had an
adrenalin rush in my body.] (p.
3)

In the dialogue between Bhekani and Sifiso,

his colleague, the latter asks him why
T holakele is dressed in such a manner that
Bhekani is able to see her thighs (Zulu 2006
(#CIT0026_1593) ):

Ubekhindeleni uze ubone

amathanga nje? S engathi
akanasimilo nje lo muntu
ombonile ndoda. [Why was she
wearing a short dress that
made you see her thighs? It
looks like this person you saw
has loose morals, man.] (p. 3)

Bhekani describes T holakele’s dress as more

suited to a fashion show, and it is this dress
which fires Bhekani’s attraction to her, leading
him to declare his love for her the first time he
sees her. When Sifiso asks Bhekani whether
T holakele’s short black dress is not for
mourning, Bhekani quickly refutes the claim
(Zulu 2006 (#CIT0026_1593) ):
 Leziya S ifiso ezomswenko nje,
akusiyo inzilo. [T hose ones,
Sifiso, are for looking good,
they are not for mourning.] (p.
3)

What women wear and where they wear it is a

highly contested topic in patriarchal societies.
In patriarchal societies, men are ‘supposedly’
allowed by culture to satisfy their lust, and
this is evidenced by Dosekun’s (2007
(#CIT0006_1593) ) comments. Dosekun (2007
(#CIT0006_1593) :10) believes that a man’s
behaviour is loose, and that a man’s
enjoyment is sex, for which there are easy
opportunities when he is out herding goats,
away from home. Some men see women as
sex objects who are there to satisfy their lust.
Research shows that there was a practice in
the Zulu tradition called ukusoma which men
engaged in, to deal with the problem of lust. A
woman was available to a man for this
practice. Sexual gratification in this practice
did not consider the woman’s feelings – as
long as the man was able to satisfy himself,
this was considered acceptable. As noted by
Von Kapff (2011 (#CIT0023_1593) :57),
‘traditionally the sex game ukusoma (the type
of sex that does not involve penetration) was
practiced to alleviate sexual tension’. T he
author further reveals Bhekani’s lust for
T holakele when he is touched by T holakele’s
breast (Zulu 2006 (#CIT0026_1593) ):

Wazizwa efudumala kancane

uBheki ethintwa ibele likaTholi.
[Bheki felt slightly warm when
he was touched by T holi’s
breast.] (p. 8)

T he above extract reveals Bhekani’s lust for

T holakele simply in the way he looks at her
body – amabele [breasts], amathanga [thighs]
and kanye nesingezansi [the lower part of her
body]. It is the bodily features that seem to
attract Bhekani the most. At this stage, one
may assume that Bhekani is interested only
in her physical attraction rather than in true
love that may ultimately lead to marriage.

Some women wear very revealing dresses

outlining the shape of the body, doing so
either to attract men’s attention or without
realising how this might attract attention.
T hose who do this purposely do it because
they know sex is a commodity that can be
sold quickly to men who cannot control their
lust. Bhekani’s eyes are fully set on
T holakele’s movement and apparel. She is
wearing a revealing, short dress. T he author
says (Zulu 2006 (#CIT0026_1593) ):

Ngale nkathi uTholi wayesusa

izitsha zokuphuza ezibeka
etafuleni, uBhekani elokhu
embuka ehla enyuka. Le ngubo
ekhanyayo yayisuke imgulise
uBhekani. Isimo sikaTholakele
yayisibeka obala . [During this
 time T holi was taking the
items that they were using to
drink and putting them on the
table. Bhekani kept his eyes on
her as she was going up and
down. T his revealing dress
was making Bhekani crazy. It
was clearly showing how every
part of T holakele’s body was
shaped.] (p. 11)

When women are attacked for dressing

‘inappropriately’, they are blamed for these so-
called acts of immorality. T his only
strengthens the belief that policing women’s
dress is the right thing to do. T he way people
dress can be an important expression of their
religious, cultural or personal identity or
beliefs. As a general rule, the right to freedom
of religion or belief and freedom of expression
entails that all people should be free to choose
what – and what not − to wear. What women
wear, and where, is highly contested by
feminists. No one has a right to determine the
dress code of another person, regardless of
that person’s sex. Women, therefore, should
have the right to wear what they choose – be it
traditional African attire, a miniskirt or pants –
free from coercion. T he see-through dress that
T holakele is wearing throws a killer punch on
Bhekani. T he author says (Zulu 2006
(#CIT0026_1593) ):

Washeshe waqeda ukugqoka

uTholi. Waphuma esegqoke
ingutshana elulwelwesi elula,
eyayikuveza konke ayekugqoke
ngaphansi. [T holi quickly
finished dressing. She came
out wearing a ‘see-through’
dress that was revealing
everything that she was
wearing underneath.] (p. 11)

T holakele is portrayed as being interested in

male companionship, which, in many
instances, results in sexual intercourse. She
appears not to be interested in marrying
Bhekani, who is desperately looking for a wife.
Bhekani’s desperation is mainly influenced by
his late father, who constantly reminds him
(in his dream) to get married. Davies and
Graves (1986 (#CIT0004_1593) ) make the point
that society also plays a role in the oppression
of women:

First of all, we cannot only

speak of women’s oppression
by men. In capitalist systems,
women tend to be exploited by
the very nature of society,
particularly the working and
peasant women, just as men
are exploited. T he difference is
that women are hit particularly
hard. T hen you have forms of
abuse that cut across class
lines: sexual abuse, wife-
beating, and the fact that men
 take advantage of the woman’s
role as a child-bearer. (p. 48)

T he feminist writer Hooks (1991

(#CIT0013_1593) :31) believes that patriarchy
may be seen as a ubiquitous male hierarchical
ordering of society which is implemented in
order to achieve and sustain political and
social order. She argues that before ‘we can
resist male domination, we must break our
attachment to sexism; we must work to
transform female consciousness’. She
contends that women, as an oppressed group,
comply with their own subjugation by failing to
examine their socialisation, hence
maintaining the tradition. Hooks (1991
(#CIT0013_1593) ) also states that the
authority of patriarchal ideology is such that:

It encourages women to believe

that we are valueless and
obtain value only by relating to
or bonding with men. We are
taught that our relationship
with one another diminishes
rather than enrich our
experiences. We are taught that
women are ‘natural’ enemies,
that solidarity will never exist
between us because we cannot,
should not, and do not bond
with one another. We have
learned these lessons well. We
must unlearn them … We must
learn to live and work in
solidarity. We must learn the
true meaning and value of
sisterhood. (p. 29)

Many feminists such as Hooks (1991

(#CIT0013_1593) ) believe that women need to
recognise and celebrate their strengths and
differences rather than allow themselves to be
manipulated by divisive forces. What is
stressed by Hooks (1991 (#CIT0013_1593) ) is
the value of differences as a basis for true
sisterhood. Hooks (1991 (#CIT0013_1593) :38)
sees feminism as ‘politics, as a lifestyle, as
something you become rather than something
you do’. She believes that women need not
share common oppression to overcome
oppression. Obbo (1980 (#CIT0017_1593) )
argues that:

Even though the world is

changing all about women, it
seems that woman’s own
attempts to cope with the new
situations they find themselves
in are regarded as a ‘problem’
by men, and a betrayal of
traditions which are often
confused with women’s roles.
Women must act as mediators
between the present and the
future. (p. 43)

According to patriarchal stereotype,

T holakele’s behaviour is controversial, given
her situation as someone who has recently
lost her husband. People such as T holakele
represent women who are liberated from the
societal norms that restrict their actions and
their movements, and confine them to certain
practices that are acceptable to a patriarchal
society. Paradoxically, in spite of all this,
Bhekani is madly in love with T holakele, and
he wants to make her his wife. Ogunyemi
(1985 (#CIT0018_1593) ) points out that:

For a novel to be identified as

feminist, it must deal not only
with women issues but it
should also posit some
aspects of a feminist ideology
in which a reader can expect to
find a combination of literary
themes, such as critical
perception of and reaction to
patriarchy, sensitivity to the
inequalities of sexism, a
change leading to female
victory in a feminist world, or a
failure to eliminate sexism and
finally, a style characterized by
acrimony of a feminist
discourse. (p. 65)

A man may be easily seduced by a woman’s

dress, and in many instances, this is a man’s
weakness. Man’s weakness and selfishness,
which they claim as a right given by their
physiology, in many cases tend to spoil
whatever they touch in nature, as revealed by
the great amount of sexual abuse of women
and children. In a situation where a man
professes his love for a woman that he meets
for the first time, and the woman accepts the
man’s advances immediately, it is that
particular woman who is described in negative
terms − isifebe [whore]. However, when this
same behaviour comes from a male, he is
shown in a positive light, using the term isoka
[a male person with many girlfriends]. T his
act shows the double standards of the society
with regard to the different treatment of
women and men.

T he impression created by the above

discussion is that some women are readily
available to men. In patriarchal societies,
T holakele’s behaviour is un-African because
an African woman would initially pretend to
refuse, just to bide her time, although she may
show certain signs of affection. T his is called
ukubulala umbungu [to bide time] in Zulu.
T holakele here breaks the rules of the Zulu
patriarchal tradition. If a man is allowed to
make advances on a woman during their first
encounter, the woman should be able to do the
same. In a patriarchal society, a woman may
even be scolded and accused of having loose
morals when she openly shows her affection
to her partner on their first encounter. In the
dialogue between Sifiso and Bhekani, Sifiso is
intrigued by Bhekani and T holakele already
dating after having only just met. Bhekani
explains (Julu 2006):
 Angeshelanga. S abonisana.
S athola ukuthi siyathandana.
Izimo zethu zazifana.
Ushonelwe yindoda; ngifuna
umakoti. [I did not court her. We
shared ideas. We found that we
are in love. Our situations were
the same. She has lost her
husband and I want a wife.] (p.
3)

Bhekani seemingly sees nothing wrong with

T holakele showing her affection at their first
meeting. T holakele believes in her own self-
gratification, no matter what society says
about her or her behaviour. Sifiso is, however,
suspicious about how things have unfolded
quickly between T holakele and Bhekani.

T he author seeks to depict T holakele as a

liberated woman representing women who
flaunt their sexuality. T holakele is not shy of
revealing her sexual feelings when the
occasion is suitable. She is a very ‘open’ and
‘easy-going’ person when it comes to
expressing her sexual interests and desires. In
the dialogue, when Bhekani asks where they
can sit and talk, T holakele immediately
suggests that they go to her house so that
they can talk and act without any interference.
T holakele says (Julu 2006):

Asiye kwami. Uzokhululeka

lapho, akukho nkinga . [Let’s go
to my house. You will be free
there, there is no problem.] (p. 7)

It is only their second meeting; and she is

already showing signs that she would like
them to make love. One may argue here that
the author intentionally creates suspense for
readers to arrive at various interpretations:
some (readers) may think that women should
not be readily available to men. T he author
creates further suspense by saying (Julu
2006):

UTholakele aqabule uBheki.

Ethuke uBheki. ‘Namuhla uyolala
kwami Bheki’. [T holakele kisses
Bheki. Bheki is shocked. T oday
you are going to sleep at my
place, Bheki.] (p. 26)

According to Zulu culture, T holakele should

not initiate the move so early and should have
waited for Bhekani to take the initiative. For
Bhekani, this is the first time he meets a girl of
the type of T holakele, who is not shy about
displaying her feelings for him. In patriarchal
societies, women are seen as inactive,
because they cannot initiate the process of
making love: only men are supposed to take
the first step. Evidently, in a patriarchal
society, men are hunters and women are the
prey. T holakele wants this reversed and
equality achieved, and does not need any
justification or approval from anybody.
T he Zulu tradition expresses sexual
conquests of women in terms of ukudla
[devouring]. T his misconception creates the
impression that women are commodities who
provide sexual favours or pleasure for men.
T his commodification of women by men is
prevalent in many patriarchal societies in
which a man with many girlfriends becomes a
‘hero’ [isoka ] because of his prowess and
sexual conquests. When men go on dates
with many different women, this is not
frowned upon by society, simply because they
are men. Such actions, in many instances,
lead to sexual encounters with these women
and may ultimately result in unplanned
pregnancies. In such cases, men treat women
as sex objects who are ready to be ‘devoured’
(-dliwa ) by men, as is the case with Bhekani.

T he Zulu family is patrilineal, with descent

and property being transferred through the
male line. T he family is patriarchal, with the
authority invested in the male household
head. T his common double standard allows
men far greater sexual freedom than women.
Within such an institution, particularly when
the women have no employment outside the
house, and no economic independence,
women are the possessions (chattels) of their
husbands and their objects of pleasure (Gray
2013 (#CIT0009_1593) :50). In patriarchal
societies, men treat women as sex objects
(victims of abuse). T he postulation here is
that men’s behaviour is consistent with the
way they are socialised in patriarchal
societies. Society takes serious offence at
seeing women of ‘loose morals’; however, this
stance does not extend to men. Negative
stereotypes of women persist in spite of the
backlash that women have to tolerate in order
to bring societal change and development.

In many, if not all, patriarchal societies, there

is always an imbalance of power in the
treatment of men and women. For instance, it
is accepted as normal for boys to behave in a
certain way, whilst in similar conditions such
behaviour for a girl would be deemed
unacceptable. Feminists such as Young (1990
(#CIT0024_1593) ) identify three main areas in
which they (feminists) have conceptualised
power: as a resource to be (re)distributed, as
domination and as empowerment. Young
(1990 (#CIT0024_1593) ) shares the same idea
with Butler (1990 (#CIT0002_1593) ) as he does
not view power as a resource or critical social
good, but instead views it in relation to
domination. Although feminists have used a
variety of terms to refer to this kind of
relationship – including ‘oppression’,
‘patriarchy’, ‘subjection’, and so forth – the
common thread in this analysis is an
understanding of power not only as power
over but also as a specific kind of power over a
relationship, namely, one that is unjust or
illegitimate.

Spivak (1988 (#CIT0021_1593) ) cited in Fuss

(1989 (#CIT0008_1593) :31) addresses the
critique levelled against materialists, exposing
and undermining the elitism which
characterises South Asian culture and the
failure to address questions of subjectivity
adequately. Spivak (1988 (#CIT0021_1593) )
argues that:

Subaltern [s ]tudies deploy

essentialism as a provisional
gesture in order to align
themselves with the very
subjects who have been written
out of conventional
historiography. (p. 197)

What is strikingly different about Spivak’s

(1988 (#CIT0021_1593) ) reading of Subaltern
Studies is that she does not dismiss their
essentialism as off the point. In fact, she
reads the collective’s humanist ambitions to
locate a subaltern consciousness as a
‘strategic use of positivist essentialism in a
scrupulously visible political interest’. Her
critique and endorsement of Subaltern
Studies’ essentialism suggests that
humanism may be activated in the service of
the subaltern; in other words, when put into
practice by the dispossessed themselves,
essentialism can be powerfully displacing and
disruptive (Spivak 1988 (#CIT0021_1593) ).
Spivak’s (1988 (#CIT0021_1593) ) analysis
speaks about the novel under discussion,
Umshado , in which Bhekani uses his so-called
masculine power to find his way to T holakele.

T hroughout the novel, language has been

used to emphasise sexual differences
between men and women.

In a similar vein, negative moral judgement is

passed on a ‘free-spirited’ woman, T holakele,
who is judged as being a ‘bad’ woman.
T holakele’s new ‘free sex’ morality, if
permitted, would give women freedom to do
what they wish, not requiring any
commitment in return. However, the
patriarchal society is not ready to accept this
behaviour by women. Lorde (1984
(#CIT0014_1593) ) feels that empowered
women should not shy away from using their
erotic powers. According to Lorde (1984
(#CIT0014_1593) ), erotic autonomy observes
that:

T he erotic has often been

misnamed by men and used
against women. It has been
made into the confused, the
trivial, the psychotic, the
plasticized sensation. For this
reason, we have often turned
away from the exploration and
consideration of the erotic as a
source of power and
information, confusing [it] with
its opposite, the pornographic.
But pornography is a direct
denial of power of the erotic, for
it represents the suppression of
 true feeling. Pornography
emphasizes sensation without
feeling. (p. 54)

Gender stereotypes
Gender stereotypes about African women have
been identified as one of the barriers for
women achieving their full potential. Generally
speaking, stereotypes against women are
often based on preconceived notions of what
women are assumed to be capable of, and
this has been proved a fallacy. It is important
to remember that gender has to be understood
as a social rather than a physiological
construction. By encouraging males to
analyse their socially constructed gender
profiles, it is possible to educate them on how
their social roles may have an impact on
gender equality. T his will involve analysing
the entrenchment of traditional male
stereotypes in society and their consequent
impact on women. Certain masculinities
preserve and promote the inequalities
experienced by men and women: in order to
achieve gender equality, they must be
dismantled. Male stereotypes, in the context
of gender inequality, do not operate in
isolation. As De Beauviour (1949
(#CIT0005_1593) ) puts it:

T hus humanity is male and

man defines woman not in
herself but as relative to him.
She is not regarded as an
autonomous being. She is
defined and differentiated with
reference to men and not he
with reference to her; she is the
subject; he is the absolute –
she is the other, the object. (p.
26)

But T holakele is an exception to this. She is

not a common girl. Her happiness depends on
her, and she does not wish to allow societal
norms to dictate her how she must live her
life.

Female characters are often treated more as

symbols than as living, suffering individuals.
Some researchers seem to identify
undesirable qualities in modern women in
terms of female–male relationships. In
Umshado , T holakele is characterised as a
woman of doubtful virtue. Her actions are
deemed undesirable in a male-dominated
society. T holakele’s search for freedom brings
her nothing but trouble because she is a
woman.

Radical feminists believe that, for women to

thrive and attain their freedom, they must be
aggressive in their approach and fight for their
autonomy.

In most Zulu literary works, depictions of

female characters are from a fiercely male
perspective, reflecting male conceptions of
female sexuality. Some authors tend to
overplay the sexuality of their female
characters, creating the impression that
women have no identity outside of their
sexual roles. Such female characters usually
serve to enhance the images of the male
protagonists who occupy central positions in
such literary works.

Double standards
T his denotes that a principle is applied in
different ways to different groups employed to
treat them unfairly.

It is not a problem for Bhekani, for example, to

have two girlfriends at the same time, as this
appears to be the norm in African societies.
Regarding this infidelity by Bhekani, the author
simply reflects social custom, accepting it as
more normal for boys to have greater
independence than girls. Lindiwe, Bhekani’s
cheated girlfriend, is slowly realising that
Bhekani is not really interested in her as he
has already chosen another woman over her.
It seems as though Lindiwe’s mistake is her
unwavering love for Bhekani. T his shows
Bhekani’s calibre, as he is just one of the
playboys who date girls in order to satisfy
their sexual desires.

Double standards are therefore reflected in the

treatment of males and females by a
patriarchal society. Peterson and Runyan
(1993 (#CIT0019_1593) ) contend that:

… [T]he social construction of

gender is actually a system of
power that not only divides
men and women as masculine
and feminine, but typically also
places men and masculinity
above women and femininity
and operates to value more
highly those institutions and
practices that are male
dominated and/or
representative of masculine
traits and styles. (p. 21)

Bhekani’s infidelity is not questioned because

he is a man, and the patriarchal society does
not have a problem with his behaviour. Such
double standards in the treatment of women
and men are prevalent in some authors of
Zulu literary texts who still subscribe to the
idea of male domination over their womenfolk
(cf. Mbhele & Ntuli 1988 (#CIT0016_1593) ).

Hickman (1989 (#CIT0012_1593) ) makes the

point that women are commonly described in
terms of objects, or in association with food.
She believes that this association is aimed at
acculturating women in relation to kitchen
matters.

T he patriarchal ideology that a woman should

be in the kitchen, because that is where she is
‘supposed’ to be, is archaic and sexist,
according to feminists (Hickman 1989
(#CIT0012_1593) :65). T here is nothing intrinsic
in women’s bodies that associates them with
the kitchen. Women should be wherever they
want to be because they are equally as
competent as men are. Women have proven
their worth and abilities and that they have the
power to face any challenges that come their
way.

Freud (1992 (#CIT0007_1593) ) argues that

men use psychology to infantilise women in
order to oppress them. Men do this by first
gaining their confidence before seducing them,
which may ultimately lead to sexual intimacy.
An example of this would be the way a man
might refer to his girlfriend, wife or lover as
ingane yami [literally, ‘my baby’], never
considering her real age. One may argue that
some women like to be called ‘my baby’
because it makes them feel younger,
attractive, cared for and so on.

T he author uses T holakele and Pamella (the

lesbian who is the mastermind behind the
drug dealing) to problematise the myth of a
‘problem free’ lesbian relationship in this novel.
We find the same-sex relationship freedom in
which T holakele is dating Pamella.
Conversely, T holakele is also dating Bhekani.
T he author says (Zulu 2006 (#CIT0026_1593) ):

Nangu uTholakele esencela

amabele ale ntombazane
yomlungu. Nayo ayimyekile
uTholakele. Ilokhu imcumbaza
wona amabele. Izandla
izigijimisa emhlane wonke.
[Here is T holakele sucking this
White woman’s breasts. T his
woman is also doing the same.
T his woman keeps on touching
T holakele’s breasts. Her hands
are all over her back.] (p. 24)

In many democratic and progressive

countries, the union between partners of the
same sex is legalised. T his legalisation
therefore challenges societies who are still
patriarchal apropos of changing their mindset
about same-sex relationship. Sossou (2002
(#CIT0020_1593) ) believes that women need to
stand together and fight this discrimination:

T he educated African women

and scholars therefore have a
responsibility and obligation to
champion the cause of fighting
inequalities against all women.
T his could be done through
organizing women’s groups,
social education, advocating
for gender-sensitive legislation,
networking locally, nationally,
regionally and internationally
with other women’s groups and
by taking collective actions
aimed at drawing attention to
the plights of women in
general. (p. 208)
C o nclusio n
T his article has explored some oppressive,
stereotypical customs, rites and traditions
prevalent in the Zulu society. It has shown
how the character T holakele searches for a
new kind of identity in society. T he novel
Umshado portrays T holakele’s searching for a
new role in society that will allow her to be free
from traditional norms and restrictions. T his
new role will place her on the same level as
men. Umshado also offers a new possibility to
a woman’s question on marriage. Why
marriage? What kind of marriage do I want?
T holakele seems to be interested in male
companionship which necessarily results in
sexual intercourse. Her behaviour poses a
number of questions according to patriarchal
stereotypes: Is sexual freedom enough to
procure happiness? Is it not that a woman
keeps giving of herself without any tangible
returns, thus succumbing to a new form of
sexual slavery? How far is T holakele’s
supposed freedom from promiscuity? Would
motherhood be a form of entrapment or the
real crowning glory of a woman’s life? Is
society prepared to accept this sort of
behaviour by T holakele? Most probably ‘not’, in
a patriarchal society.

From a patriarchal point of view, T holakele’s

behaviour is unacceptable. T he character
portrayal of T holakele demonstrates a
patriarchal stereotyping on the part of the
author. T holakele’s search for sexual freedom
and independence is judged negatively
because she is a woman. T he author firmly
supports the traditional morality in this novel
by the choice of language she uses, which
reinforces the traditional value system, that
is, a woman cannot play around with her life-
giving faculty. From a patriarchal point of view,
women such as T holakele are beautiful
figures that are, however, rotten to the core.

We had anticipated that the author, Zulu,

being a female, would present her female
protagonist positively; however, T holakele
becomes a victim at the end of the narrative
whilst fighting for her freedom and
independence. She gets arrested on drug
charges. Zulu’s portrayal of T holakele would
have shown positivity towards women’s
emancipation and independence had the
author portrayed her in a positive light. Given
that this novel has recently been published (in
2006), we expected Zulu’s portrayal of her
female character to be more positive in the
light of recent strides towards women’s
emancipation.

Ackno wle dge me nts

Competing interests
T he authors declare that they have no
financial or personal relationships that may
have inappropriately influenced them in writing
this article.
Authors’ contributions
All authors contributed equally to this work.

Ethical considerations
T his article followed all ethical standards for
a research without direct contact with human
or animal subjects.

Funding information
T his research received no specific grant from
any funding agency in the public, commercial
or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as
no new data were created or analysed in this
study.

Disclaimer
T he views and opinions expressed in this
article are those of the authors and do not
necessarily reflect the official policy or position
of any affiliated agency of the authors.

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